CHAPTER 6

Standards and Criteria in Shelter Provision

In rel"i"" '0 \h••nvi,onmen" sIl.11., p,o,;,ion has' ,h,••,fold .ignir..am:o. hinOu.""•• ,h. ,ott " ,,'h,,;h .. rtlin ''''Iori•• of n'tu"l '''ou,eo.... ,xploi"d.\h, "o!um< ,nd intonsity with ~hi,h "'lSt. miller. are p,o<!ucod and dischafiOdinto the n"ur>! 'nvi'onm'nt. 'nd the Iiv..bilit~', h,>!th;n<" 'nd ....h..i.'pp"""" of on "" for hum.n oc,up.n... Th. ,01, of "'nd"d. in th..."lCU"",onC" i.la mea.ure 1..·.10 of a«.p"bilily al 'Ii"n lim. 'nd pla.. ,nd in aJi«n ..' of ,nltu,,1, t<chnoiogical.nd ..on"",;' cOlldlllon.

Effecti" ...nd'Td. are repTd.d as hlvinl fou' ch".'t<ri>1ic.' Fiat. 'hoy "'"""""Ii," proposi6on" 'hit i•. they do no' d<s<rib< ,,·h., "ti", but 'hoy "",ify~1l., I. desirabl., Second. 'My Imply 'he .x,mn.. of ..-nction., .i,her in then'i.ti'·, ..n.. of, pen,lty for non"""",pli.n« 0' in the p",iti" ..n.. of. rewardfo, cornph.n«. Thi'd, th,~ are !u<!bk in ,h.. 'he performon<:< ,>!led for con,u"",ably b< ""pec"d f,om ,hose '0 .. hom ,h. "and"d. a" add"...d. finally,they d.fin• • ",",,/011 b<,..'..n .n id,nlif"bl. '..nder' ond on .qu.lly obviou,'re..iv,,·, In o,h., wo,d•. the norm "1',,00 by lh' ".nd..d olilin"n in •pe,crivobl••"thority which i••ble .nd p"p.o"d to 'nfo'" it, h. implementation i.In,umb,nl "poll .pocif.. indi'idu>!., I'''''PS 0' ..,n'ie•. "'hose .bility ,nd..ilIrni!"'" to ••rry it ou, 're also .osumed. JOOFd a«ordinl '0 ,h... ch."m,­i.lic•. "andl1d. fo' 1Ii,1l" p,ovioon in most d,Y.lopinl "'''''trin (..,d somed,"loped 011"') f"'l..ntly ""m d'flci'nt or "n".li.tic,

In dOl..lopinl co"n'n.. "iIld"d. and criteria for 1Ii.1,.. pro,';";on h,,',.mergedin circumstillC<. ",h., diff",n' f,om tho.. in d•••lop<d c""n"ie•. In rho Ian"..ttinl. np«toIly from lb. 19lb «ntul)' ""..,,,d., "iIldard. um. to Ii< roquirod .., me,.. of prote<tinl the ....k., memb." of the <"",munity, In p"tlcul". th.ypro,.."d work,,, from rho rap.."y of I.ndh"d, "'ho ~." "mpl<d '0 prod""rapidly some fotm of 1Ii.1t" th., did nol meet ..,d. fo' hygi.nic h.inl, lOf.,y 0'p,;...,},. for whkh rh.y charged ex<>rbitont renll. In d,..lopinl <oun"ie" ".nd"d,for 1Ii.1,,, p,ovi"",, "em '0 h,.. IIi"n •• a 11""" of p'O""inl 'he w,althioe, 'ndmore td"'''td mino,ity in , country 'I.in" the incursion of l"",.. r 1....11 of Itt,h"p",.,I;",n rhot '" "'ithin ,h. reach of 'he m,jo,it~· of the popu101l0n, In m'ny ofrh... <OIIn"its lh'" .l<ist ''''0 'l·pe. of "iIldird•. omc,,1 'nd ,"Itu"l (or",ditrOllOI~

TM of/fclol st,ndard. , .. ,h... t of operotion.1 rul...nd "Iubtinn. which b...b<,n codjf!<d .nd wIIi,h ..,...,. ,h. purpose of OOfItrolling 'h, 'ypo iIld <h".."r of1Ii,lt" provided in the gi"n oountry. CodifICation 1I"',"u,h rul'"ome ,I,tntn, of, I..., "'her.by lmelion. con b< ,u...d in .... of inf,ina'tntnt, Cu.//lJ'Il/ st,nd.nil,on ,he olher hilld, "fer to I..elo ofporformonc< lhOi ,re imp~d' m 'h, "odi'ion,1~"}" of p,ovidinglli,lt." or in ,h••<Iopt01ion' of th,.. ....1'. to modern n.ods. In

I"n<fl.!, "wd"d' of thi. ,~pe '" n.i,h., ol• .,ly d.r",.bl< no, ,,·.n .".bll"'<d.""".'h.l.... 'hoy b... (Uid.d I,,,••,.'ion. of peopl. ";lh", noh 'ul'unl "g,on of• oountry in ,"o"ing 'h, ,h.ll,ngo. of ",.Ii" prO";,ion O'.r ,h. 'P', In '""noa,ea~ at in In~ij. they \~nd to be overladon wi'h ..ligiou'ligniflCutco. plJlioularl~with ,..peot '0 ori.nu,ion. dUll" .nd 'P":< ulil,u';on. G.n.,I.!I~, how,,'.,- th.~

,.,100' • d_ .dju,,,,,,,", ..t th, 1"'.1 of l<ehnoloj:y in ""'i.t~ .nd ,h.""01"= of 'h' ...it""me"!. 1" ""',.,.... 'ho ..i".n« of luild. ofbuUdmm.k.. it poooibl, to p....,,'• ••imll.rit~ of ,"ndud., 'ip<ci>ll~ "'h're omoin..n<lion, con .. impoo<d On non'8u~d membm ,ng.pnl in "'.1,.. oon.tru,tion,B;- .rId 1"1" h""".,. !I\OIt peopl< parti,i.... '. rn tho prOCUll of build,nl 0'rep.ai'in8 'l><i, ""'n hom.....pe<l.II~ In <UtI.! "''', wd th.",b~ acqui" " I...t"''''' 'udi""ntlf)' notion. of "'.It., coo"'",'ioo. 111I'n .U<h rur>! peopl. mo..,n'o u,but .,.... th.~ bti"l with th.m 'hei, ,"peri.u« of ,h... oultu,.1 S1utdard.but, onco ..ul<d. lh.y .Iso t.nd to copy d.lian. hnpoo<d by offici.1 11.M.rd.,",th dubl<>u, ",uJa in t.,m, of co" .nd Ii...bllitj

1r-.'C1DEl'CE OF STANDAR.DS IN DH'ELOPIl'G COUNTRIES

It will be reooJl<d (Ch.p'" 1) ,h.. lfOnd"d' .M ,n,.ria w.r< inv..tLpt<d i"fou' utin Am.,"'.n ,ountri,,: A'g.ntin., B'Oli!. Boli,i••nd P,,",u.y. ~tOrt

d.tail<d study IV" und.n.X<n of tlVO m.,tor urb.n conti.. in A".nt;n" G,u,erR..ht<nd. and G,..... TucumJn. in AoiI., ,h. officiol .nndlfd, ""r< col!<ct.d .nd.n.ly..d for ....n c<>untn'" rnd", Indon..", ~hlol".i.,PhllLppin... Smg.por., Snlanka .nd Th.1i1&nd, With", Indi. t.n d<t.il.d 10001 "ud". we", und.".k.n 10in...tipl< diff,,,n' .n,'iloom.ntl.! .Itu.lion. in >hot c""ntry. Fot M,ic•. ,h•..,.ly.l. c","",.d some 1<n c<>un"i." 80"....n., E;yp'. Elliiop". Gh.n •. K.nj"."il"io. Sud.n. Tut,.n,., Upnd••nd bmbio, Do"il.d "udi.. IV'" und.,,,k,n in,-an<>u, ,ubur'" of laIOI ~1"'opoIi"nA,...

In oil 'h,.. "g,on~ it ..-•• found that Ih. df."" of"'nd"d••nd enwi. in thop,o,..ioion of ""It., in u,b.n .nd ru,o:! ..... "'''d cons.i<l.,.bly, In Latin Am"ic.Ih< openlioo of It.nd.rd, ond or"er" i' 1o:fJ"1)" lUfli'«I '0 urb.n or.... Th" tI

,elot.d to Ih, f.ct 'hat, in mO" c<>un"i", of ,h. re;ion, 0 ~gnif1o>ntly I"g.propo,'ioo of tho popu!o';oo ;, u,bon. In Arg.n'in'. fo' ;n".nc<. "'h,,. On urb.nconti. i. d.lin<d on phy'ic'" on"n••'. du"., of dw.lhnp with 0 population ofot I.", 2.000, ind'p<nd.nt of poli'i,,1 ,dm;niltro:ti'" bound,,;.., I" 1970 r.n,u'indicat.d 'Iu, n.. rly 79 pe' cont of ,h. popul.l"on IV" u,b.n, B,,,;I clo:im. ,nurban popul."on of"""" 50 pe, o<nt "'hil" 10' P&",.oy tho lilu,.I, 38.

Thi' hill> urbon ro....nl"'rion of pof'ult1lion i' ,h. p,incipoJ ,uson IVhy ,h.;.... of "'n,lord' .nd c,i,.,i> i. ex"."",I}" impo,.. n' in utln Am.ric>. Ho..."',,.•"z..bl. p,,,,,,,nion of 1Iti' .,ban """,ul."on h'., in "".n to m«li"", ,iud ""''fl',many of which h.". no form'l mnd"d,. In ,u,,1 ar..., th, lVid.IY-1pac<d ""d,mall·sued ""ure of tho .."I.""nt p,tt.m f.nd tho .umptu<>u",... of Ih.d.....llin" of tt", ",..lthy within Iii...ttl.""n' I o,'.,"'a:!ow ,h. n..d 10 in"" on.ny t;lid standard. for hou~n; poor <UfOl "o"<r~ AI'ho"1i' the" If. diff.",nttype' of ,u,o:I setttem.nts, " i' sen."lIy "'.. thot 'n lurdl~ .ny roUnlf)' u<standards ."'CIN for ,u,1.! d..·.nin". Simi",!),;n p,acti"n~ nO La'in Am«"••COIlntry i' th.", • ,u,,1 hou,in, p,og'>mm •. Tho only .ignmeant ,,,'p,;on;. Cub."'h." «>nsid."bl••ttenti",,;. b<lng ....><I '0 ruro:! ..lubil""ion.

