star forming regions and young stellar...
TRANSCRIPT
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STAR FORMING REGIONS AND YOUNG STELLAR OBJECTS
Antonio Maggio Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica
Osservatorio Astronomico di Palermo
Messaggeri della Conoscenza Struttura, origine e caratterizzazione
dei pianeti nel Sistema Solare e in sistemi esterni
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Relevance for exoplanets • Stellar (and planetary) formation
₋ Understanding physical conditions and mechanisms
⇒ Do stars and planets form at the same time? ⇒ Are planets hosted preferentially by stars with
specific characteristics? • Planetary growth and dynamical evolution
• What is the role of central stars in early (proto-planetary) phases?
• Planet ageing and life development • How star-planet interactions influence planetary
environment and habitability conditions?
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Some historic milestones • 1755, Kant: The Nebular Hypothesis • 1796, Laplace: Nebular break-up hypothesis • XVIII – XIX: observations of dark clouds • 1904, Hartmann: Discovery of insterstellar gas • 1930, Trumpler: Discovery of interstellar dust • 1939, Spitzer: Theory of Turbulent Viscosity • 1940s, Joy: Identification of T Tauri Stars • 1950s: Radio astronomy and the study of ISM • 1961, Hayashi: Theory of PMS evolution • 1962, Herbig: T Tauri star formation in clouds • 1977, Shu: Theory of cloud collapse • 1980s – 1990s, IR observations of YSOs from space
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Early-type stars
and Star Forming Regions are mainly found along the spiral arms of the Galaxy
However, detailed observations of SFRs are possible only within few kpc from the Sun
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Mass distribution in our Galaxy
Exercise: estimate the total mass within 8 kpc from Galactic center, assuming a solar velocity of 220 km/s along the Galactic orbit; compare your result with the values reported above (Sofue Y. 2012, PASJ 64, 75).
Mass Scale radius Bulge 1.7 1010 M⊙ 0.5 kpc
Disk 3.4 1010 M⊙ 3.2 kpc
Dark Halo (< 8 kpc) 2.7 1010 M⊙ R < Sun distance from Galactic center
Dark Halo (< 12.5 kpc) 5.1 1010 M⊙ 12.5 kpc
Dark Halo (< 20 kpc) 8.9 1010 M⊙ 20 kpc
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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Luminous (massive) stars mostly in arms of spiral galaxies
Spiral arms traced by Bright H II regions,
associated to early-type (OB) stars
Dark (dusty) lanes, associated to Giant Molecular Clouds
Location of Star Forming Regions
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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Interstellar Medium in Galaxy Arms • Hot gas
₋ Ionized hydrogen (H II regions), very bright in Hα emission (656 nm)
₋ Other ionized low-Z elements, identified by their forbidden-line emission (⇔ low-density gas)
• Cold gas ₋ Neutral hydrogen (H I regions), mainly observed in radio
(21-cm emission) ₋ Molecular hydrogen (H2) and several other molecules
including the most abundant elements (in particular C, N, and O). Best observations at mm wavelength from CO.
• Dust ₋ Dark clouds (⇒ high extintion of background stars) ₋ Reflection Nebulas (⇐ Mie scattering)
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Linda Huff (American Scientist), Priscilla Frisch (U. Chicago)
The Local Bubble and the Galactic Neighborhood
Supernova
Remnant (SNR) and H II region (Gum Nebula)
Hot, low-
density Interstellar Medium
Molecular
Clouds and Star-Forming Regions
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A typical stellar nursery Massive star forming
regions are complex environments Expanding SNRs OB stars and associated wind
shocks Stars in different evolutionary
stages (protostars, T Tauri stars, ecc.)
Several hydro-dynamical and radiative effects may influence the early phases of stellar formation
About 40 Star Forming Regions (SFRs) within 3 kpc already studied with multi-wavelength observations Best known SFRs, up to date:
Orion, Taurus-Auriga, Ophiucus
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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• H II regions carved by O/B star radiation inside a giant molecular cloud in the LMC
Sequential star formation
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J. Hester, P. Scowen (ASU), HST, NASA
Evaporating Gaseous Globules (EGGs) in
the Eagle Nebula (M16)
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Molecular CO distribution in Orion
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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CO emission (mm wavelength)
Brunch & Wittke (NAU)
Spectroscopy at millimeter wavelengths provides diagnostics for temperature, density, and abundance of cold melecular gas
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Stability condition (Virial theorem) General equation that relates the time-average of the total kinetic energy, 𝑲 , of a stable system consisting of N particles, bound by potential forces, with the time-average of the total potential energy, 𝑼 :
𝟐 𝑲 + 𝑼 = 𝟎 On the other hand, during the evolution of the system, the total energy is
𝑬 = 𝑲 + 𝑼 Any decrease of the total internal energy of the system goes into radiation
𝑳 = − 𝒅𝑬𝒅𝒅
= − 𝒅𝑲𝒅𝒅
+ 𝒅𝑼𝒅𝒅
= −𝟏𝟐𝒅𝑼𝒅𝒅
and 𝒅𝑲𝒅𝒅
= −𝟏𝟐𝒅𝑼𝒅𝒅
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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Jeans criterion for collapse
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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Properties of Molecular Clouds
Exercise: verify if the above astrophysical environments are gravitationally stable according to the Jean criterion.
