state building under the mughals

8/9/2019 State Building Under the Mughals

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State Building under the Mughals:

Religion, Culture and Politics

Muzaffar Alam

p. 105-128Plan | Texte | Notes | Citation | Auteur

Plan

I.II.III.

IV.V.VI.Haut de page

Texte intégral

P! "18# $ignaler %e do%u&ent

• 1 C'. (. Ala& and $. $u)ra*&an+a& ,eds. The Mughal State, /x'ord niersit+

Press el*i 13 int ,...

1T*is paper is %on%erned 4it* t*e issues t*at *ad a )earing on t*e relations*ip )et4eenreligion and (ug*al politi%s. It 'or&s part o' a larger 4or# on t*e pro%ess o' state 'or&ationunder t*e (ug*als. arlier in a si&ilar paper I suggested t*at t*e (ug*al state rat*er t*an

)eing a stru%ture per'e%ted at a gien point o' ti&e %ould )e seen as a pro%ess 4*i%*in%orporated and ad6usted to t*e traditions and %usto&s o' t*e peoples as 4ell as to t*eregions t*at 4ere integrated into t*e e&pire oer t*e +ears. T*e (ug*al s+ste& 4*i%*loo#ed so %o&pa%t at 'irst instan%e in t*e i&perial Persian %*roni%les 4as not uni'or&t*roug*out t*e e&pire7 its s+ste&ised ẓ abt ,&easure&ent o' land and reenue de&and in%as* s+ste& extended little )e+ond t*e %ore proin%es and t*ere 4ere o)ious regional

ariations 4it*in t*e all e&)ra%ing pax Mughalica1. It is 'ro& t*is perspe%tie t*at I 4illatte&pt *ere to exa&ine t*e nor&s and t*e prin%iples 4*i%* goerned or at least 4ereintended to goern t*e %oordination o' t*e interests o' t*e (ug*al rulers and t*eir Hindusu)6e%ts in%luding t*e land *olders t*e &er%*ants and t*e ot*er &agnates. I *ae t*us%onsidered in so&e detail t*e uestion o' shari‘a and t*e %o&plexities o' its relean%e in&edieal Indian politi%s.

29e'ore t*e (ug*als t*e :(usli&; sultans in India atte&pted in t*eir o4n li&ited 4a+s toresole t*e pro)le&s related to t*e %o&pati)ilit+ o' t*e shari‘a 4it* t*eir politi%al a%tions.9ut t*e a&)ialen%e %ontinued and een t*e regional sultans during t*e 'i'teent* %entur+ *adto turn to t*e shari‘a to legiti&ate t*eir politi%al a%ts. !or a politi%all+ a&ena)le interpretation

o' t*e shari‘a in 153 een A#)ar t*e


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%oordination &an+ o' t*e lo%al Hindu elites )egan to identi'+ t*e&seles to a %ertain degreenot si&pl+ 4it* t*e (ug*al state s+ste& )ut also 4it* t*e (ug*al Persian %ulture. A&ongt*e& e&erged so&e o' t*e prin%ipal exponents o' t*e (ug*al Persian learning.

• 5 (o&in (o*iuddin Chancellary and ersian Epistlgraphy under the Mughals.

/rm 0abur t Shah*ahan, ,...

• D (o*a&&ad A)dul Ha&id !arui Chandrabhan 0rahman+ 1i"e and 2r(s 3ith aCritical Editin " his &i3 ,...

• 3 $.(. A)dulla* 4dabiy$t-e /$rsi mein !indun (a ! es s a, (a6les-e A)ad a*ore1D8 p. 121 ,...

• 8 (o*a&&ad Fse& *ori ‘Ebr$t-n$ma, ($. 9ritis* i)rar+ ondon /r 1"E'ol.""a.

D!ro& t*e &iddle o' t*e seenteent* %entur+ t*e depart&ents o' a%%ountan%+ , sey$%dra'ts&ans*ip ,ensh$ and t*e o''i%es o' reenue &inister ,dian 4ere &ostl+ 'illed )+ t*e@a+ast*a and @*atri s%ri)es ,mnshi, mharrir . Har#aran as @a&)u* o' (ultan is t*e 'irst#no4n Hindu mnshi 4*ose 4ritings 4ere ta#en as &odels )+ later mnshis5. C*andra 9*an9ra*&an 4as anot*er i&portant mnshi, rated se%ond onl+ to A)u=l-!a?l. C*andra 9*an also4rote poetr+ o' *ig* &eritD. And t*en 'ollo4ed a large nu&)er o' @a+ast*a and @*atri4riters in%luding t*e 4ell-#no4n (a*do Ba& $o6an Bai (ale#?ada Anand Ba& M(hles and 9endra)an 5h3shgu, 4*o &ade splendid %ontri)utions to Persian language andliterature and 4*ose 4ritings 'or&ed part o' t*e s+lla)i o' Persian studies at t*e madrasa.Certain 'ields in Persian learning *it*erto unexplored or negle%ted 'ound s#illed inestigators

%*ie'l+ a&ong t*e Hindus. /n t*e p*ilologi%al s%ien%es Hindus produ%ed ex%ellent 4or#s int*e eig*teent* %entur+. T*e Mer$t al-es t el$h )+ Anand Ba& t*e 0ah$r-e ‘a*am )+ Te#C*and 9a*ar and t*e Ms t alah at al-sh‘ar$ )+ $e+al#oti (al 6$rasta are a&ong t*e &ostex*austie lexi%ons %o&piled in (ug*al India. Persian gra&&ars and %o&&entaries onidio&s also 4ere %o&piled )+ t*e Hindus7 p*rases and poeti%al proer)s used )+ t*e& s*o4t*eir #een interest in Persian learning ad&ira)le resear%* and enia)le a%%o&plis*&ents int*e language3. Persian %lassi%s 'ound an in%reasingl+ appre%iatie audien%e een a&ong t*eillage )ased Hindu reenue o''i%ials and t*e ot*er *ereditar+ 'un%tionaries andinter&ediaries8.