In Afri,., ".ndud. and cri,.,.. for sh'lter p,ovi"'" .....lso moinly an urbanoh'f2Ol.ri"k. AllhoulJ'. in ""'" African counllie•• 0\'" is I"r cont of th.popul"i"" .... ,u,>! tM urb.n ."'.....'.... th. mojo' f""us of in" ..." of p...rinu.col.",iol .dmini.ll.,iorl•. In many of tIl.se <OUOl,i<,.,h, "'nd"d;.nd ,ri..ri.1 .sedtoday ore ink'iled ffOm coloni.ol'i""L

In • f..... Afrk.n """n'"",, h""'",',,. th.........".mp" to ....bli$h "and"d. fOTrur" ,,,.It,, p,ovision, Th" i' p"",ulo,ly Iru. of 'h. 'h'" E.., Afrk.n ,oun"i..of K<oy•• Upnd. mel Tanzania, Gh..o in "'." Af,ico i' .1", ,,,,,,;d.Ting. se' ofp,oposal' f,om th. FacullY of Atchi"".'" of "". of ," un~·."'1t'L

Th. position in Asi. i. only ,lightly bo"" ,hon in Africa, In Indi•• fo' in".n",.,h... oro ".nd.rd••nd orito,i.o for th. 1o'V m.llopoiiton "nll••••uch .. Oolhi.C"'ut12. Bomb.y .nd Mad",••nd .1,0 ,po<:ifL"lly for m.d,um ..d ....U-ili.d"'....n' .nd for n..... '"",n••nd ind."".1 to","sh,pL Th' o,h.. ,oontrio. ",.",d intil••u....<y .1", h.", mnd.rd, ""ly fo, th, urb.n ....,,_ TIt. oountl... rur".."I"".n" do nol h.v••n;' "ffi'IOI ".nd"d••.,n IhoulJ'th.y ,on12in I<Im< 80PO' ",nt of th. popnl"i"" of Soulh .nd South-fa.. A,i._ V"iou. gov.m....n" h.,..be.. PU'""''' M.I """.ing p'OI,amm... bu' ,",'h" h.. b••n "hl<v.d '" for i. no""'TO Ih.. m"gin.I: in non. of ,h. «,unl".. i. ,h." .ny 'g.n,y Ihlt i, ....Iy<o,""""ed '0 ,h. imp,,,,..m,nl of rur" h"using .nd f"ililies.

Tit< .ety limi'<d incid,nc. of 'h. opo..lion of ",nd.,d, .nd cril<rU shonkl.ho....",«. not I"d u. t" condLid' 'h" 'h.y or. of linl. "JOif"..,,,, fOT sh.l",prov11ion in d...lopinl 'oUnl"'L In th••b..n" of "plicil policy dlre"lon.""'«mini ,h. dram"i' popu!>,lon mo'.",.n" t.kina pi'" in m.ny of th...coun,M"" ,h. ","11... us. of " ..d"d, .nd <ri"ri. in d".mllnlng ....h.. t)'po of<holt.. g",'..n",,"' <on p'""",, fo, ,h... poop"" and h""" f.. indi>"icloalo can h.lp,h,m..h·" m 'he p'oc.", h" had • ",m.nd"us n'p'h.. imp'" on .nvi,on""n'"asp''''' of hum.n .."I.m.n" in th... cUlln'd... Wlt<tlt<' ,hi. ,itu.lion i••1I0....'d'0 <""hnu. in,o th. fo'u," p'''''id" ,It< m.in ..ti"".I. for Ih" ,ovio.....

TYPES OF STA:\DARDS

A II'" mp ,n ""h • ,.......... is 10 ,on.ider 'h•••riou.')'po' offun<llon.... hi<h"meI"d, or< "".., '0 poTform in ""I.., p'ovi~"" In ~'n<,,1. lh". blOod g'oup,0' fun, lion, oan bo id.ntif"d, "~i,h p,O'·ide. bo". fo' ,l''''fyml ,h. ot.nd",d.th.mo<l,'e._ F'r<!. thm or. 'p'e< ".nd"d,...hkl> 'l",ify no' "nil' tho ,m"on, of.pac. '0 be m.d< ,,·.il.bl. in >h.I", pTovi,1O<I bu' .1", tho rights of indn-idu.1> to'h" .p"••nd 'h. m.nn" In ....hi<h il i. '0 be u..d. .\\OT< lp.cillc"ly, ,h...".nd"d, d." ... ,h. 1.....1of in"""'y ",",'hicn tho o<'i'i')' of >h'l", p,ovision <an'" ,,,,,dueted. Th. unl" In ... hroh ,u<h ".nd..d•• ro "p...SS«! ",)'. 'nd indod.minimum lot ~'CO. numbe, of bu,lding' por unit "". bo,lding bulk 1'" onlt ."•.nombo, of 1'<""'" PO' fO<)IfI (oc<up.ncy ""o1 0' numbe, of 1"''''"' 1'" ""(d.n'ity)

S.'OfId, 'her. or. to,hnologi<" 0' po,fo,m.nce mnd"d, ...·hi,h d,rm. 'h,quoll\)' of .n,·i,onm.n!. p"t"ol.,h in ..,,'" of ,h. qo.Ii,)· of ,,-,,,",,u"ion. th,Iypo of m"..i.l. that InU" be n!<d. tho quality of .."jot< Ih" ,an '" off.ted, ,"'el,robl. 1,,·.1. of to,,,,,;,. Building b;'.~.,",'" <ud.. of <on."u"ioo••nd~gu!i\iOlll on ,",'U(" ftf'. "oil<......<to .nd 'ndn"",1 ,mu.nt .11 "'Ionl 10 ,hi.<at.,,,,,)'

Thi'd. t~.,•• r< th"lhokl.nd r""l' ".nd.rd,. Th... denne the low" lnd uppcr!tmi" of the ,iz< of popul."on. uu Or di"anc< to b< ......iced by a p"li"ula'""",nity or COOlmun"y facility. They indud. sund.,d. roptdinllh. PC' copita

!lJPIlly llf Inttt. tho d..i"bl. numb" of po1<nli.1 pari.nll p" hos.ptt.al bed. 0' thoamount of reo"."on \and "quirod to"IT<' 'P'oillc num~, ofpeopl<, I(ang.'tlndard, d.n.. th. ",.xi",u", ...... rvkod by • f.. ilily. whil" 'hroohold,Iandard, d.fln. th...speC1iv, minima.

A. a basi, for <xami,"n~ lhe envirorunontal 'speo" of >h.It" pr"''ision. thi,lypolOlY of mndard. i. nol oompl'lOly u..ful .. it OIlnd', and n.od.,o "" oI:Jhtlymo<liflod. In r<vi""n! th. st.ndud, for Ih.lt.. provision in lh. d.""I<>Pint r"ion,of the world, lhe foUoWlnlth".rol<l di"""n i•. th"eforo. off.rod

(1) Sp....u.. .nd D<nuty Stond.td,;

(2) He.hh and Sanitation Standard"

(3) Corrununl1y Faciht ... and Servk<, St""d.rdo

SPACE·USE AND DE"SITY STA"DARDS

P.rb.!" the InO" import.nt .""" of .,,,""...... and density "ond"d. thatc1•• r1y ."",rFd from the ,ur,,')" «,neem, tho "':0;'" of low.r-inoo"" l'ouP' 10urban 10l'Id. The poIl1'on i, mort .",ou, in La"n Amori... wII." the co>< ofArt<nlina i, lypioaL In Arvnlina. standard. '<prdiJ\l «cnI to !<Ind for indivodu:tl•... • ".bliohod by tho N.tion.1 Con,,"ution of 1853. ""ole I' of which "a", lh.lprivote property i. inviolable .nd thot no inhobitont of the country can b. d.pri,odof !\i. llltld ••<opt throuah I<&al pro«os. In turn, lhe Ci"jJ Cod. e.. abhroh.. th ...oharaet""li.. of lh. rishlS of ow"'r>hip, n.....ly oxclusiv.....", absoluton... Iltldpe,po,uily, uk.n Iit".lly f,om Roman law. Th. oontinuod own.""up of a plo, ofbnd by ony individual, cn-ii or 'rod••"",,;ation th.,..f",. d"", nu, d.pond onwhotl><r " i, being ustd or nol. !'lOti of land thar or' not pnl to .ny u" may..m.!tl '" tlli. oondltion for as lonl" tboir owne" d.si.....en wl><n the" ". aDaround. JOul< n..d f'" land on which 10 pro-<id. ",.It" f'" a la'JO numbet ofpwpl<. Ahhou~,;n the majo' oitl••, .U<h ..,:on' plOlS It< '.xed ,lishtly mot< thant~. buHt.up plots. ,h. amount i' "" low wh.n oOlllp.,..d ",jth th. rna"" .. ,'alu. ofproperty tbat owners of ,uclI pion .,. not .noourOJOd to dispose of tbem by .uch....tion.

The .b"n... '" lack of .nfoto.""n', of ony ".nd"d, 0' 'y,,,m of public0"",,01 ""et th. own..lhip of Iond (plnioularly urban Illtld) h.. bOIl an ad""",effe<1 ;n ""'ny countn•• nol only on pn... bu, al"" on ,h••n'i,onment, Th. ilmiUof ltnd aWlOl'riarion for ,<tll.""n" .t< I.fl to be d.t<m"ned by pn"."'poowar",. who. not infrequently, .x,.nd ,h.m into or... which "" ...ily flood.dor ..ry ,,,,,,,ptibl. to "",ion, into quo"io. 0' " ..n n..,to dumps.