Molecular Clouds
Clumps in Molecular Clouds
Molecular Cloud Core
Mass 104.5 – 106.5 M⊙ 10 – 102 M⊙ 1 – 10 M⊙
Size 10 – 100 pc 1 – 10 pc ≤ 1 pc
Temperature 10 – 30 K 10 – 30 K 1 – 10 K
Density 102 – 103 cm-3 103 – 104 cm-3 104 – 105 cm-3
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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But, nature is complex… • Molecular Clouds cannot be treated as an isolated
system: pressure of the gas in the external ISM must be taken into account
⇒ Equilibrium solution is a «Bonnor-Ebert’s Sphere» • Molecular clouds may start with a non-null angular
momentum (Exercise: compute angular momentum of clumps in a molecular cloud, assuming a characteristic velocity of 3×104 cm/s, and compare it with that of the Sun, Earth, and Jupiter)
• Molecular Clouds are permeated with magnetic fields (10-100 µG measured in Cloud Cores) ⇒ If the medium is ionized, the field is «frozen», and the magnetic flux, ∫𝐵 ∙ 𝑑𝑑, must be conserved
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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Alves et al. (2001), Graham (1998), Foster & Goodman (2006), Steinacker et al. (2010).
• Cloud core density structure can be derived from extintion measurements and compared with physical models of collapse
• Also constrain ISM-to-core dust grain size & composition
Pre-collapse dark cloud B68
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Magnetic fields in Orion
Goodman et al.; Goncalves et al. 2005
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Hydrodynamical Simulation
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Initial Mass Function (IMF) • The IMF, ξ(M), introduced by Edwin Salpeter in
1955, gives the number of stars per unit mass range
• The IMF can be deduced from observational data (stellar counts in SFRs)
• Caveat: Most of the known IMFs are relative to the local Galactic neighborhood, hence they may not be valid in very far away, physically different astropysical environments
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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According to Salpeter… • The IMF follows a power law
d NS / d log10 M ~ M-1.35
or, in linear form:
ξ(M) = d NS / d M ~ M-2.35 where ξ(M) is the number of stars with mass
between M and M+dM.
• Low-mass stars dominate the stellar population!
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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Other IMF determinations
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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Marchi et al. (2010); Bastian, Covey, & Meyer (2010, ARAA)
Young SFRs, open
clusters, stellar associations, and field stars show very similar slope at high masses
Some difference in the low-mass branch
Young SFRs and associations tend to have stars with lower masses than old open clusters and globular clusters (dependence on metallicity)
Observed IMFs
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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Simplified Scheme for the IMF
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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Possible physical mechanisms behind the IMF
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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30
Universality of the IMF
• Open questions • How can the IMF be independent from
initial conditions, such as rotation of the protostellar cloud, presence of magnetic fields, and chemical composition (metallicity) of the environment?
• Can the physical mechanisms responsible
for the stellar IMF determine also the planetary population? (see next lecture by C. Argiroffi)
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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From cloud collapse to main sequence
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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HR diagram of the Orion Nebula Cluster
In practice, determination of stellar ages is difficult!
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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IR images of Protostars Color code: Blue 3.6 µm Green 4.5 µm Red 8.0 µm
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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IR images of Protostars
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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IR images of YSOs with disks
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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Model of stellar collapse including magnetic fields
• Problem: how can protostars get rid of excess angular momentum and magnetic flux?