3Persian %ould up to a %ertain point een )e %onsidered as t*eir 'irst language. T*e+appropriated and used t*e Perso-Isla&i% expressions li#e 0ismill$h ,4it* t*e na&e o' Alla*lab be-gur ,at t*e door o' t*e grae and be-*ahann$m rasid ,da&ned in *ahannam 7 *ell ast*eir Iranian and non-Iranian (usli& %ounterparts did. T*e+ in%reasingl+ appre%iated t*ePersian renderings o' t*eir texts religious s%riptures and traditions 4*i%* 4ere translated in'ull into Persian )+ indiidual Hindu aut*ors to aoid t*e& )eing 'orgotten.

8T*e @*atris o' Pan6a) in parti%ular t*e traders a&ong t*e& o'ten sa4 t*e (ug*als as t*eirallies. T*e ast oerland trade o' t*e Pan6a) and t*e unpre%edented s*are in it o' t*e @*atriso4ed a good deal to t*e general %li&ate o' pea%e and sta)ilit+ t*e (ug*als *ad ensured in t*elate sixteent* %entur+. In t*e earl+ eig*teent* %entur+ 4*en rural uprisings in t*e Pan6a)

s*oo# t*e (ug*al state t*e @*atri traders lent signi'i%ant support to t*e (ug*als.

http://asiecentrale.revues.org/478#ftn5http://asiecentrale.revues.org/478#ftn6http://asiecentrale.revues.org/478#ftn7http://asiecentrale.revues.org/478#ftn5http://asiecentrale.revues.org/478#ftn6http://asiecentrale.revues.org/478#ftn7http://asiecentrale.revues.org/478#ftn8http://asiecentrale.revues.org/478#ftn5http://asiecentrale.revues.org/478#ftn6http://asiecentrale.revues.org/478#ftn7http://asiecentrale.revues.org/478#ftn5http://asiecentrale.revues.org/478#ftn6http://asiecentrale.revues.org/478#ftn7http://asiecentrale.revues.org/478#ftn8


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• (o*a&&ad Has*e& @*a'i @*an Mnta(hab al-1bab, ol. II 9i)liot*e%a Indi%aCal%utta 18D8 p. D51

• 10 (. Ala& The Crisis " Empire in Mughal 'rth #ndia, 89:9-89;


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t*e (usli& 4orld o' t*e non-Isla&i% $assanid state s+ste& uali'ied as a sin. T*us t*e ruler4*o pra%ti%es t*e an%ient Iranian pattern o' goernan%e o' p$dsh$hi, legiti&ated up to a pointearlier is a sinner. True religion a%%ording to 9arani %onsists onl+ in 'ollo4ing t*e 'ootstepso' t*e Prop*et (o*a&&ad. Ho4eer 9arani %on%edes t*at t*e ruler 4*o desires to goerne''e%tiel+ *as to 'ollo4 t*e poli%ies o' t*e an%ient Iranian #ings. 9ut sin%e :)et4een t*e

traditions o' t*e Prop*et and *is &ode o' li'e and liing and t*e %usto&s o' t*e Iraniane&perors and t*eir &ode o' li'e and liing t*ere is a %o&plete %ontradi%tion and totalopposition;11 appropriation o' t*e latter )+ a (usli& ruler is an o''en%e to t*e la4. T*esultan &ust #eep per'or&ing religious duties in an exaggerated &anner in order to atone t*eo''en%e and as a &ean 'or *is o4n salation.

• 12 #bid., p. 1E2-" nglis* trans. p. E0.

• 1" #bid., p. 1D5-D nglis* trans. p. ED.

•

1E T*is is also indi%ated in t*e %*apters in t*e /at$> on ro+al deter&inations ,‘aẓmt+ran+ and ,...

1"T*is attitude o' 9arani %reated &ore pro)le&s t*an it soled. It de'ined &ore rigidl+ t*es%*is& )et4een t*e politi%al and t*e religious and )+ plugging t*e a&)iguities redu%ed t*es%ope 'or politi%al &anoeura)ilit+. 9arani t*us s#et%*ed a rat*er i&pra%ti%a)le 'ra&e4or#'or goernan%e. T*e ruler 4*o did not 'ollo4 t*e pat* o' Prop*et (o*a&&ad ?snna did notdesere to )e %alled a (usli&12. 9arani is a4are o' t*e i&pli%ation 'or *is o4n ti&es o' 4*at*e is 'or&ulating sin%e *e suggests spe%i'i% &easures 'or Hindustan. T*e (usli& #ing *e

pleads s*ould not )e %ontented 4it* &erel+ le+ing t*e *eẓiya and (har$* 'ro& t*e Hindus.He s*ould esta)lis* t*e supre&a%+ o' Isla& )+ oert*ro4ing in'idelit+ and )+ slaug*tering its

leaders ,em$ms 4*o in India are t*e 9ra*&ans1". In 9arani=s 4orld t*ere %ould t*us )e onl+t4o dia&etri%all+ opposed li'e patterns one in %on'or&it+ 4it* t*e shari‘a as t*eologians and 6urists too# t*e ter& and anot*er against it. en t*e nor&al uniersal *u&an ualities areslotted )+ *i& in )inar+ ter&s Isla&i% and anti-Isla&i% or shari and gheyr-e shar‘i1E.

