stage 6 syllabus - arc :: assessment resource centre

Chemistry

Stage 6

Syllabus

Amended March 2001

http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au

Original published version updated:October 1999 � Board Bulletin/Official Notices Vol 8 No 8 (BOS 62/99)Nov/Dec 1999 � Board Bulletin/Official Notices Vol 8 No 9 (BOS 67/99)March 2001 � Board Bulletin/Official Notices Vol 10 No 1 (BOS 02/01)April 2001 � Fax Stream sent to Schools.

The Board of Studies owns the copyright on all syllabuses. Schools may reproducethis syllabus in part or in full for bona fide study or classroom purposes only.Acknowledgement of the Board of Studies copyright must be included on anyreproductions. Students may copy reasonable portions of the syllabus for thepurpose of research or study. Any other use of this syllabus must be referred to theCopyright Officer, Board of Studies NSW. Ph: (02) 9367 8111; fax: (02) 9279 1482.

Material on p 5 from Securing Their Future © NSW Government 1997.

© Board of Studies NSW 1999

Published byBoard of Studies NSWGPO Box 5300Sydney NSW 2001Australia

Tel: (02) 9367 8111

Internet: http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au

ISBN 0 7313 4388 3

200217

Contents

1 The Higher School Certificate Program of Study................................................5

2 Rationale for Chemistry in the Stage 6 Curriculum ............................................6

3 Continuum of Learning for Chemistry Stage 6 Students ....................................7

4 Aim ......................................................................................................................8

5 Objectives ...........................................................................................................8

6 Course Structure.................................................................................................9

6.1 Preliminary Course ...................................................................................9

6.2 HSC Course............................................................................................10

6.3 Overview .................................................................................................11

6.4 Other Considerations..............................................................................15

7 Objectives and Outcomes.................................................................................16

7.1 Table of Objectives and Outcomes .........................................................16

7.2 Key Competencies..................................................................................18

8 Content: Chemistry Stage 6 Preliminary Course..............................................19

8.1 Chemistry Skills ......................................................................................19

8.2 The Chemical Earth ................................................................................22

8.3 Metals......................................................................................................28

8.4 Water.......................................................................................................33

8.5 Energy.....................................................................................................39

9 Content: Chemistry Stage 6 HSC Course ........................................................44

9.1 Chemistry Skills ......................................................................................44

9.2 The Identification and Production of Materials .......................................47

9.3 The Acidic Environment ..........................................................................53

9.4 Chemical Monitoring and Management ..................................................58

9.5 Option � Industrial Chemistry................................................................63

9.6 Option � Shipwrecks and Salvage ........................................................68

9.7 Option � The Biochemistry of Movement ..............................................73

9.8 Option � The Chemistry of Art ..............................................................80

9.9 Option � Forensic Chemistry.................................................................86

10 Course Requirements .......................................................................................91

11 Post-school Opportunities .................................................................................92

12 Assessment and Reporting...............................................................................93

12.1 Requirements and Advice.......................................................................93

12.2 Internal Assessment ...............................................................................94

12.3 External Assessment ..............................................................................94

12.4 Board Requirements for the Internal Assessment Mark in Board Developed Courses..................................................................95

12.5 Assessment Components, Weightings and Tasks ..................................96

12.6 HSC External Examination Specifications..............................................98

12.7 Summary of Internal and External Assessment .....................................99

12.8 Reporting Student Performance Against Standards.............................100

1 The Higher School Certificate Program of Study

The purpose of the Higher School Certificate program of study is to:

� provide a curriculum structure which encourages students to completesecondary education;

� foster the intellectual, social and moral development of students, in particulardeveloping their:� knowledge, skills, understanding and attitudes in the fields of study they

choose� capacity to manage their own learning� desire to continue learning in formal or informal settings after school� capacity to work together with others� respect for the cultural diversity of Australian society;

� provide a flexible structure within which students can prepare for:� further education and training� employment� full and active participation as citizens;

� provide formal assessment and certification of students� achievements;� provide a context within which schools also have the opportunity to foster

students� physical and spiritual development.