• Possible solution: Magnetized disks and jets (see lecture by S. Orlando)
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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Shu, Adams & Lizano 1987, ARAA
Magnetospheric Accretion Disk Model
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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Relative lifetimes Class 0: 0.2 Myr Class I : 0.5 Myr Class II: 3 Myr Class III: 10 Myr
Lada 1987, Andrè et al. 1993
Young Stellar Objects classification
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STAR FORMING REGIONS AND YOUNG STELLAR OBJECTS
Part II Antonio Maggio
Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica Osservatorio Astronomico di Palermo
Messaggeri della Conoscenza Struttura, origine e caratterizzazione
dei pianeti nel Sistema Solare e in sistemi esterni
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X-ray emission of YSOs
Feigelson & Montmerle, 1999
• X-ray emission signals the onset of stellar magnetic activity (but when?) • Since then, stellar activity starts affecting the evolution of the environment • Feedback on stellar evolution, disk longevity, planetary formation and primordial “space climate”
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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X-ray view of the Orion Nebula Cluster
About 1600 sources detected in 800 ks Chandra
observattion, mostly Young Stellar Objects with ages 105 −106 yr
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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BN/KL region in the Orion Molecular Cloud: Several new sources discovered in X-rays, deeply embedded 22.2 < log NH < 23.6 (the hydrogen column density, 𝑁𝐻 = ∫𝑛𝐻 𝑑𝑑 , is a measure of the absorbing material along the line of sight)
Heavily obscured protostellar cores
Red 0.5–1.7 keV Green 1.7–2.8 keV Blue 2.8–8.0 keV
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
Grosso et al. (2005)
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X-ray luminosity of YSOs in Orion
Mean X-ray luminosity Lx ≈ 10-3.5 Lbol (saturated level)
for non-accreting (class III) stars Depressed X-ray emission and large scatter for
accreting (class I–II) stars
Preibisch et al. (2005)
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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Orion Nebula Cluster: the COUP movie Continuous flaring activity for essentially all sources
Duration from minutes to days
Peak X-ray luminosities Lx ≈ 1032 erg/s
Total radiated energy up to E ≈ 1036.5 erg [0.5-8 keV]
Frequency of largest flares: every few days per object
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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X-ray Flare Characteristics
Fast rise and slower exponential decay Explained by hydrodynamical models of
magnetically-confined plasma undergoing impulsive heating
Analysis of broad-band X-ray spectroscopy data allows to estimate the size of magnetic structures where the flaring plasma is confined
Favata et al. (2005)
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Sizes of flaring regions and peak plasma temperatures
• Scale lengths from 5 x 1011 to 5 x 1012 cm, i.e. up to 10 − 20 R*
• Plasma peak temperatures up to 7 x 108 K (but extreme values are poorly constrained)
SYNCHROTRON
NON-THERMAL Bremsstrahlung
Active stars
Orion bright flares
Super-hot
flares
Getman et al. (2008a)
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Magnetospheres of accreting YSOs
In accreting T Tauri stars, coronal extent limited by the disk
(truncated at the co-rotation radius) Closed field ⇒ hot plasma ⇒ X-ray emission, flares Open field ⇒ stellar wind ⇒ mass & angular momentum losses Star-disk field ⇒ accretion ⇒ shocks ⇒ soft X-ray excess ⇒ giant flares? Open issue...
Getman et al. (2008b)
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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Role of Magnetic Fields In accreting T Tauri stars,
magnetic fields may affect ⇒ hot plasma confinement
and heating ⇒ steady X-ray emission and
flares ⇒ mass inflow and outflow ⇒ angular momentum balance ⇒ star-disk locking and
magnetic torques ⇒ disk disruption ⇒inner edge for planet
migration?
Matt & Pudritz (2005)
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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Magnetospheres in non-accreting stars
Coronal extent limited by gas/B-field pressure ratio Fast rotation ⇒ efficient magnetic dynamo ⇒ enhanced
activity and X-ray emission Intense high-energy irradiation of young planetary bodies Coronal Mass Ejections and Stellar Energetic Particle flows Possible star-planet magnetospheric interaction (see next
lecture by A. Maggio)
Getman et al. (2008b) Sun 4x
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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Stellar activity effects on Circumstellar/Protoplanetary Disks
Circumstellar disks are subject to high-energy radiation,
winds, and energetic particles originating from the central star ⇒ heating, ionization, evaporation
How is planetary formation affected? A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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X-ray Diagnostics of X-rayed Disks
Reflection of X-rays off the
disk ⇒ Fluorescent 6.4 keV iron emission line following photo-ionization of a K-shell electron
Absorption of X-ray emission from central stars by gas in disks with edge-on orientation (called proplyds)
Imanishi et al. (2001) Kastner et al. (2005)
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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IR Diagnostics of X-rayed Disks Detection of
[Ne II] 12.81 µm line emission
Pascucci et al. (2007) Hot H2O and CO
molecular layer observed is some YSOs
Carr et al. (2004)
H2O
CO
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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XUV Irradiation of Circumstellar Disks Heating and ionization of
gas in disk outer layers out to several AU B-field freezing ⇒ disk truncation MRI turbulence ⇒ angular momentum
transport ⇒ mass accretion ⇒ planetary migration?