• 15 #bid., p. 213 nglis* trans. p. DE.

1ET*e pre-(ug*al dis%ussion o' prin%iples o' goernan%e reoles around shari‘a, ("r, *eh$d and *eẓiya, 4*ere all t*at is good originates 'ro& Isla&. /n grounds o' ne%essit+*o4eer so&e t*eorists in%luding 9arani did adise integration to a %ertain degree o' t*enon-(usli&s in (usli& state seri%e. T*e logi% o' ne%essit+ extends also to 9arani=sargu&ent a)out t*e ża$bet or t*e se%ular state regulation 'ra&ed )+ t*e ruler. He &a#es iter+ %lear t*at ża$bet %an onl+ )e 6usti'ied on t*e grounds o' politi%al ne%essit+ 4*i%*e&anates out o' t*e ina)ilit+ o' (usli& rulers in t*e preailing %ir%u&stan%es to 'ull+i&ple&ent shari‘a. T*e ża$bet 4ere designed to rein'or%e shari‘a, to re%uperate and%o&ple&ent it not to 4or# separatel+ or %ontrar+ to it15.

• 1D C'. @.A. Ni?a&i Sme 4spects " )eligin and litics in #ndia during the 8@thcentury, reprintG I ,...

15Ho4 &u%* did t*e pra%ti%e under t*e el*i sultans %on'or& to or deiate 'ro& su%* ideas

is an altoget*er di''erent uestion. e #no4 t*at t*ese ideas %ould )arel+ in'luen%e t*e poli%ies o' t*e po4er'ul earl+ Tur#is* rulers. $*a&s al-in Iltot&es* ,r. 1210-12"D pleaded

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t*at t*e (usli&s in ter&s o' strengt* 4ere still li#e salt in a dis* and 4ere t*us una)le to4age an all out 4ar eit*er to 'or%e t*e in'idels to a%%ept Isla& or to exter&inate t*e& all in%ase o' t*eir re'usal.


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13e #no4 t*at Tusi pu)lis*ed t*e 4(hl$%-e '$s eri in Persian1 'irst in 12"5 at t*e instan%eo' t*e s&a=ili prin%e Nasir al-in MA)d al-Ba*i& ). A)i (ansur t*e $li o' Fo*estan duringt*e reign o' MAla= al-in (o*a&&ad ,1221-1225 o' Ala&ut 4*o *ad %o&&issioned t*eaut*or to translate 'ro& t*e Ara)i% I)n (es#a4a+*=s Tah ib al-a(hl$% ẕ or 5et$b al-t ah$rat.9ut t*e )oo# 4as &ore t*an a &ere translation. 9esides t*e 'irst dis%ourse 4*i%* 4as a

su&&ar+ arranged ane4 o' I)n (es#a4a+*=s Tah ib, ẕ Tusi added t4o ne4 dis%ourses on*ouse*old and 'a&il+ &anage&ent ,tadbir-e manẓel and politi%s , sey$sat-e mdn as partso' pra%ti%al 4isdo& ,h e(mat-e ‘amali )ased on t*e 4ritings o' t*e %ele)rated p*ilosop*ers!ara)i and I)n $ina. T*e result 4as a s#ill'ul )lending o' t*e


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I!

• 2D $.A.A. Bi?i )eligius and #ntellectual !istry " the Muslims in 4(bars )eign,8AAB-8B:A 3ith ,...

• 23 ean Cal&ard *as re%entl+ s*o4n t*at 9a+ara dis%ouraged stri%t legalisti% $unniIsla& *ad $*iite ,...

• 28 @as*e'i=s 4(hl$%-e Mhseni is aaila)le in print7 a&ong its seeral editions isH Oose+n Va=e? O @s*e ,...

20e *ae little eiden%e to s*o4 t*e exa%t ti&e and pla%e o' t*e 'irst entr+ o' Tusi=s 4(hl$%into t*e su)%ontinent2D. T*e )oo# 4as *o4eer 4idel+ read in (ug*al India 4*ere itapparentl+ %a&e as a lega%+ o' t*e Ti&urids o' Herat and a'ter t*eir extirpation at t*e *ands

o' t*e $*e+)anids o' 9a)ur. $oltan-Hose+n 9a+ara ,r. 1E30-150D t*e last great Ti&urid inHerat een t*oug* a $unni see&s to *ae disapproed o' *is goern&ent )eing runex%lusiel+ on narro4 $unni Isla&i% nor&s23. It &at%*ed *is poli%ies t*at at least t4oersions o' Tusi=s 4or# 4ere prepared at *is )e*est28. /' t*ese t4o t*e &astur al-eẓ$rat )+Fa?i #*ti+ar al-in al-Hose+ni in parti%ular *elps us to 'igure out so&e o' t*e reasons 'orTusi=s spe%ial status in t*e (ug*al Persian reading list.