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Chemistry Stage 6 Syllabus

2 Rationale for Chemistry in the Stage 6 Curriculum

Chemistry in Science Stage 6 provides students with a contemporary and coherentunderstanding of matter and its interactions. It focuses on investigating the physicaland chemical properties of substances, chemical reactions and processes, and theinteraction of energy and matter, and attempts to explain and predict events at theatomic and molecular level.

The study of Chemistry recognises that a study of the nature of materials includesnatural and made substances, their structures, changes and environmentalimportance. The history and philosophy of science as it relates to the developmentof the understanding, utilisation and manipulation of chemical systems is importantin developing current understanding in Chemistry and its applications in the contextsof technology, society and the environment.

Chemistry in Stage 6 draws upon and builds onto the knowledge andunderstanding, skills, and values and attitudes developed in Stages 4�5 Science. Itfurther develops students� understanding of science as a continually developingbody of knowledge, the role of experiment in deciding between competing theories,the provisional nature of scientific explanations, the interdisciplinary nature ofscience, the complex relationship between evidence and ideas and the impact ofscience on society.

The study of Chemistry involves the students working individually and with others inpractical, field and interactive media experiences related to the theoretical conceptsconsidered in the course. It is expected that students studying Chemistry will applyinvestigative and problem-solving skills, effectively communicate the theoreticalconcepts considered in the course and appreciate the contribution that a study ofChemistry makes to our understanding of the world.

The Chemistry Stage 6 course is designed for those students who have asubstantial achievement level based on the Stages 4�5 Science course performancedescriptors. The subject matter of the Chemistry course recognises the differentneeds and interests of students by providing a structure that builds upon thefoundations laid in Stage 5 yet recognises that students entering Stage 6 have awide range of abilities, circumstances and expectations.


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3 Continuum of Learning for Chemistry Stage 6 Students

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Stages 1–3Science and Technology

Stages 4–5

Science

Stage 5

Science Life Skills

For students withspecial education

needs

Stage 6

Chemistry Preliminary

Stage 6

ChemistryScience HSC

Workplace University TAFE Other

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Senior ScienceHSC

Stage 6

Science Life Skills

4 Aim

To provide learning experiences through which students will:� acquire knowledge and understanding about fundamental concepts related to

matter and its interactions, the historical development of those concepts andtheir application to personal, social, economic, technological and environmentalsituations

� progress from the consideration of specific data and knowledge to theunderstanding of models and concepts and to the use of generalised termsrelated to chemistry in their explanations, from the collection and organisation ofinformation to problem-solving and from the use of simple communication skillsto those which are more sophisticated

� develop positive attitudes towards the study of matter and its interactions, theenvironment and opinions held by others, recognising the importance ofevidence and the use of critical evaluation of differing scientific opinions relatedto various aspects of chemistry.

5 Objectives

Students will develop knowledge and understanding of:

1. the history of chemistry2. the nature and practice of chemistry3. applications and uses of chemistry4. the implications of chemistry for society and the environment5. current issues, research and developments in chemistry6. atomic structure, the periodic table and bonding7. energy8. chemical reactions, including acid/base reactions and chemical equilibrium9. carbon chemistry10. stoichiometry.

Students will develop further skills in:

11. planning investigations12. conducting investigations 13. communicating information and understanding14. developing scientific thinking and problem-solving techniques15. working individually and in teams.

Students will develop positive values about and attitudes towards:

16. themselves, others, learning as a lifelong process, chemistry and theenvironment.


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6 Course Structure

The Chemistry Stage 6 Syllabus has a Preliminary course and a HSC course. ThePreliminary and HSC courses are organised into a number of modules. ThePreliminary modules consist of core content that would be covered in 120 indicativehours.

The HSC course consists of core and options organised into a number of modules.The core content covers 90 indicative hours with options covering 30 indicativehours. Students are required to complete one of the options.