Out of equilibrium molecular chemistry in the disk interior
Ilgner & Nelson (2006)
Temperature
Ionization Fraction
Verti
cal H
eigh
t [A
U]
Radial distance [AU]
Verti
cal H
eigh
t [A
U]
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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Magneto-Rotational Instability (MRI) (simple mechanical model)
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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Disk ionization models Ingredients: X-ray photo-
ionization, viscous heating, radiative cooling, and turbulent mixing of gas, dust and grain phases, with given chemical composition
Boundary between active (= turbulent) and dead (= laminar) zone occurs at very low ionization fraction, log Xe ~ -12
The size of the dead zone likely depends on the frequency, energetics, and hardness of stellar flares
Ilgner & Nelson (2006)
Col
umn
Den
sity
Radial distance
dead zone
X-ray active zone
Thermal active zone
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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Effects on planets Traditional theory of growth
from interstellar grains to larger bodies requires calm dynamics and gravitational settling towards the disk midplane
X-ray induced MRI turbulence produces inhomogeneities and gravitational torques ⇒ inhibited sedimentation of solids ⇒ planetary formation possibly occurring in dead zones only
When formed, planetesimals undergo random walks, rather than simple migration
Close-in gaseous planets have magnetosphere which interact with the stellar one ⇒ enhanced activity
Planet atmospheres are subject to high-energy irradiation and stellar winds ⇒ heating, evaporation
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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Stellar X-ray source variability • Stellar coronal sources are known to vary
on several time scales ₋ Short-term (from minutes to a few days)
variability due to flares ₋ Medium-term variability (from a few hours to
tens of days): rotational modulation ₋ Long-term variability (years) due to magnetic
cycles • X-ray emission from YSOs may vary, at
least in principle, also due to • Variable accretion rate • Absorption by the circumstellar disk
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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Sun
Ribas et al. (2005)
X-ray emission at later epochs X-ray luminosity
decreases with age Wind-driven loss of
stellar angular momentum causes less effective dynamo action
Stellar coronae become cooler Softening of the
spectrum, i.e. less high-energy photons
Decreasing flaring activity Smaller increase of
X-ray emission, less frequent high-energy events
Oce
ans
and
atm
osph
ere
on E
arth
Firs
t bac
teria
Euc
ario
tes
Now
Preibisch & Feigelson (2005)
Med
ian
log(
L x) [
erg/
s]
log(age) [yr]
1.0 M
0.7 M
0.3 M
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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Sun
Ribas et al. (2005)
X-ray emission at later epochs Stellar coronae
become cooler Softening of the
spectrum, i.e. less high-energy photons
Decreasing flaring activity Smaller increase of
X-ray emission, less frequent high-energy events
Oce
ans
and
atm
osph
ere
on E
arth
Firs
t bac
teria
Euc
ario
tes
Now
1.0 M
0.7 M
0.3 M
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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Sun compared with Active Stars Sun Young Active Stars
X-ray luminosities
Lx/Lbol ~ 10-6 (quiescent)
Lx/Lbol ~ 10-5 (large flares)
Lx/Lbol ~ 10-3 (quiescent)
Lx/Lbol ~ 10-1 (large flares)
Occurrence of large flares
1 every 10 days (at max of solar cycle)
A few per day (no magnetic cycle?)
Flare time scales up to a few hours up to a few days
Coronal plasma temperatures
≈ 106 K (quiescent)
≈ 107 K (flaring)
≈ 107 K (quiescent)
≈ 108 K (flaring) !!!
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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Flare energy distributions
A. Maggio, 2014, Messaggeri della conoscenza, Dip. Fisica e Chimica, Uni. Palermo
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BIBLIOGRAPHY • M. Zeilik, Astronomy (9th edition) Chapter 11: The Origin and Evolution of the Solar System Chapter 14: Starbirth and Interstellar Matter (Elementary level) • M. Harwit, Astrophysical Concepts (2nd edition) Chapter 1 and Chapter 9 (Cosmic Gas and Dust) (Intermediate level) • M. Meyer (ETH/IfA on-line course) Physics of Star and Planet Formation http://www.astro.ethz.ch/education/courses/Physics_of_Star_a
nd_Planet_Formation/pspf_program (Advanced level) • E.D. Feigelson, T. Montmerle High-Energy Processes in Young Stellar Objects 1999, ARAA, Vol. 37, p. 363 (Advanced level)