• 2 $ee pre'a%e in *is 4(hl$%-e !m$yuni, 9N 9lo%*et Catalgue, ol. II No. 3D37@*4nda&ir ,


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on properties ,tadbir-e am$l . Part t*ree espe%iall+ signi'i%ant 'or our purpose dis%usses t*e prin%iples o' rulers*ip ,ta%im-e re$y$ a mamle(at-d$ri. It *as one se%tion on #ing=sserants 4it* dis%ourses on t*e no)les and t*e ar&+ in t4o separate %*apters7 se%tion t4o o't*is part %on%erns t*e #ing=s su)6e%ts 4it* a dis%ussion on t*e a%%o&plis*ed ones ,(ha$s s in %*apter one and on ordinar+ re$y$ in %*apter t4o. T*e )oo# is er+ li#el+ a ersion o' t*e

&astur al-eẓ$rat t*e aut*or *ad earlier %o&piled 'or Prin%e Hose+n (ir?a. At an+ rateHose+ni is er+ %ons%ious o' t*e alue o' *is 4or# *e ta#es it to )e a guide 'or 9a)ur as 4ellas later 'or *is illustrious des%endants ,3l$d-e am*ad "0.

• "1 (o*a&&ad A&in ). sr=il Ma*ma‘al-ensh$, 9lo%*et Catalgue, ol. I N 308'ol. "8a7 see a ,...

2"9a)ur=s :illustrious des%endants; *o4eer did not relis* &u%* #*ti+ar al-Hose+ni=ssi&pli'ied re%ension o' t*e 4or#s o' I)n (es#a4a+* and Tusi. Introdu%ed as t*e+ 4ere no4t*roug* t*e 4(hl$%-e !m$yuni, t*e+ pre'erred to read and understand )+ t*e&seles t*e'uller een i' :%onoluted; original texts. Tusi=s 4(hl$% 4as a&ong t*e 'aorite readings o'(ug*al politi%al elites. It 4as a&ong t*e 'ie &ost i&portant )oo#s 4*i%* A)u=l-!a?l 4antedt*e &peror A#)ar to listen to regularl+. T*e &peror *i&sel' issued instru%tion to *iso''i%ials to read Tusi and Bu&i in parti%ular "1. !urt*er in t*e dis%ourses on 6usti%e eted$l,*ar&on+ sey$sat, reason and religion and in general on nor&s or goernan%e in t*e in-e

4(bari, M3eẓa-ye =ah$ngiri and in a large nu&)er o' (ug*al edi%ts i&prints o' a(hl$%literature are un&ista#a)le.

2ET*e (ug*als t*us partiall+ in*erited t*e Nasirean nor&s o' goernan%e 'ro& a )ran%* o'Central Asian Ti&urids. T*ese nor&s not onl+ %ontested t*e ones 4e noti%ed a)oe t*e+ also'a%ilitated a sta)le and enduring (ug*al rule in t*e spe%i'i% &ulti-religio-%ultural %onditions

o' India. 9+ appropriating t*e Nasirean nor&s as a )ase o' t*eir politi%s t*e (ug*als alsoe&p*ati%all+ de&onstrated t*eir disso%iation 'ro& t*e a&)ien%e o' +et anot*er Central Asian politi%al %ode 4*i%* en%ouraged )+ t*e ?)e#s t*eir erst4*ile ao4ed ene&ies in t*eregion 4as deeloped in t*e earl+ sixteent* %entur+ )+ !a?lalla* ). Bu?)e*an s'a*ani in *isSlu( al-mlu(.

• "2 !aQlall* I)n Bu?)e*n s O'a*niSlu( al-mlu(, ($. 9ritis* i)rar+ ondon/r. 25" pre'a%e. $ee ,...

• "" #bid., 'ol. "a nglis* trans. p. ""-E.

25T*e Slu(-al mlu( 4as intended to )e a guide 'or t*e sultan in &atters relating to t*e *ig*o''i%es o' t*e Isla&i% state su%* as t*e %$żi, mh taseb, shey(h al-esl$m and ot*ers to t*e

pa+&ent o' s ada%at, ẓa($t, ‘shr, (hms, (har$*, *eẓiya, to t*e o)seran%e o' t*e rites o'Isla& to t*e uestions o' punis*&ent and %*astise&ent et% K all stri%l+ a%%ording to $unniIsla& 4it*in t*e li&its o' t*e $*a'iMi and Hana'i s%*ools o' 6urispruden%e"2. T*e )oo# is ine''e%t on Isla&i% 6urispruden%e its a&)it in politi%al ter&s narro4 in 'a%t narro4er t*an t*eone in t*e 4or#s o' Ne?a& al-(ol#


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propagation o' o)s%ene and s*a&e'ul a)use and *atred against t*e *ol+ %o&panions o' t*eProp*et"".

• "E #bid., 'ol. "a-Ea nglis* trans. p. ""-E "3-ED.