Practical experiences are an essential component of both the Preliminary and HSCcourses. Students will complete 80 indicative hours of practical/field work during thePreliminary and HSC courses with no less than 35 indicative hours of practicalexperiences in the HSC course. Practical experiences must include at least oneopen-ended investigation integrating the skills and knowledge and understandingoutcomes in both the Preliminary and HSC courses.

Practical experiences should emphasise hands-on activities including:� undertaking laboratory experiments, including the use of appropriate computer-

based and digital technology� fieldwork� research using the library� research using Internet and digital technologies� the use of computer simulations for modelling or manipulating data� using and reorganising secondary data� the extraction and reorganisation of information in the form of flow charts,

tables, graphs, diagrams, prose and keys� the use of animation, video and film resources to capture/obtain information not

available in other forms.

6.1 Preliminary Course

120 indicative hours

The Preliminary course incorporates the study of :� The Chemical Earth (30 indicative hours)� Metals (30 indicative hours)� Water (30 indicative hours)� Energy (30 indicative hours)

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6.2 HSC Course

120 hours indicative time

The HSC course builds upon the Preliminary course. The Preliminary coursecontains content that is considered assumed knowledge for the HSC course. TheHSC course incorporates the study of:

a) the core which constitutes 90 indicative hours and includes:� The Identification and Production Of Materials (30 indicative hours) � The Acidic Environment (30 indicative hours)� Chemical Monitoring and Management (30 indicative hours)

b) ONE option, which constitutes 30 indicative hours and may comprise any one ofthe following:

� Industrial Chemistry� Shipwrecks and Salvage� The Biochemistry of Movement� The Chemistry of Art� Forensic Chemistry.


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6.3 Overview

The following diagram summarises the relationship between the various elements ofthe course:

Aim

states the overall purpose of the syllabus

Objectives

define in broad terms the knowledge and understanding,skills and values and attitudes

Outcomes

define the intended results of teaching

Content of each module

Contexts

chosen to increase motivation, conceptual meaning, relevance,

literacy and/or confidence

Prescribed Focus Areas Domain

identify emphases that are contains knowledge andapplied to what is understanding, skills and values

being learned and attitudes to be learned

An independent learner

creative, responsible, scientifically literate, confident, ready to take their place as a member of society

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set within a background of ongoing assessment aimed at assisting students to learn

ContextContexts are frameworks devised to assist students to make meaning of thePrescribed Focus Areas and Domain. Contexts are culturally bound and thereforecommunicate meanings that are culturally shaped or defined. Contexts draw on theframework of society in all aspects of everyday life. The contexts for each moduleencourage students to recognise and use their current understanding to furtherdevelop and apply more specialised scientific understanding and knowledge.

Prescribed Focus AreasThe Prescribed Focus Areas are different curriculum emphases or purposesdesigned to increase students� understanding of chemistry as an ever-developingbody of knowledge, the provisional nature of scientific explanations in chemistry, thecomplex relationship between evidence and ideas in chemistry and the impact ofchemistry on society.

The following Prescribed Focus Areas are developed in this syllabus:

History of chemistryKnowledge of the historical background of chemistry is important for an adequateunderstanding of the development of ideas to explain matter and its interactions andthe applications of these ideas in current technologies. Students should developknowledge of:� the developmental nature of our understanding about matter and its interactions� the part that an understanding of matter and its interactions plays in shaping

society � how our understanding of matter and its interactions is influenced by society.

Nature and practice of chemistryA study of chemistry should enable students to participate in scientific activities anddevelop knowledge of the practice of chemistry. Students should also developknowledge of the provisional nature of explanations about natural phenomena andthe complex relationships between:� existing views and the evidence supporting these� the process and methods of exploring, generating, testing and relating ideas � the stimulation provided by technological advances and the constraints imposed on

understanding in chemistry by limitations of current technology which necessitatethe development of the required technology and technological advances.