11>< priv.to "",ni-pulation of tit< [0'''' of ,upply .nd d.m.nd. fre. f'"", ""yoffocti'. 1"""n""n':t1 oontroL d<t'l11lin<' \hat hlah price' in the central ., ofolties Iud to ..ry!\iah densities of housiJ\l' RoIati""ly low ptk<. in di"anr " .that oro still m.lnly und.. aJriowtunl u.. similariy '"",,"TiI'" Ir..t build"'."p"n,;oo at very low don.ities wI'h no u,b.n "rvi<:<. and with dimcult 'e«.. to

"nt,.. of employm.nt. Th, low prie.. for .,,"" plo"••""",;aud with Ion~.tmn

monlhly ..palm.nt .ystom•. h..·••noour.sll"d a loTi' numN' of low inrome:"",km '0 oo:oupy .och ..... and bu, ,h. d.ay .t,ain of Ion~. 'w"''', journ.y. '0""d from """I:;,

Thi. u"''''''lroU.d ••p.nsion h...1", r"ull.d in • no'orio'" d".rior.stion of th.na1U,a1I.nlb",pe ,;"". in til< urg< '0 maximi" ' .....nu. from I.nd ..Ie.linle 0' no.tl,ntion i. paid to ,h. provision of open .p..... o'lr,,,,n ....L Publi< I.nd. ""d tobe "00'« in .och ."'...nd. ",h". Ihey <aist.they ar. u.ually i"dfL<"ntly u..d 0'l.f, _m,. In many of Ih. 10'1' aglo<n<"Uon, lU,h ",utl publk land, ...in,'oded by ,h. I"",'.., in<om' I'OUP' "'ho <"'... ,h.i, 'Y"n .n""onmenl: ' .... d/Ii>miW'ia. In most Latin Am.noon ooun'ri... ,uoh ,·ocallll.nd, ar. ofI'. fQund onhiU >l01'" (("oc... Qui'o and Rio d. Jon."o). d..., ......te. (Lim.), lowland.(Gu.oy.quil. ~I..ko City) or narrow ..olley. (Gu.o""",I.~

In Afri'" .nd A,i•• ,h. p<>1'ion i. ""I much differ."', althouAh in Afrk. il h..no, "ach.d .uc:h a" ocut< stage. Ind'w. in some oountrie' in Afri" suoh ..T.....ni•• Zambi••nd ,.... north.m p.n. of Nit.rio. l.ond ;, 011 p"bU,1y own.d,oIthoup. 'h" d<>e1 no'. of ill<lf. IU'ron,.....y 00«:... In oth., pita of Africa.lUoh.. in K.ny. Q, Ghan •• l.nd i. p,i,..,.ly o..,"wa"d sh.lr" provision fo' the w.....,""mb.a of ,h. ur.... communrry i. ,.,h" p,,<ariOUL I" "oj'olIi. Iov<rnmentof"""" out '0 d''''er Ih. sh..,ly 'own•. on Ih. ~round. thal Ihey f.~ '0 me.1offi,ial ".nd"d•. Sin« th. peopl' wh_ sh.l"" h...·• b..n d"lroyt<! h...,.nowh.,. .1"'0 1", th.y simpiY "-build the .lrU<'U"'.•ach 'im< 10. low" quolilyduo th< in.";<abl. f..lin~ of in"""n,y·

In 011 th ... conti..nts, ••"only of ten" .. Ia ..pnled a. the rn(," crili<oI f""orin ,li.inl the qu.luy of sh.i,er .nd .".urin, 'h.t sh.ller provision il und..,.k<n ina way comp"ibl. wi'h 'h, main"n.n« of 1,"".bl....'ironm.nt,1 qu:olity. Th,lO'""menl of Z""'bia. fo' ..ampl<. i, pion=ing an .ffecti" .n<! ..p<drtiooo walof doin~ ,hi, 'h'ouill th. u", of ...ial pho'OVaph. '0 d"ormin' tho loc."on ofindi"!duli unil' and by iuuina permi" th.t oonfer riih" of o."op'ncy.

0.« ,he iss", of lOnU" ;, ..<uml .••riou. olher "."dard. ,on«minl spoc.""".n<! d.nsiti.. belin '0 "",..t,. In .lIth". "lionL th." ar. standard'lo..,ninl the.b. ,,!pl"t> (..d in oonS«ju.n« ~ull<Ji",donu',') whreh h"o b.on osed as a fa"'"of ""'ial .t"tiH<olion .nd ..,.... ,im., <>f ".1 di",rimin"ion ...in" th. poore,I'OUP in "",i"y. In m..y Ar,k.. c<>U/ltn.•. no<ably "ige'ia, 'h, Sud." .nd E~ypt,

,b,.. ",do-<oonomie I'OUP' . I""". middl< ond ul'll<' _ ... ,«opi't<!. A f...o,her ,,,,,ntri... lil:;. Gh.n., ,«osni'. foo,. Fo' ..oh group. plo' si,.. ". d.nnt<!"" ,h. b.... of numbe, of d..·.lJrnl' pe' am" OffICial "and"d plot ,iz....ary fromJOO "l0.re me".. for tho hiih donsiry • .., .. for the low inc"",,, In'Yp 10 o..r 800"l"''' me".. for ,h. 10'" d,nl1'}" ."".. of tho uppe, incom. IrouP, I"d.ed. fo, 1h.Io"er I'OUp plo' .it<. of ""01 4000 "lU'" m.",. a" nOI u"""",mon. Th.implication of th.... "ond"d. be,o""" cl<" wh.n i' i. re.lizWlh.. i" mOSlo"..of 'poIlu...,o. t!<,·.lop"",.,. f.w people ar••ble '0 I<oure pion of 100 "luu,me'",.

Th. ""'ili"" i, ••on mo.. "riou, in La'in An.. ri<:a .nd in A.i•. In tb. formor.l>l<lnl 8uzil .nd A'1'n"'" 'OI"h". ,h. offieu.lly a<"p<abl< ...."re plo,"" fo,low i""om. pwpl< i. 200 "lu,,, me".L By con"..t. in ,h. ,';114 miuTi# 0' !4YtUsplot liU POl dwtlhna II oflen leu Ihln 20 !qua,e mmes. The basil of lhildi"'rep'ncy be' .....n ofT"iol ".nd.,d••nd 'h, .otuol W'}" lh1l,h. rn ..... "..,Iv,

til.., ",.Il., n••d. i. w.J1l1tu.tralod in 'he " .. ofB,..il Ho ... in 1973, in. h.,oic.t1.",p, '0 copt wi,h ,h. "'<1'0' p'obl<m of the low·,n"""", group. 'hol"""nmtn'....blisht<l ,b. P47"" .\"doll,,1 delf.bitOl>W Pup"kJ., (1'..",n.1 u.v.'·("O<1 Bou"n!Plan). PL>\\HAP...i,h ,h. objt<1h. uf ....ilhi~ ..~ j'''rs ~ltmin.,in~ lh,""umul.,.d d.fi,,, and d..linl with lh. d..,.lltng d.m.~d om,nalin, from 'honrMn d.mo,raphi< ,ro.."h.•"imal.d a. t..,o million uni". of famili<' "'ith ,ni"'","" of I '0 3 b"rc ..I...... Ii"ng ,n <it". of 50.000 inJubilan".nd ",·or. Of in,i'''. of big, d.m~raph,c vow'b'. Tb,ny ....'...n 1"" ctn' of ,b. p"l'ula1JOn ofGf<"" Rio.• city ....ah 00. of ,h. hiVt." o.. rln ".ndard. ufh"lnl in 8..,,1. um.... lhan on. b,~< .. I"y .nd the .. ,imat.d d...Uin; d.fr<it .. flf b."k" I~ fo,f.""li.. wilh ,n ,n"""" I""" ,h.n on. b..", ..I.ry .mounltd '0 2.3 m,lIion uni".In ",,,,t. 'bi, pl.n. in 'l"1< of the p'" bol"" "'hrch i' lIIil«l, f.il«l '0 """b a his!>1"'''.n''5< of 'hos< n••d,,,. slltlttr .. ho mU". therdo.... <onllnut 10 m,b do "'i'h1Iou... mo.. comparibl. "'i'b ,b.ir 1...1of m"OIl1'

In Au... the ...r"l' offici.1 plo' silo for the 1"" in"""'" ~,nup' "ruh '0 b.much "",II" and to "ry f""" pi",. to pia« ...n within 'h. sam. country, inlndi•. for in",n«. i' ".bout 60 squ", ",,",,' in Hyd.lllb>d. 66 squ... m inDtlm .nd 95 squm m."" in M;odra~ In ,b. Phihppin.. Lt ,,90 squ'f< m nd~Ial'j~i.o 123 squ". mttr... How.,·".,i,.n the p", ..u" of popularion on l..d inmany par" of <nun'"" such ., Indi•. o,b.. '1I«i>1 pro.i.ion, exist for <upinaom"i.lly with 'b< land n<<<I, of ,he poo,er ..cti"" of the popu"tion. The("""""i,,.. on In'<Jf,,«I Sub.idi..~ Housing S<b.",.. for Ind".,,\>1 \\'ork." .ndE"""orni""lIy \\<lk<r 5«"on. of 'h< Communn;·'<1 up by 'b, lnd ..n ,,,,,emmtn'.ug<Sled .mon, o,h.. 'h,op. ,h. p,.,...i>ion of ,,·h., .'" known a. 'pu<ea' hou...fOT 'hIS class in rhe popul'lion. A 'pu",," hou.. i•• "".11 two-,oom ho".. ofbe, ....." 21 and 33 squ.re mt"" in .in~<. doubl. or mul'i.store~ """","<1ion.Th. plo' .i.. r", .""b sh.h" ,·.ri.. frOll1 50 60 squ'f< me",~