2Dit* su%* an approa%* to Isla& t*e (ug*als %ould not *ae ad6usted. /n t*e %ontrar+ t*e(ug*al ruler a*angir ,r. 1D05-1D2D 4as proud o' t*e 'a%t t*at in *is do&ain 'ollo4ers o'dierse religions lied in pea%e K at least t*is 4as t*e ideal *e soug*t to a%*iee. *at 4as

parti%ularl+ a)*orring 'or t*e (ug*als in I)n Bu?)e*an=s text 4as t*e 4a+ 9a)ur t*eiran%estor and t*e 'ounder o' t*eir po4er in India 4as portra+ed. In spreading *eres+ to t*enort* o' t*e A&u-ar+a 9a)ur=s role a%%ording to I)n Bu?)e*an 4as no less detesta)lesin%e *e a%%epted t*e *elp o' t*e Fe?el)as* in re%oering $a&arand and 9o#*ara 'ro& t*e?)e#s. And )ut 'or t*e ?)e# ruler M/)e+dalla* @*an=s gallant *eh$d t*e rites o' t*e true!ait* 4ould *ae )een totall+ routed out 'ro& t*e region"E.

• "5 C*andra 9*an Chah$r Chaman, and 9endra)an as @*4os*gu Ta (era, ẕ %ited inA)dulla* 4dabiy$t-e ,...

23A politi%o-religious %ode li#e t*e one laid do4n in I)n Bu?)e*an=s Slu( 'ailed to 'ind'aour een 4it* t*e (ug*al elites 4*ile on t*e ot*er *and Tusi=s 4(hl$% along 4it* so&eot*er Persian texts o' t*is &ould *ad )e%o&e part o' t*e (ug*al madrasa s+lla)i )+ t*e ti&eo' $*a* a*an ,r. 1D2D-1D5D. C*andra 9*an 9ra*&an t*e noted mnshi and poet o' $*a*a*an=s %ourt 4*o& 4e &entioned a)oe adised *is son @*4a6a Te6 9*an to &a#e it a*a)it to stud+ regularl+ Tusi=s 4(hl$%-e '$s eri, alal al-in aani=s 4(hl$%-e =al$li and@*4a6a (osle* al-in $a=di=s Dlest$n and 0ust$n. It 4as )+ i&)i)ing t*e %ode o' li'eens*rined in t*ese texts t*at t*e learned in (ug*al %ulture 4ere expe%ted to earn t*eir %apital

,dast-e m$ya-ye (h3d and )e )lessed 4it* t*e 'ortunes o' #no4ledge and good &oral%ondu%t , sa$dat-e ‘elm b$ ‘amal "5. e 4ill see )elo4 een t*oug* er+ )rie'l+ *o4 Nasirean %ode in'luen%ed t*e (ug*al politi%al %ulture )ut )e'ore 4e do t*is 4e 4ill assesst*e %ontents o' t*is %ode.

28T*e &ain part o' a(hl$% texts generall+ )egins 4it* a dis%ussion on *u&an disposition andt*e ne%essit+ o' its dis%iplining and su)li&ation. T*e dis%ussion is interspersed 4it* t*e@orani% erses and t*e traditions o' t*e Prop*et 4it* a )earing on uniersal *u&an alues.T*us t*e re'eren%e points are uneuio%all+ t*e &an ,bashar, ens$n, bani $dam *is liing,amr-e ma$sh and t*e 4orld ,‘$lam, $"$%. T*e per'e%tion o' &an a%%ording to t*e aut*orso' t*ese texts is to )e a%uired t*roug* ad&iration and adulation o' iinit+ )ut is

i&possi)le to )e a%*ieed 4it*out a pea%e'ul so%ial organisation 4*ere eer+one %an earn *isliing )+ %o-operation and *elping ea%* ot*er.

• "D 4(hl$%-e !m$yuni, 'ol.2a-).

2T*e goal in t*e a(hl$% literature=s dis%ourse on politi%al organisation is %o-operation, sher(at--m$anat to )e a%*ieed t*roug* 6usti%e ,‘adl ad&inistered in a%%ordan%e 4it*a la4 ,dastur prote%ted and pro&oted )+ t*e #ing 4*ose prin%ipal instru&ent o' %ontrols*ould )e a''e%tion and 'aours ,r$"at--emten$n not %o&&and and o)edien%e ,amr--emtes $l . T*e shari‘a is %ru%ial )ut it *ere %onnotes as one %ould spe%ulate 'ro& itsela)oration , shari‘a o' anbiy$ a rsl not stri%tl+ t*e Isla&i% la4. T*e reader is re&indedo' t*e @orani% erse t*at t*ere is a single


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%o&&unities 4it* shari‘as to suit t*eir ti&es and %li&es"D. usti%e ,‘adl e&erges as t*e%orner stone o' t*e so%ial organisation.

• "3 #bid., 'ol. 28).

"0T*e a(hl$% literature re%o&&ends t*e ealuation and treat&ent o' &an on t*e strengt* andleel o' *is natural goodness or &alad+ ,(heyr--sharr-e t abi. T*e rig*ts o' t*e re‘ay$ donot 'ollo4 t*eir religions. T*e (usli& and t*e In'idels ,($"er )ot* en6o+ t*e diine%o&passion ,rah mat-e ! a%%. T*e uestions o' ($"er, ("r, ẓemmi and dis%ri&ination t*ere)+*ae no pla%e in a(hl$% treatises. T*e true representatie and t*e s*ado4 o'


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• " (ir MA)d al-V* Oed 9ilgr&i ! a%$ye%-e !indi, (aulana A?ad i)rar+ Aligar*($ a(hira-ye 4h san,Ẕ ,...