Stand..d. c""c"nml mininwm oocommod.,ion or ,h. mlnlmum .moun' of.p.oe< on • sillJl. room af< also found in rII. ,h.... repon•. In mos, cOuntTI.. ofAfri<a. 'hIS i. 11, I~ squm m.t .... i",lud;ng I "-id'h ,h., i' nur usually I... rII ..2.4 "',,, In rhe Sud.n. how".,. thi. "and..d i. ,.d=d to b""' ••n 3 .n~ lsqu, 1"'. for the low income ~roup "'bil. for the h'lh incom' ,roup" i.u.ually oon.ide..bly moro. Th. h.rIh' of 'oom' " .im,I..ly ,o..m«l by ".nd,m,nol .... 'han 3 mttf<. for ,oom. on ,h. ,,,,und floo, .•1'h<>UJh ,hi. "an d«"... onrnlhe' floo" in a mul"..turey building. In A.... the po<ition" ><>me",h., sunil.. ,The 1970 National Bu;lding Cod. of Indi•. for in,unce.doe' no' ."".p' ony room...."h " .. i... tban 9.S squ"" me".' ••• b.b"abl< room.•nd i' recomm.nd••rrunimnm t>e'p,t of 2.4 mt"tt Ind • minimum "',dth .100 of 2.4 m<".. fOT .nyh.bi,ohl< ,oom. Th. p"'n",n ,n Lotin Arnoricln cnun"..... for f,om d ... ,

Ooc_tlCy rart or tb. mlXimum numbe' of peopl. aliow«l in. ,unm h.. be,nau of 'b, .tand.rd. ",hi"b b.. p,,,,,«1 mo" unr..Ii,li, in "'P"ct '0 ",.Iterp""'ision for peopl' of low in<"",,, I" La"n Am«i"". this mndard il nol cl<orly..,.h out in telms of the number of 1""""" 1"" ,oom but i. ofl.n <~p" d in"Ia'ion '0 'b, usable .re•. Tbu,. for AIlen"n•. 'h" st.ndud " expr d a, 8square tntt ..., I"'r 1""""" On rIIr> b.sis. it w.. found th., in 1%0. fo' the countrya•• whole the ".",go """up,ney rat....... 1.3 po'son. por 'oom. Thi. figu"underlin•• the 8r..t in«jrWrty in ",.I'er p,ovlsion sine< i' "'0"" tb" .mo", 'hemp,er incor'll< <l>ss 'h'" i.l"". unul«l Or liVtrly......d ",""mmod"ion wh~st thepoo,.r d ..... b... to "'''''d to;erb" thr.. 'o fLv< in. 'oom.

I" Mric., "0' an "ountri... p"'l<fil>< maximum ",",up'"")' r"", .I'houJh Ih.,..'" in"a"".. , OS in Ni&""', whoro tho rot< i. no, in Ih. "'iulalion but i. """e'h.I...operat«l ., • p'ofeui""ally.a<:""p'«I "ri,.rion, Thi. SlOndard upoe" '" 'VOl'll.f.mily of 1><,....... 6 10 '0 individuo1l '0 ti•• m a dwelling of botw... 4 '0 5h.bit.bl. room. '" os '0 gj...n occupancy rol. of .ppro.im".ly 'wo por room.Y.,. i' it a ..·.n·known foe' thot occup.n"y ro,., in mo" lo...'·;orome ,000d.n,i.1dimic" ..1')' from 'W<> '0 four

On tne is.u< of st.nd"," fOl I!#ht;,,#. "nrila,i,m Qnd th"",.1 romjon. ,h.position varies in ,he ,h,ee region.. Many countri•• in Alri" hov. e.pllci!"and"d. 10 bo'h Ghan••nd Ni,"r;". for in."n"". th.", art l1.ndaNl. for 'heI<><"ion. siu and oumb.r of doors and windowi. tn both countri... spocilic,..l>tionlhip of ooe-oixlh il meao' '0 I>< main"..«1 I><'..•..n tho 'out optninll(..indO'O" pi ... door) of ",cry rOOlO aod 'he floo' .",•. 10 the E... Mrican countrielof ".ny•• UI.nd••nd Z.mb", ,h.", ore in .ddirion Iptcili"ariool for d.y.lighrinl.Tlti. '«lui,... w, .,..a of"'ind"""1 should be 10 por «n' of Iloor.,...hhoogh thefiaure for Zambia i. only S PO' <oot. In mos, AUon COIUl''''', ,h.,.. .'" nosp«irI""aod"d. on the.. malte" althOllIJl """.in I.ne,al principie. ore '0 be fonow«l intho~ of hou... in "'SPOOI 10 oncnu'ion. lilhutli .nd "mlilotion. However. 'heIndian Nlti"".1 8uildins Code requit.. th.IIU room. for humao habi"'i"" shalln."e on. 0' mo", aportur<' lucb .. window> and fan tilJl .. optninll directly '0 ,h.ox«mol oir or Into an opto v.nndoh and 'hit rho aalI"I"" .... of optninp,oxdudinl door.. sh.U nol b. 1... th.n ""e-«nth of n"", "ea in dry hot dim....• nd ""e·si:<th of floor ar<a io w., hot ctima", h il porn,pl in"rueti.. ,h.. rhoIndian Central Buildi"l R..e""h lo"i,u"," R"",k.. rnve>til.,.d th... 't1nd"d.of I'<otil.,i"" and lighting and th.i, .ffoc' oo...id.ntial d.n.lty and minimum .il.of ,oom' and "1fIl' out ..·lth no "onclu.i•• proof .bout tho b.... of ,h...",I"i""","",. lr i. aloo noticeable that in m""t ..If-bu~, d..'ellinas .",h as in tho"ilia' miurias of latin Ameri"an <iii... I~'" aro hardly .ny wind""",. Usually.th"e io "". oponin& wbi"h i. c"",red wirh a wooden door 0' wi'h a fabric-m.decurt.tin IlJId whi"h .."'.. as tho only SOU"" ofa"""... ventilation.nd iIlumin.,;on,

P.rho", ,h. mos, crilical or....hOf. I~' optrttion of st.nd.rd. h•• lff«I«I thePJ",isi"" of shelter h.. bo<n in tho typo of builditll ""'1<",,1 po'm;ued. T~e be"'''''''Pt. of 'he prolllOttl posed by ,h....tand.rd. i. provid«l by A,!,"Uoa. ,,·he.. a..... dwelli"ll pol"y wos formulat«l in tho n.,c<-Ve., o...1opm<n, Plan(1974_77) of ,h. Go,·"",""n!. Th.. plan ""n"mpllt.. the ""nll'uetioo of&IS.OOO dwellU"op, of which 510,000 would b. frl'llllcod by ,h. NotionalGovomment. Thi. ClIU.. i. more ,hao fi.. tim<. the numb" of d..,.lJinas"",,"true,«I in A'IIen'1na in tho pr<c«li"ll fou, yeo... Th. imp""'.n"tion of Ihispr<:>gnmm' would ~uire '0 in'·..""'n'. by m<an. of dirt., "on'r2I;I. OS ...<111.thrffilih loalUl, of """' S3,4(l(l million from lho publi< ""to,.nd Sl,<XXl millionfrom p'ivltt "'u""''' Th. p,ojOCt i. '0 bo e..cu,«I by the S..,.t.'"d. £>/1,40 d.Vi.'itnJa J' Urllanismo (Notionll Soc,..,,!)' of Houlinl .nd City Plan"in&). and i'take, the form of 'hre. plan•• the Plan Eva P<ton. rho Pl.n 17 d. Octub,...nd 'hePlan Alboroila. Tht Plan AJbo,arIa i. intended fo' Ihe resid.nl' of shanly town.,huts. boarditli-ll.ou... or ina~ua" d...llin,p as w.U as fot ,h. inhlbi'an,. off'''''lit' " ... and for low inc"",. "nan,.. provid.d 'h" th.y h... a ".oiIy job andlIle in J positioo to put aside 20 po, e.nt of theit monlhly incom< 0... a pe'iod or30 yeo" '0 pay for tho" dw.U'np

Whot io porho", moll ligniflcan' .bOllt ,h... dw.lling•. "'hieh a.. r<prd«la. tho

T...lllE 6.1 Plan A1bor,d•. T«hn"'l Sp«,f"'uon. of 'h. Ow.m.. P1.n, Fi.,ot«lby lh, "T¥..lin. Go..,nm••t for the P<ti<xl 197._1977

J C..'"",4 FI,,,,,,.S Zodn6 Wall,

• OuM,.,. ",<f"~',,"'p<n"y• Ou,~""• ..-00.:1••""p<nr?',

" I""",,, ~'p<""y:

" £I""'i< ...inRl

" C., ,"you'

" Ho' .... ,,,

" Sanl,ary.pploMet.

16. H..';06Io"O"'17. l'.intiRl

18. lO'irrdo ..."19.0I/INi""'"

A - One-f.m~;

C<r.mk. <00'"'' Or mi..d ....b.,l1'l«m.i m.ulaHon...phaltie ..,..,Com,pt<d ""minium .nd fib,. o<"",nt

.hw roof .n~ thonn.llJUIo"'tion.F,.. rUMlf ~"j...e.

II - CoUmo>. d..·.1linICO.CT.... C<I.mi< or mi..J "'1><,Th,rm.1 in.ulation 'nd ..ph,lti< ..,..,

Ex",nol' wI.d hm.Int<rn.!; tro..,.U«l sbt.J bm. or "mil>.r hni>h.Trow<l1<J Ilak.J hm. Or .imil&r fin"'h,,...i.. lil••,...... tll... pin....OO<I.Of or~jnuy or hollow brick<, ....m;< Or

<oneW. blo<to. ~in,mum 'hickn... in••«rna! .·.lh of Int "I. con"ruc'io•.