"ET*e p*ilosop*+ and senti&ent got a 'as%inating expression in t*e &idsixteent* %entur+ int*e ! a%$ye%-e !indi o' A)d al-Va*ed 9ilgra&i ,1510-1D08 in 4*i%* 9ilgra&i soug*t to

re%on%ile t*e Vais*na s+&)ols and t*e ter&s and ideas used in Hindu deotional songs 4it*ort*odox (usli& )elie's. A%%ording to 9ilgra&i @ris*na and ot*er na&es used in su%*erses s+&)oli?ed Prop*et (o*a&&ad :(an; or still so&eti&es t*e realit+ o' *u&an )eing,h a%i%at-e ens$n in relation to t*e a)stra%t notion o' oneness ,ah adiyat o' iine essen%e.Dpis so&eti&es stood 'or angels so&eti&es t*e *u&an ra%e and so&eti&es its realit+ inrelation to t*e $h ediyat ,relatie unit+ o' t*e iine attri)utes. 9ra6 and


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*ouse 4as t*e &an 4*o #ne4 true po4er and 4ine represented diine loe. T*is s+&)olis&o' Persian poetr+ in'luen%ed t*e t*in#ing o' pra%ti%all+ eer+ edu%ated (usli& o' t*e periodand 4e &a+ gat*er t*at a large nu&)er o' ot*er (usli&s 4ere also in'luen%ed )+ t*ese ideas.

"8!urt*er Persian poetr+ 4*i%* *ad integrated &an+ t*ings 'ro& pre-Isla&i% Persia and *ad

)een an i&portant e*i%le o' li)eralis& in &edieal (usli& 4or# *elped in no insigni'i%ant4a+ to %reate and support t*e (ug*al atte&pt to a%%o&&odate dierse religious traditions.A#)ar &ust *ae got support 'or *is poli%+ o' non-se%tarianis& 'ro& t*e erses li#e t*e oneso' alal al-in Bu&i 4*ose Masnai t*e e&peror *eard regularl+ and nearl+ learnt )+ *eartG

T bar$-ye as l (ardan $madina bar$-ye "as l (ardan $madi

!indiy$n-r$ es t el$h -e !ind madh Sindiy$n-r$ es t el$h -e Sind madh

• E2 alal al-in Bu&i Masnai-ye Maulana )um, ed. Fa?i $a66ad Husain ol.II el*i 13D p. 13". !o ,...

:T*ou *ast %o&e to unite not to separate !or t*e people o' Hind t*e idio& o' Hindi is praise4ort*+ !or t*e people o' $ind t*eir o4n is to )e praisedE2;.

"T*e e%*oes o' t*ese &essages and t*e general suspi%ion o' &ere :'or&alis&; o' t*e 'ait*are un&ista#a)le in (ug*al Persian poetr+ as 4ell. !a+?i *ad t*e a&)ition o' )uilding :ane4 @a=)a; out o' t*e stones 'ro& t*e $inaiG

0iy$ (a ruy be-meh r$bg$h-e n3 be-nehim

ban$-ye 5aba-ye digar ẓe sang-e T ur nehim

• E" A)u=l-!a+? !a+?i !a++a?i &i$n, ed. A.. Ars*ad a*ore 1D2 p. E30.

:Co&e let us turn our 'a%e to4ard a ne4 altar et us ta#e stones 'ro& t*e $inai and )uild ane4 @a=)aE";.

E0T*e (ug*al poets li#e t*eir prede%essors portra+ed t*e pious , ẓ$hed and t*e shey(h as*+po%rites. It 4as 4it* t*e &aster o' t*e 4ine *ouse ,mgh$n and in t*e te&ple instead o't*e &osue t*e+ )elieed t*at t*e eternal and iine se%rets 4ere to )e soug*tG

She$r-e mellat-e #salmiy$n be-g $r gar (h3$hi ẕ(e dar dayr-e mgh$n $yi a asr$r-e neh$n bini

• EE (o* Oa&&ad a&l al-in M/r'i $*ir?i 5lley$t, ed. a*eri Va6diTe*eran 1"D $*.180 "rd rep ,...

:


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To !a+?i it is a &atter o' priilege t*at *is loe 'or t*e idol led *i& to e&)ra%e t*e religion o't*e 9ra*&anG

Sh(r-e (hd$ (e ‘esh%-e bt$n ast r$hbar-ambar mellat-e brahm$n- bar din-e ar-am ẕ

• E5 !a+?i &i$n, p. 5".

:T*an#


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Fa(hmh$ bard$shtim a "ath h$ (ardim ley( hargeẓ aẓ (hun-e (asi rangin nashd dam$n-e m$

• E M/r'i $*ir?i &i$n, p. ".

:e *ae re%eied 4ounds 4e *ae s%ored i%tories )ut our s#irts *ae neer )een stained4it* t*e )lood o' an+oneE;.

• 50 V.P. (isra ,ed. 5esha Dranth$ali, part " Nagri Pra%*arini $a)*a Alla*a)ad158 p. D20-21.

EDPersian generated and pro&oted %onditions in 4*i%* t*e (ug*als %ould %reate out o'*eterogeneous so%ial groups a %lass o' t*eir allies and su)ordinate rulers. i#e t*e e&perorand *is no)ilit+ in general t*is %lass also %*eris*ed t*e uniersal *u&an alues and ision. Itis in t*is )a%#ground t*at t*e (ug*al politi%al %ulture needs to )e understood. $igni'i%antl+

@es*a4 as t*e seenteent* %entur+ 9ra6 poet pro%lai&ed a*angir as duhu din ( saheb,&aster o' )ot* t*e religions7 dis%oered t*e attri)utes o' Vis*nu t*e Hindu god in t*e person o' t*e (ug*al e&peror 4*o on t*e ot*er *and 'a%ed no pro)le& in )lending anu&)er o' :Hindu; rituals 4it* Isla& at t*e %ourt50.

• 51 .!. Bi%*ards :T*e !or&ulation o' I&perial Aut*orit+ under A#)ar and a*angir;in .!. Bi%*ards , ,...

• 52 N.P. Liegler :$o&e Notes on Ba6put o+alties during t*e (ug*al Period; in .!.Bi%*ards ,ed. 5i ,...

E3In t*e pro%ess o' t*eir politi%al allian%e 4it* t*e Ba6puts t*e (ug*als interestingl+integrated &an+ o' t*eir rituals and s+&)ols as 4ell. T*ese ranged 'ro& appl+ing ti(a,er&ilion &ar# on t*e 'ore*ead o' t*e politi%al su)ordinate tuledan ,4eig*ing %ere&on+

*har(adarshan ,earl+ &orning appearan%e o' t*e e&peror on t*e pala%e )al%on+ to t*e pu)li% 4ors*ip o' t*e sun )+ A#)ar 4it* prostrations 'a%ing t*e east )e'ore a sa%ri'i%ial 'ireand re%itation o' its na&e in $ans#rit. It 4as per*aps to *ig*lig*t t*e a''init+ 4it* t*e Ba6putst*at A)u=l-!a?l e&p*asi?ed t*e &+sti%al and diine origins o' t*e (ug*als 'ro& :lig*t;51. T*e (ug*als &arried t*e Ba6put prin%esses and allo4ed t*e& to per'or& t*eir religiousrituals %ere&oniousl+ in t*eir pala%es. /n t*e ot*er *and t*e allian%e also re%eiednouris*&ent 'ro& t*e lo%al %ulture in Ba6putana and t*e deelop&ents 4it*in t*e Ba6putso%iet+. T*e Ba6puts sa4 t*e (ug*als as a %ategor+ o' t*eir *ati. T*e (ug*al e&peror in t*eir tradition *eld a *ig* ran# and estee& and 4as o'ten euated 4it* Ba& t*e pree&inent@s*atri+a %ulture *ero52. T*e Ba6puts identi'ied t*e&seles 4it* t*e (ug*al *ouse 4*i%* int*eir per%eption 4as to )e de'ended as &u%* as t*e Ba6put *ouse.

!I

• 5" /n t*e %ontrar+ $*e+#* MA)d al-Ba*&an C*es*ti %onsiders t*is an a%*iee&ent a'ollo4 up o' an exte ,...

E8T*e (ug*al poli%+ to a %ertain extent eoled 'ro& t*e earlier (usli& ruler=s adroit *ah$nd$ri ,rulers*ip. T*e (ug*al pra%ti%e 4as *o4eer )a%#ed )+ a %learl+ de'ined politi%al

http://asiecentrale.revues.org/478#ftn49http://asiecentrale.revues.org/478#ftn50http://asiecentrale.revues.org/478#ftn50http://asiecentrale.revues.org/478#ftn51http://asiecentrale.revues.org/478#ftn52http://asiecentrale.revues.org/478#ftn51http://asiecentrale.revues.org/478#ftn51http://asiecentrale.revues.org/478#ftn52http://asiecentrale.revues.org/478#ftn52http://asiecentrale.revues.org/478#tocfrom1n6http://asiecentrale.revues.org/478#ftn53http://asiecentrale.revues.org/478#ftn49http://asiecentrale.revues.org/478#ftn50http://asiecentrale.revues.org/478#ftn51http://asiecentrale.revues.org/478#ftn52http://asiecentrale.revues.org/478#ftn51http://asiecentrale.revues.org/478#ftn52http://asiecentrale.revues.org/478#tocfrom1n6http://asiecentrale.revues.org/478#ftn53


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and religious ideolog+.


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• 5D !ranUois 9ernier Traels in the Mgul Empire, 8BAB-8BB


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t*eir personal )elie's. T*is does not *o4eer &ean t*at t*e 'or%es to %ontest t*is ie4 o'Isla& 4ere no longer a%tie.

Haut de page

"otes

1 C'. (. Ala& and $. $u)ra*&an+a& ,eds. The Mughal State, /x'ord niersit+ Pressel*i 13 introdu%tion.

2 I. Ha)i) and T. Ba+%*aud*ari The Cambridge Ecnmic !istry " #ndia, ol. ICa&)ridge niersit+ Press Ca&)ridge 182 p. 2EE-E7 see also I. Ha)i) :istri)ution o'anded Propert+ in Pre-9ritis* India; En%uiry, Ne4 $eries 11" ,4inter 1D5.