Gin" 0.1 S • 0.1 S motl<l: in b.lthr<>om, up 1o1.60 m.tT...bo... lloor.

Gl.u or .."m;' til.. 0.6Q m.I«. O'ot ki1Cb.ntint.

St>ndord,,,J, of .n .conomi. kinJ r"m.. ofturd ...00<1, .«l" ~OO" lIlo"'n.

St>ndorJind.On. um or b..nch ,nd.n outlot per r<>om.Doorb<U.Fo' stov,. w.w h......nd on< o"tld for room

h..,,,.In batM<>om, kit<h'n .nd l&uo~ry' it ..ill b<

indi\'id "'-l,00', t...o .nd lrn-., b«I,<>om d...<1hnp

A w.", ,Ioo<t wi,h. hd.A whit, e,..rnic .....hb.lllinAn iron kitcll'o lint, two f.u.."Connwion for biJ".

A ",ov, ... ith ,ht.. butn.....d o..nA 10; IJ htre ."'" h,ot", for on, blthroom

.nd. 14116 htr. on' 1o, t...o balhtOOm•.A" outl., for. pO 'OOm hut'r....00<1'0 ""I"ntry' plimi....J oil p.int~."U;c ""peotry' oil ",int .rt,r. ru"p,oof

" ..tm,o'-Ooubk 'nJ 'ronllo<idFront f,oe<: wOO<l pol" 'nd ...it<.Div>:li.. r,oe< w<>od p<>I" .nd thr•• lin.. of

wia,eo"""" 0.04 mot",. thiol: <o.."d with

«r.mic til..

~URO:, lb... "" A"''"'ina. S«n"'..... r......... v_ , U""........ Un ,,,ho "'"~ on,,,••t [>06 '" ,""o~ B.._ .."'~ loIr 1911

ch••pest of the three c"es0ri... u. the m.'''W 'I'O<if1<.,;on. for t"'~

con"ruction. Tolll.6.1 ill""" this in d.t.il. and indlCll" h"", unroal 111mstand.rd. OIn be ...hen comp.red '0 ,h. <cooomic .nd fin.nd.1 capacily of 1II.peopl. fo, ...hom ,h. d....lIin&. are in"ndtd, Th... mat«i.1 .pe'iflc";on' hod '0comply willi .tond,rd••., by ,h. Imtirr.tQ A'I'.millO d' Rod,,,,,,":«;'''' d./IIo,maJ.. (IRA.\l) ...hich cormd",. omon. o'her lII;ngs. fi« pre,.."'ion ,00, u.. fulUfo of d....llings of SO yua. Al1h""gh in «,,>in in.un",.. ,h. IRA!>! could.llowthe use of non·",di,ion,1 m.terW. (c1u<ical and traditional mate,i.ls are "mcr.".bricb. '00 con"." blo<k.) this would «qui" the "antrnl of • C'r/ijludo <1,Ap'irnd Tk<UCQ «"."if1<.,e of T.cllO,cal Fi1nu,).

:-ot une.pectedly, the PI.n Albo,odo h.. hod hul. wcce... By the .nd of AprU1975 I... ,h,n 11.000 d....HrnlP h.d b«n finiih"l, In diff.,,", pro"""". of theOOU""y. aOO th.y "p1cs<nt only 20 per ",nt of tot.1 compl."d dw.lIinp u of th.,d.,e. II i. also claimed w, ,he S)'"em of mortp" «payment d;"rimina,.. reoin"low income f.mill.. and in f..ou, of ,h. middle income f.mib... sin"" 001)1 in theou. of ,h. forme, ..... th, monthly inmtrnenl m.d•• fixed perc.ntli' of 'h,sal.ry. In the OIher ''''0 pia",. d..i£n<d to ..<i.t those ...ith mOlO «sou,,,,•. ,h.in"almen, is odju"<d acco,d,"i to an iOO.. so thll ,h. pe'C<lIU," oflh...lary i'I'O]>r""''' ihould •• much a. possibl. rernain conoun'. Giv.n ,h. chronic: n"u" ofinllotlon in A'I"nrin•. the <If<<1 of this n••ibility i. bound 10 Iud '0 ........ form ofd....IIi"i ""b.idy for ,h. middle 'nd high., inoom< hmHie. bu' no' fo' 'hose;n ,h.lower inoom< b..,k....

M,,,ri.1 " d"d. in Arrie> ond AD' .re oq""Uy un«,lis,ic in 1<rm' of the needof ,h. m for iII.I'n In Ghon,. fOT in.l1n«. the regul";on "'Iu.i'" th.,rnat.,ial fo, U. should comp'i.. 'b,ic:k 0' binck•... composed of sand ooment.soli ",men'. ""lO"t. burnt clay o, ...d ltrne ,00 h..inl' ,."".n« to c",sh~"18 da)~ of 1'10' leu thon 400 Ibs per "lu." lncll of lIDO' horizon,.l .... fo' , ImOUhouse, 1500 lb. pe, "lua" inch if brkks and blocks." sand Or 750 lb. per squ.«inch if blo<ks ." hollow'. Th. sam. "sulation "'Iuir.. that the 'roof""trinl shallbe .... ' ..·ptoof ond shall be <ompos<d ofhoa"" and f.lt. ,lat... til... cottup,.difon, alwtliu.ium. bi'uminou. 0' , ....,,'" "".... reinforced con",t< or ...y oth"'PP'O'o'<d mareri.I·, II 10" furth., l<, Nn the uS< of IrI", 'hatch, mat, orbuten·ou' ti", Of d,um, .. roofing mat.riaL

The IOOi.., N.tiorlal lIuildi"i Cod•. 1970. "l""Uy reprd' the use of "",«rialsIik. b.ri>oo. 'h.tch, <o<onut le..... vw IS ....11 IS mud .. contury to lnodbuildinl practice. In''.od. it re<ommend' tho following:

(.j Found.,i,", _ eo""n, '00 lime concre". brick. "on., ,,..1. ,imb., 'nd'u,khi (morl,,),

(b) Walls-Common burnt ,lay brkb, 'ton••. sand~im. bricks. ,,,no,,t.blo<ks. timbe', «inforc<d ",menl <OII<"t••nd ,,..1;

(c) Roof _ Wood, ~"" ,",;nll.,. reinfo'",d ""m.nt concret< ..,d concrete""lls, brick",um""",,,.,. composit< (M.d.., '<rt_) roof. ,ton. >J.b 0'"joi.t n"",. M.npIore 'iles, <11"....be",," cement shoot..

Fac.d with the need fot «onomy. the IOOi.n Go..rnm.nt in 1974 ..t up •

Committe< ,,"do< th. Join, Secretory, Minisfry of Work< .nd Howling. '0rec"""",nd "",. nont'lS....nd,,,1> and por capito coiling c"'... Thi. Committ..rt<ontrrItnd«l signinclIlt ..riat"'n. in mat,rial ".ndud••nd .tr....d lit. u" ofIoctl mll~rlili il16 .conomic d..igns by 1",;6in. unnecessary Ol"'ninp. i....window••nd duo".

HEALTH A!'D SAMTATlO:'" STA:"'DARDS

AmonJ lit. <II. h..I,h Ind sanitltion "andlrd. those relatillJ '0 war" suppJv .rep<rh.ps <II, "",,, "udal in tOTms of <II, sh.i", n..do of ,h. m..... of '~e peopl<.110..-..", unlil« .p"..... and <l<n.i'y .tlndard. ,"'hi<:h privl'. indIVidual••re",,,n, to allain. "'"1110 IIId IInitllion .,.r<latd. ar. melIlt 10 be ob..rved by publicluthoriti.., Poolly-dey.loped <i"..n o,pniZl'ion. m in df.ct, fhll ,10", Ire noagencies for .",uring ,10.. publoc .u'hotiti.....ork 'o rd. 'h... stlndard..

In ,h. coon"'.. of Alia mi'od. only .bou' SO 1'" cen, of urb.n residen" Ind1<.. 'han 12 p<f «nt of ru,al reoHl."" h.y.oc«" '0. piped ",."r wpply. ~oot oftit. 0,10." 101>0 to mak. do ,"'itlt ,",.11 "afer...hich in••ri.bly i. un"'>l.d .nd "'u.often <o.",i'u,n a ,ul hUlld '0 ,h. h.alth of the population. In most of th...coon,n... h<>w...,. ,h". Ire ot..dard. ind,c."n, ,h. minimum ""wred ,"'>let.upply 1'" hold por dlY. In India, for in.fance. ,h. f'llure i'1 135 Iitrnpefhnd PO'd.y fot tesid'nou wi'h rull nUshinl facHi,ie., Thi. figu«. in fact, "no. fot difr.«n'utb.n con"". beml .. hiah IS 29'0 10" .. per h.ld pet day in Madf", Th. Indian!'.lion.1 Build'''I Cod, 1970 i••il.n, lbou' "'. quah'y of "'at.. IIId .I"m"i"""""".. of dd"k,ni ,.at" o,h.. ,h.n tho u,b.n Wa"t .upply ,y".m., In i.n.fli.qu.li'y ot>ndard' 'p<cir".",," i' usually"" funcnon of publk ~..I'" '."'0"""

In Mtk., Hul< ""pIt,,,,,, p1.~ <on ."",<!ard, for '"~.., oupply.•1I~Ollgh thereIppelt '0 be g.irlelin" fo' 'ho ,plCin~ of public lip<. borehr>le. Ind '" on. It,...only in 1972 'h" ,h. T.nnnilIl GO>'.flIm"" .ppo,nted. C"",mi".. 10 .Stablishminim.m ....ter '.pply ",ndlro. Ind ,h. mo:<imum accep'abl. con",n""ion ofn"",irle in communi'y ,",,,, .upply. Thi. gO'o'.mm<", lSO'/O' po".. pa"i'.lar.tt.ntioo '0 ,he ptoYiuon of ,",.tet '0 i" ';te .. nd ...rvice p,ojec" fot lo,",'-;nc"""housinl. WaI.t i' '.ppiled '0 "cb plo' on. b.ois of 180 1m.. p<r c.pito 1'" d.y.a1'houi!> poopl.lre .ncourq<d '0 boil ,h. ""ter before drin.In•. In lamb.. , 1'"caPIta lve,.. dom."i, con,,,,,,p'iOII i. rt<omnt.r><le<! to be I minimum of 110Ii"•• pe, dlY. In Upndl. ,h. Pllnnina Department in ,h. 1~71~76 De..lopmenlPlan recomm.nd,. for ""'" ,upply in 'h. ru,al &r.... 2.000 people 1'" bore~ol.

ptovided 'ha' ev<'Y 1"= i. wilhin 5 'iiom<".. of a borehol<.Pll1ly b«;.u.. of '~e relati""ly low 1.,..1 of utbanization in Africl. ,h. hu.rd.

ftom inad'qUal' .tt.n"on '0 prol>!<mJI of watet wpply hive nol pressed '" h,,'il)'on <II, con,do.'nu, of gov.rnmcnl. Th. po!.ition '" mil «<peet i' in shlrp.onUI" '0 'hit in latin Amcrici. In A'lIon'inl. for innan",. ,h. n"ionll policy on,,~'" .upply i'1 'onl,oll«l lorply hy tho Ob",. S<mirari4. d'/a Nacii>n (N.tionalSanitary Wo,ks). ,"hic~ mak.. 90 PO' ",n, of ,II in"."m."" in bask llfIitationThi. otpoi..'ion h•• had '0 fac...tiOU' [,"lIIc,,1 problems. 1Ucb 'hit "',po",.n,,,. of the popull1ion wi'h ICC<" '0 pipod public ....., ,upply ,ose in 25y"" only from 43 per con, ,n 1940 '0 50 p<r «n' in 1965. It t"<hod 17 p<r centin 1913, Ho"'''". a ,<c.nt c~lni' in policy me.... <lilt 'h, rm.nci11 """ of 'h."""e<";11 be me' no longer by ,~. n"ion.1 ~O'o'..nm<n' bu, hy ind,,."." ."".'

Sl1Ullion lMl is $UfO 10 d.""... lh. """..s of 10"''' in",,"'" I'OOPS 10 lh..."'"•.A policy on t., qlJ41ity is ,110 pu"""d by lh, OSS "'hioh CltT'" 001 ,h.

n«<101'Y lraly in i" labo,..'o"... ""cordlne 10 p.. ·..lIbh"'<d ".nd.rds. It .1<0adminiSl"S • c<MU'oI policy on building c",,"ruClion, in ord., 10 p....nldiffioulti.s with ,.gard 10 the qU1lily 'nd qU"""'Y of ....", 10 b< p",vid.d""o<>rdiol '0 tho numbo, of "sid.n" pe, uni'. Th." i. In A,ltnno, n" n..i"",1polky on ,h. quoli'y eonlfol of ...n "'''or, Con,,,,1 i. Ief' '0 p,ovine",1,dmini",.tion•.

Th••ipifie,n' propoflion of lb. populo'ion wi'h n" ooe... 10 " ....d ...,It, i.,hu. oond.mn<d ,,, d'pend <lth<r On w.n Or .u,flce ...,,<t. n. d.~t.. of poDulionand h.u,d, from these SOU,,;o, ." otrioUI i...... fot 'h. po<>f<r ..«i"n of ,h.population. Th. Ii'u"ion i. perhlps b." Illu.tr,,,d by B,.,;;. H.", ,n 1970, i' .....<mulmd lh" only S6 pe' ce'" of ovt, 10,3 million d.... Dinl' cl...if",d ,. uTb.n""d .ubu,b.n ....,. conn.",ed '0 the ••n<ral n.,...ork of ,uon;n~w.,,,.' I' w" .lto..,.blish«l 'hOI oniy 40 po' oenl of lh. u,b.n p"Pulotioo .... " ",Dy '"Jlph.dwith100<1 qu,iity "'''or. The" "'m no ",od"dI., ,h. ".,. or fed.roll•••li fo, ..·.,.,qUllity. 'hony> ..,m. " .,. no... IT)'i,,, '0 ..t&blilh .uch llsndard., n. numb"of d....llmJl ..",..:I by 11 ""'r inc,,"sed f,om 1.9 mWion io 1%0 '0 2.S millionin 1970 .lthouy> thli "p"""ed, "lOli•• d"""'loonly 24 pe, ••nt. I>w.U,ngswhich vitr. nol ..",<d by pipe 0' w.lI ,,,", 10 2,2 m,lIion 0' W per cen' of '0111

Wh., i. wiou. >bou' 'hi' Ii'u"ion i. the ex"n' '0 "'hich the ..."er f,om"""·,,,,,ed SOU""" (illCludinl..,nl< piped ....le,) i' h;v.ly poilnled and ,h••ff."of thi. on the h••llh of lh. populo"on. It i. ,n impo,,.nl ,"Uo< of inf.n' m,,,"Ii'y.'h,ouih .n1<,ili••nd o'her form< of dtarrho... T,ble 6" sho.... Ih••,,""~

""".I"i"" be'.....n d."h·r"...nd 'he ~zt of ,h. n,b,n popul"ion 'h" h.. nOsupply of piped dnnkinl w"., in d,ff."n' r<sion. of B",z~,

II i, de., ,h., ....le, 'upply is ••utnci<n,ly <ruoill issue '0 "'qUirt """.".thlnk,nl cOIIcerni"l ".nd.rdl, In p."icula,. li.en ,h. multiple u... of ....ler indom."i, hou .. hold, .nd 'h, f.ct ,h., I... th'n I pe' "nt of ,,,,,'umption Is"",..Uy imbibed. ,h. n<t<l 10 "fik' a b.l.nce bel....en quoli'y .nd quon'"y".ndud, i. 0'" ""''' l(lVemmon" muot «..,lv<, 1, OOn l>t "~utd. for in.u"... lh.,.ffol1, .hould l>t mId. '0 pipe "'01" of I... ,hoo drinkable qu,lity '0 aUho~..hold. "u' thOi rna..;", CJmp'iiJ!' ""ould b. moun ltd. Iik. 'h" in T'n,,"i,.'0 en.ure 'ho< ,he p,oporhoo .<tuolly imbibed i. boiled. A1tern.,i..ly.I"".m..... '

TABLE 6.1 8,.,,;1. Dellh R"o,"d lJ,b.on Popua",," .....i'hou' p,p«! Supply ofDrinkina W"". by R<1"n

!>oulh'''1So~,h

NOflhC.ntre- t

North 1

D<lIh ,."(p<' ,hou.. nd)

42.'945.,917.9698.56

1>8.12

1'<"""''"1' of ,be ",bon populo'ionh'''na no pip<d .upply of dnnk'na"'<le'

28.747.1S1.862.563,0

SOlJRU. ,,.,1. C.."" II< Ilodi<omen,,,,. CUIE. f/4..., dvt<,,,,d. _1t4__,o>. '9- J.p. 'SO, ~"d, II.\·H -'''"''......''''10 d' "'..., ..__.....'0 ... _1><1 ",<_, p••

oouId .nc""..... tho ..... of drinkahle ....., .. i. oommon in co,,""i.. up<>IOd to,1>0 F..""h trtdi,ion in thl. II\lll.r. Th,.;, alr••dy. """,mon p"'etic. in utinAmoriClIl dti••• i""l..lini ,h. 5twlty 'O"'u' ",·h". q".li'y of ,.,.t., i. no' iood .ndwtIere !here 1ft no O1he, schomol fo' diltlibutinl dnnkabl. 1II.It,. Rtduc,mn, in,1>0 1...1 of t...tm.n, should tbon 1>0 comptn....,. by .xt.ndrn~ Ill. supply ofwattr so t1u, it i. ac«..ihl. lo.li housdlold.,

A, willl ,h. ",."" .upply. th. q=tion of m.mt.,nin~ _'"I' ...o<Ivd.deptod. 'ny much on ,h. action of puhlic au,hori,i••. 10 mos, ooun,ri•• of ,h.thr•• "gion•. th.r. i. wually. ",~nl1tion ..qninnl 'hot .vtry bUildi"l shall h... Ol1..., on. I.tri"" or w"or d_' .nd on. h.IIl.-n, Som. ,,,,,ntrl" in Afrio•."""bly ,hoot in E.., Afnco.lnsUt ,h".U bo..... mun h."" ""<I do..". utrin ..art pt,mitt«l only in .ptcial c..... m.inly in ru,al ...... Soch .l.ndard. most b•..... >pi.., tho r••li'y of th. situ."on. in hkh••p.rt f,om 'ho lock of<;ooneetion. of hOll'" '0 pIped ...It'r .uppli hop. proportion of ,b. r.quir.d..ni"!)' ""' .. ha. to be import.d.

Th. p,oblem pos<d by 'hI< .a".,i"" Ii bolt documen'ed in ,h. CIS< of u,inArner;':•. In A'JOnton. about ,...o·,bird. of tho populltlon, .lmo" 13 mmionptopl., ho,. "" ..,«.. to ......g< .ystem•. Only Bo.no. Air•• h.....aUy oxlOn.i",piped .y""",. hut this i.limi,.d '0 tho popublion of Ill. Fed.",1 T.rri'o'r ... hi<;h"pr<>rnts ""Iy 36 pt, «nt of ,h. to,al m"'opoll'... popui"ion, Th. prmtion ioB,uil is simil... II.,. in 1973, only 13,1 pt,con' of ,h. popnl1toon(15.~pt, COntof uman.nd 0.4 p" "n' of , .....1) .... r. conr><c,td '0' l"0tr.I ....·..... o" ...ork.Anoll>or 13,1 ptr con' d.ptnd.d 00 ..plic tank' ""hil" some 29,7 p.r con,d.ptnd.d OIl ,udimon'''y .....11.'.

h.n wIIor•• &,n<ral o"work of ......g..."it.. oxi"'. howe"". Ill" does no'mnn th1l thoro." .doqo". plants fo' Ih. "",m.n, of.mu.n". I"d• .,.. many ofIll. "n,""'"t ,ys..ms thtms.lvt. b«om. coo"n"ators of pollu"o" of.1I kind.,C0I1"'t«l .....'.&' "'.",, .ro d,,,,h"l'd in'o !i,..... 1>,OorlS .0<1 tho 0«....ft.,"coi'iol ••ry miom",1 tr.""",o, or 0000 11.11. In IIli, w.y the problem ofwat..poIln'oon booom.. ",,"., ,ontribnto"i '0 • ri" in ,he infllf'l,ile mort.lit;" "'...0<1"PI"nl tho .m,lone" of tho I.bou, foro< ""hidl deptnd. on suoll poIIu,.d soo,,,,for ilS ..."., 'upply.