" Ag*a (a*di Hasan The Tughla% &ynasty, el*i 1D87 .H.A. @ol'' 'au(ar, )a*put and

Sepy+ The ethnhistry " military labur mar(et in !industan, 8;A:-8


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15 #bid., p. 213 nglis* trans. p. DE.

1D C'. @.A. Ni?a&i Sme 4spects " )eligin and litics in #ndia during the 8@th century,reprintG Idara*-e Ada)i+at el*i 13E.

13 9. e4is The 4ssassins+ 4 )adical Sect in #slam, eilden'eld and Ni%olson ondon1D37 P.. Vati#iotis The /atimid Thery " State, 2nd edition As*ra' W $ons a*ore 1817. (adelung )eligius Trends in Early #slamic #ran, 9i)liot*e%a Persi%a $tate niersit+ o'

Ne4 Jor# Al)an+ 188.

18 $eeral editions o' t*is )oo# are aaila)le. I *ae used t*e 'ollo4ingG Nas Oir al-in T Ousi 4(hl$%-e '$s eri ed. (o6ta)X (inai and MAli-BeQ H Oe+dari Te*ran 13D. nglis*translationG


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pu)lis*ed as The ractical hilsphy " the Mhammadans. Hose+ni=s &astur al-eẓ$rat*as not )een pu)lis*ed a &anus%ript %op+ is presered in t*e 9i)liot*Zue Nationale de!ran%e Paris ,9N see . 9lo%*et Catalgue des manuscrits persans de la 0iblithL%uenatinale, E ol. Paris 105-1"E ol. II p. "3-8 No. 3D8.

2 $ee pre'a%e in *is 4(hl$%-e !m$yuni, 9N 9lo%*et Catalgue, ol. II No. 3D37@*4nda&ir ,


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E1 C*arles Bieu Catalgue " the ersian Manuscripts in the 0ritish Museum, ol. IIIondon 185 p. 10"E.

E2 alal al-in Bu&i Masnai-ye Maulana )um, ed. Fa?i $a66ad Husain ol. II el*i 13D p. 13". !or A#)ar=s ad&inistration and 'ondness 'or t*e (asnai see A)ul !a?l 4(bar

'$ma, ol. II ed. A)d-ur-Ba*i& 9i)liot*e%a Indi%a Cal%utta 13" p. 231.

E" A)u=l-!a+? !a+?i !a++a?i &i$n, ed. A.. Ars*ad a*ore 1D2 p. E30.

EE (o* Oa&&ad a&l al-in M/r'i $*ir?i 5lley$t, ed. a*eri Va6di Te*eran 1"D$*.180 "rd reprint p. 152.

E5 !a+?i &i$n, p. 5".

ED M/r'i $*ir?i &i$n, u%#no4 1832 p. 15.

E3 Ns Oer MAli $ir*indi &i$n, Na4al#is*or Press u%#no4 1832 p. 15.

E8 T Ole) &oli 5lleyat-e ash$r-e male( al-sh‘ar$-ye T $leb mli, ed. T O*eri $*e*)Te*ran 1"ED $*.1D3 p. DD8.

E M/r'i $*ir?i &i$n, p. ".

50 V.P. (isra ,ed. 5esha Dranth$ali, part " Nagri Pra%*arini $a)*a Alla*a)ad 158 p.D20-21.

51 .!. Bi%*ards :T*e !or&ulation o' I&perial Aut*orit+ under A#)ar and a*angir; in .!.Bi%*ards ,ed. 5ingship and 4uthrity in Suth 4sia, (adison 138 p. 252-8.

52 N.P. Liegler :$o&e Notes on Ba6put o+alties during t*e (ug*al Period; in .!.Bi%*ards ,ed. 5ingship and 4uthrity in Suth 4sia, (adison 138 p. 215-51.

5" /n t*e %ontrar+ $*e+#* MA)d al-Ba*&an C*es*ti %onsiders t*is an a%*iee&ent a 'ollo4up o' an extension o' t*e non-se%tarian poli%ies see MA)d al-Ba* O&n C*es*ti Mer$t al-asr$r, ($. 9ritis* i)rar+ ondon /r. 21D '. 503. $*e+#* A*&ad $ir*indi o' %ourse is anex%eption.

5E A&in ). sr=il Ma*ma‘al-ensh$, 'ol. " )7 Ensh$-ye 4bul-/ażl, ol. I p. D0.

55 MA)d al-Fader 9adauni Mnta(hab al-taari(h, ol. II p. 2ED7 transi. .H. o4eCal%utta 9i)liot*e%a Indi%a 188E ol. II p. 25".

5D !ranUois 9ernier Traels in the Mgul Empire, 8BAB-8BB


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5 $*e+#* A*&ad $ir*indi Ma(tub$t-e Em$m )abb$ni, reprintG Ista&)ul 133 ol. II p.118 letter no. 2 to (ir (o*a&&ad No=&an p. 2""-EE7 see also J. !ried&ann Shay(h

4hmad Sirhindi+ 4n Kutline " his Thught and a Study " !is #mage in the Eyes " sterity,(%

state building under the mughals

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