Th. situation i. furth.r '1&1"'''«1 in most l'Ii' ,iIi•• by lh...in.nct of "..ioo.,11lf'l~stin. , ...pool''''d ,,~'... n.,.......'<s, Ill....f< oft.n o""n""td '0 tho 11m...1<1 d,al"",. network. prnducrnl ..,i"", p,obl.ms ..ptcially duri"l the romy...""'" Thi. i. pa"i,011lIy th. ca.. in tho rnot,npoh<an di"rict of $,io hulo ,,'hm0"<1 70 pt, <:on' of d,,·.lIonp ... linked '0 dJrtd."in. pri.". "",...ork•.' Th,.,uili"" ,h.t 'o'ho,i';" shoo1d c""sidor Ih. j<lint t,utm.n, of ""'lB' .nd raindisch"Ii"••i"". it i. unlik.ly th" Ill. p"..nl si'o.toon em Ii< modif..d.ub"lIl'ially for a lon, tnn. '0 oomo,

With "pol '0 roJid """t< di_1 ,h." ....,.in ."nd..d...,ul1tinl ...h"individo.1s "'n do, hu, nol ...h" pUb Ii, .u,horiti.. "'UJ! do. Th. "",It is th" ,his i•• "';00' f""o' tod.y in tho .nvi,,,,,men,,,1 COIldition. of lh. 1>'JO "","opcb"n,,01' of de••lopioll rogion., In vtry f.... 'oun,ri., of tho d...lopin, r.gion< i. thor<..ri"". ""n,i"" '0 'his p,oblem. I' i'son.rolly "lIfttd, a. in the bu~dm, ood. ofK.ny., 'ha' ...ry h""" mo.t h.... " mno, of r.fu.. dispnoal. In a ft... ,""ntrie' i'Is fu"h.r .p«ifiod th., rofu" ohn'" should he provid.d for .n hUildio~.",,,.dinlth... stOfey•. Th. p,obl<m como., how".r, ...ith ooIlootion....hich .pin Ii

"J<nerll!ly apud to b< lh, ....poosihibty of public 10th",;,i.... In many counlrit•.tho ....ic, iJ dont by lfu.cb and the ..."e is 0...1I1y dwnp<d in "pe. sV"'''' The..,vie< ""'..ywh". poorly d.,.elopcd be""".. 'h,'" i. neilhtr adequat••quip....."'OOT skilled "",ke". In P,,,zuay, fur (."IIICO. it i, daim<d 'hll ,h...me. orsolld....1. <oIle<ti"" in the <>pitol oity of Awn."", ."""n only 37 pe, ~, of llIehousn. The poo"iOll is SO <"",men "' the IIJjt urtlan conlle' ;" d<v<lopiolcoun"i.. thl! mony urban ,..ident> have hod to install hom< indn,,,'''''. In Bruil.for los1ane<, the burni"1 of I,rbag< ...... unt~ c<",~. obhg1tory in 'partmentII"" and all buildinp of. """am liz' hod 10 h, an indne"'oL Very often ouchi..;n tol> .... '" badly ;n"a1I«l th.. 'I><y oon."'u'•• "no" air poiio"''',men",,<. In Olher in"lUIc". pr;'-"e hOlrtthold. or indo",i.. dump 'hel, plba"Or ......,. into ,,"tIS or lasoon. ,,,,,,<by ..·"'....10' 'hei' poilU1N condition.

E>tll wh.,. public .uthoriti.. cdkc' ,h. """'. the u.. of open '1'''''' for fmll!di.poul ..... f""nd. in Arz.nlina 10' inst.nc., '0 h... 'wo noxious C<Jrl""lu<nCfl.Fin'. 'ho ~inJi«>. ,h.. i. 'ho p,clU"l of morkdabl< .lom.nts from ,h. 'mil p by10... income pe,,,,,,. li'ina in nearby ,rr in the dump i,..lf. h ,io",..percussion. f"" human h.alth, Second. ,h nee of .me" 'nd od""n .nd ,h.po..ibility 'h" ,h. dump miglll h•• "fUJ' for in.."'.nd ,od.n" .bo n~ I'u,all.nliOll. Th. US< of modern dispoasl .,..tem••ud! .. uni"ry pocking i. "ill •• ryrec<n' .nd 'ho g••,,1II ".le of penury of moo, muni<:;plll Or moUopobl.n.utho""" P'" no hope tho, Ih.y can offer any .ffective solu'ion to ,h. problem.

No/" tu>d~;,pollution hov. become ..,iou•••>'ironmo.ral p,oblo"" in ..ry I....de..lopina c,,"nui.., and only in thoot tlrae urban aglo""",ion. which h .,..ched an od,....,w "lI< of indu"'''1 d""opm.n', Th. Indian N.tionll! Bui\dinaCod. (1970) «,.... ".nd.,d. on I"rmiuihl. 1...1, 01 no'.........U•• m.thod. ofnoi" reduc'ion in 1111 buildml' inrend.d for hum•• habi",io•. For in't'n"'. tho"'~"bl. inte,...l noi.. 1....1 i. 'p.rtmo." and homt' is p",""ribw .. lS----40decibel' and Ibi. limit hI' to be "'" 'hro"8h .ite p1.lnnmJ of buildi.... Pl.nning.pin" noise i. mean' '0 b. ",garded .. ." inreg,al p... of 'o...n 'nd eoun'ryp1lnnina practic., ,....i... from repen.1 proposal' '0 derail.d ,onina, 'h".di""nsionll! 1.)'OUts.nd road d..ip within built up ......

In BrllZil, the 001.. probl.m I' said '0 h... ,uehed ..no.. drmtnlkln. in ,h. ''''0mo"opeli'''' sr... of Rio de Janeiro and Sic P.ulo, In ,h. former, the positionbe<..... so unb..",bl< in rho ,,,,,,mor of 1975, d... largely '0 unCO<ltroU.d use ofcor horns. th" ,he mo", no'onou..... of Cop""oIIanl ..'" dectlred • 'Silence A...·and ",mc guard .....,. 'st.blished '0 a"..' .nd Ie')' flO" on"'y mot oris' using hishom. h.vina' 100v "h..., pipe or using noisy b.....,

Th••Ir pollution ol'u"ion i. no'," y« . ••ry ..no.. "«P' in I r.... ,i';'., ,h.most ."tahie of wtli<:h ." Mexico ('I,y .nd sao P.ulo. In sao Panlo. on Jun. 2.1915. a ,o,i< cloud d,<W. hundred. of inh.bl"n" f,o," ,h.1r hom.. in ,h••uburbof Santo Ar>d,. and OIl AlIIu" 14 police hod '0 "",.in ir... relO:l", .. stoning ,h.Saturni. indu"rial pl.n', Th. p,oblem or .nforcinl £llndard, of II!r purity iscompounded by ,h. noed '0 "'oid ",orin, .....y in"""" Ind lhu' compromising'ho pin. of 'CO<Iomic d".lopmen', In Gre"" SOo P.ulo. fo' in""nee,'h... ""ab",,' B,OOO ind"".-..l plan", mos, of them.1ose Or ....n .djac<n' to resid."Ii.1'''''. tlu' ,,, devoted mainly '0 lh. mo,lUurJiclll, .I.ctric, ch.mklll .ndmoch.n;cal seeton, lnd thlt continually .mit dlltielou. pollutan", r'om sulphu,.nd nitrogen compound. '0 sol"nt vlpoUfl. ..pi"".. 1_' Ind hydr"l'D SUlphlt•.

Only 300 of the.. indu'trie, .,. p,""i<l,d with Itlli'p<>llutinl equip.,.n,. 1111ECON>ITIi" notld in 1972 'luI th, "'Ipho' spow'd Oul Ol't' ....,. of til, city',"'bu,b' Is SO bad til" """" workln wu, lOa... to wo'k.'

Tht Sptcil! 5ecrmry of \h~ Envuonment ~ommented in 1975 thot ,hI,tmoaphl" In tho ci,y of Sio I'oulo moy ",'In bt Iotllal. Ihoulfl til", iI no«.mpt.,. study of tho orr.... of pollution on hlalth,'

Tht 1t""..1 ",..m"",nl poo;,lon iI til" poliUllOn control Is f.""ur«l "wh.nsuch cootrol d".. not Int"f,,, witll oconomi' d.....lopmont. bnt in the , ... of any<""ni<l. ooonomic d.....I""""'nt uk.. priOflty".' No,..tII.ieu. in S1<> 1'0010 bymM·Jon,. I91S. tho Su.. Company of Tlchnolosy On !lui, Soni"uon andEn,ironmenl Otrln" (CHESS) wa. inilla<int ' p"limJnary proj«t fo, spocifl<leJj,t"i"" to fight on"i,onm.n,,1 pollu'ion. It h 100 dnwn up 'n .mbltious ptanto "k••n inv.ntory of III pollutinz indu'tri" in Gr r Sio Plulo, '0 <ontrot thlir.rruw""••nd to I<'pond to oomplaints from the populalion within 12 houf'. Th.F.r!<"l G.... rnm.nt h.. olio promulzllod. II,.. (Law 1413) on Au~n" 14, 1975.dllit;lod to d,,,,utraliZ< indu"ri.. f,orn "lu,a1 oru, 'uch .. GI<"" Sio I'oulo and10 I",ouralt Ih. movemlnt of its mos, pollutinll indu",l.. to olher "pon,. Th,law "ipulat.. tha' all 'll.istrn, and fUluI< indumilS in B,azil will 1>0 [or"d 1ooomply with ".ndlnl, to 1>0 d.fined by tho compet.n' authori'l.. in Iho intt,." oftil. w.lf.I<, h••lth.nd ..,urity of til. popuiation.

CO~I~lID1ITY FACIUTIES A~T> SERVICES STAND>\RDS

This .., of ,randord, ...k, 10 dof,nl thl "'".. ofoi,i"n, 10 spocifl< communalfacili'i...nd >o<i.1 ..rvi", such .. eduoation, h..lth. 'eel<"i"" .nd opon lPac••trade .nd CQIfUTI."'". In Itnoral, 'uch ...ndlld' oro "pre..ed In plan doeum.nuInd mo"" plans. and ..ld"", in buildinl oodl'. Wilhin dlv,loprnl region', ..ry f,wOounlrifl !Ia.. ""tII.,.ed to optll OUt ,hI" standard, at til, 1t..1 of indl";,juol.."I.menll .ltho"", th.y.re used in ov.,all n"ion.1 plannina "'l.". Amonl tho<oun'~" wh.r. deHnilion of th... "andlld' " compreh.n';...re lambia .ndlndil. tn Zambia. for i"I0"", IIU. of '.".. and ..",icl· ,esid.ntial d.,..lop"",n,.re "peOled to !la,'. on, "hoo! PO' 494 housoholch. on. oumrnUnlly hall PO'11,400 p<1mod:I, OIl. pl.yin, fi.ld (0./4 h..,lOre) pt, 1000 po,oon. and on, shop(0.06 boollre) PI' 1000 poroon•. Within no'rn.l telid.nti.1 di,tri.c'>, thl I1lnd"d'inolud. on. pre>choul of SO pia.,.. (0.5 hoct".) pet 1000 people, on' prim'rysehoul of 180 pupil< pet "'urn por 1000 poopl' 11.2 h,"",.). on, h..lth,ul>«nt" PO' 10.000 populatJon (0.1 hKtarll. is """kit '"11I (25 m' pt, .IOU)PO' 1000 poopi' and 2 <hops OW 10' uch) PO' 1000 poopll,

In Indi., ••peeutly in tho "",tr<>poli..n IIU', Ih... ...ndlrdu",la""rattly spoltoul. Medium Ind sm.llli..d town. 01 h... tII,i, 'lII1d1,d' of cOOImunity facill,il'lIld ",0:101 .. rviet., aldtoup, th... h ,,", be<n fully .labo"t«! in III "..... In Ih.'""""l'Olit." district of Otl1li. for in,,"nce. mnd"d' for «Iucaliooal fa,ilitl... rep,"",ibed on a n.ighbourhood b.n On. nu""ry "boo! is ••po",.d 10 "rvo I""U'inl dus"r of HG-l000, OIl. primory >choul '0 ..rve. roDd.nu.1 unn of3500-5000, on. high >choul '0 "IV. I ,..iIl,ntlOl planninS 're. of 12,000-1 S,OOO,and "'" coI1OS. 1o ''''il • dist,icl of 150,000. So fir a. 'Pace It.ndard. III""""med, 'hIS< "'" us""Uy worked out on ,h. blm of m,nimum nour .re.,Ippro'im...ly .. on. "IU'''' metro pe' pupil.

Wi,h ""poo' '" mtd""J r..,ili' .... I uniform ".nd..d 'PPO'" to h..·• bee ••dop'ed by mehOj>OJiun Of... in Indi., Fo' ~.n'TJI ho.pilll., ,I><d fOlio of 4 b.d.por 1000 popul.ti"" ;, commonl), ,c,,"p'ed. How.ve,. th. 'PI« "'nd"'l of IS..,re. PO' SOO bod hoIpilll ..",nil' popo!atloo of 125.000 in Dolhi;, 1Omewh.,hi;h.r ,I..n simlllr ""nd'N' in \Iad ..~ l10mblY 0' C.kuu•. For ",c","ion Indopen 'plC". the "",.t., plan "odies in Dolhi Ind I1omb.y mdic". a ren...1"andord of 4 ..,re. pe' 1000 poopl. but. 'on.id.rin~ the d.n.i1i.. i" Ih. bullt.upor... in diff.,.n' ,Ili... mo<!if,.d , ..ndords hi" b••n lUSI.md, Standard' for>hoPplnl fl<;illti., ''''''10 'pelt ou' .1.1>o....ly on •••J,hboumood basi•. In Dolhi.fo, in"onc<. the 0..,,11 ",ndlrn i. Ibou' 6 to 8 VIOl" per HXIO poptI1otiondi.hibuted in .. ryi", p,,,,,,,"i"". in Ill. proposed ro..·ti., hi<rorrny of ,..id.nt",lpI.Inninl Reeen' "udi•• uod""kon in oom< middl<·mc<>m< ,..id.nti,1 ."..in ,h. 'i'y h h""" ••." "'"",n tho inld'qu1Ci•• of th... ",nd.rd. 'nd hOI..",,,led, mOre ,..bst", .orm of 17 >hop. pe, 1000 populltion. Ip'" f,om Ill.1"0"1.100 of .pac< for hlwkm .nd mobil. Vlops.

roSCLUSIO__

F""" Ill. for.~oinl ,nlly,i,. I numbor of iUll<' """CO,nOl! tho "P"r>tlon of.tandard' in ,h. provision of ",.11<, in d..·.loping ooontH.. I><oome oleor, The romi. th. policy "".um within whlOh "andard......t and .nforced. In .irlu.Uy .11,ho ,,,,,,n,,i•• of lho d••'e1opinll "lio,,, con.id."d.lh." i' n" form.1 oommilmeOlof !QVornment '0 K«P' r'.ponsibilily for ,h. p'''''isi"n "f shell" f", ,h. ,.."""'jOHty of the popul.""". It '" "gnif",mt 'h" ,,·h.n • rountry Iik. Indl1 ",n.d'0 lI'O\l< ,ow..d. such. policy. 0 •• of ,h. probl.ms i' had 10 g.-.ppl. with w.. ,h.d.gr« of ".11"" of 'un'.' mnd..d•. I' i' al'" sill"if",nt 'hll "hot th. Indi,n&o.<rnmen, did ..... to> ..due< ,h. ,,,nd.,d.lod press fo' mar< lox.1 , ""h.

In the ,Monee of d<finite poli<Y "" ",.1.., p'ovision. th."fo ""nd"d, inde••lopi", COWltries t.nd to ...... mare" I m..'" of "",i" ,,,,,,nc1ti,,,, thm "' am..n. of rewnoil"'l1 the >h.II., .«d. of 'h. popula.tion wllh the m,in'.n.nee of are.."".bl. 1...1 of .n'it"""",n"l quality. Thoy repre..nt luldelin•• fo< ",.IterprQVi'iarI for 'h. middl. 'nd uppor inoome W'''P'. 'opeo..lly in lh. "rbon ,,,,, ofmos, ooon,ri.. In 'h. de,.lop'", ,.gioo.. They lie so "n,..Ii"i" that 'h.y '"d...rvedly ilI"ored by the ""'j<>ri'y of people in tho" effort' 10 sol.. th•• """n",.11<, n«d,. In ,tit Ibseno. of any "aIi"ic I"idance. ther.fo",. the leti.i"., oftm. I"ge s<gm.n' of ,h. ~P"lation con"iIUl" 'I"'" ,n,·itonmen,al haz.rd Th••"."ion i, mid. mOl...'iou. by tho rell,i••ly ..·••k b"pin",* p""li<>n uf ,h...poopl...ni,h ."""""ges public ,.thonti.. 'a d.r."I, in ob.",cin~ hloi<; ",od.,d,th.",..h·..

Wha, i, ,I<u f,om all ,hi, i, 'hi' ,he d.finition .nd ..fo<<<"",n, of••"i,,,,,,,,,,n,.l "and.nI, can ""Iy I>< m."nin~ful wh'n lh. "mdord.... rel d '0tho c",,'.mpo"ry c""dltion. in a oountry. Th... condition. includ. no' m lytoohnolOlY b.t abo tho ""'i<J-«:""omio si'""i",,. th. di'''ibu'ion of POW" and 'he.ffectiv.n... of politic" o'ganiution. Sh.II" i. on' of the mo" f"nd>men"londprimlry n«d. of poople and i,. mojo, fl«' in the m,n-en.i,,,,,m,n, reIJlion"'ip,A hnvy ,eospomibilily rem on those .genci•• of I"",mment "'hidl ••"blish."nd.nI. desianed '0 innue.ce the n",ure of 'his "l..ion"',p,

NOTES

I. U""od S,"""" R<".,,, "f lh. hP"''' G",uP "" S".d"d S<1""J in Sox ..1910110"", Kmi', Turkey, APdl-M,y 1914 (SOAIESDPn411).

2. Set J01lI#I do BmiUuly:n 1913.l. Id.",.4. 'SAIIESP yoj d,minu" "d« ,1000"""" d' 'SI"''''', f,,!I>. d. Tord., AUJ"" 15.

1915, p, 13.S. 'Th• ..,"'" I,,,n",,. A ,u"'.y ,,1 lI'ml'. Th. £ro."",ill S<plemb« 1. 1971, P

"6. W",d, by Pou"" S""u'i" Stt", SEMA Di«""" on." i., ........ I" v.jo. July30.1915,

7. R.lph C. Polofll'. C"."ol.d. PQh<i<oo ~id~·<o. pp. Ill_ll,