Applications and uses of scienceSetting the study of chemistry into broader contexts allows students to deal with realproblems and applications. The study of chemistry should increase students'knowledge of:� the relevance, usefulness and applicability of discoveries and ideas related to

chemistry � how increases in our understanding in chemistry have led to the development of

useful technologies and systems


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� the contributions chemistry has made to society with particular emphasis onAustralian achievements.

Implications for society and the environmentChemistry has an impact on our society and the environment and students need todevelop knowledge of the importance of positive values and practices in relation tosociety and the environment. The study of chemistry should enable students todevelop:� understanding of the impact and the role of chemistry in society and the

environment� skills in decision-making about issues concerning chemistry, society and the

environment� an awareness of the social and environmental responsibility of the scientist.

Current issues, research and developments in chemistryIssues and developments related to chemistry are more readily known and moreinformation is available to students than ever before about current issues, researchand developments in chemistry. The syllabus should develop students� knowledge of:� areas currently being researched in chemistry � career opportunities in chemistry and related fields � interpretation and critique of media coverage of events that require an

understanding of some aspect of chemistry.

Domain

Knowledge and understanding

Chemistry presents a particular way of thinking about the world. It encouragesstudents to use inference, deductive reasoning and creativity. It presumes that theinteractions within and between matter in the universe occur in consistent patternsthat can be understood through careful, systematic study.

The course extends the study developed in the Stages 4�5 Science course,particularly in relation to knowledge and understanding of: particle theory of matter;atomic theory; law of conservation of energy; law of conservation of mass;properties of solids, liquids and gases; change of state; elements, compounds andmixtures; chemical reactions; and resource use.

The course builds upon the fundamental knowledge of structures and systems inmatter as well as interrelationships between the living and non-living worlddeveloped in the Stages 4�5 Science course.

Skills

The Chemistry Stage 6 course involves the further development of the skills thatstudents have developed in the Stages 4�5 Science course through a range ofpractical experiences in both the Preliminary and HSC courses. The skills developed in Stages 4�5 are fundamental to Stage 6 where a more sophisticated level will bedeveloped.

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Practical experiences are an essential component of both the Preliminary and HSCcourses. Students will complete 80 indicative hours of practical/field work during thePreliminary and HSC courses with no less than 35 indicative hours of practicalexperiences in the HSC course. Practical experiences have been designed to utiliseand further develop students� expertise in each of the following skill areas:

� planning investigationsThis involves increasing students� skills in: planning and organising activities;effectively using time and resources; selecting appropriate techniques,materials, specimens and equipment to complete activities; establishingpriorities between tasks; and identifying ways of reducing risks when usinglaboratory and field equipment.

� conducting investigationsThis involves increasing students� skills in locating and gathering information for aplanned investigation. It includes increasing students� skills in performing first-handinvestigations, gathering first-hand data and accessing and collecting informationrelevant to Chemistry from secondary sources using a variety of technologies.

� communicating information and understandingThis involves increasing students� skills in processing and presenting information.It includes increasing students� skills in speaking, writing and using nonverbalcommunication such as diagrams, graphs and symbols to convey chemicalinformation and understanding. Throughout the course students becomeincreasingly efficient and competent in the use of both technical terminology andthe form and style required for written and oral communication in Chemistry.

� developing scientific thinking and problem-solving techniquesThis involves further increasing students� skills in clarifying issues and problemsrelevant to Chemistry, framing a possible problem-solving process, developingcreative solutions, anticipating issues that may arise and devising appropriatestrategies to deal with those issues and working through the issues in a logicaland coherent way.

� working individually and in teamsThis involves further increasing students� skills in identifying a collective goal,defining and allocating roles and assuming an increasing variety of roles in workingas an effective member of a team within the agreed timeframe to achieve the goal.Throughout the course students are provided with further opportunities to improvetheir ability to communicate and relate effectively to each other in a team.

Values and attitudes

By reflecting about past, present and future involvement of chemistry with society,students are encouraged to develop positive values and informed critical attitudes.These include a responsible regard for both the living and non-living components of


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the environment, ethical behaviour, a desire for critical evaluation of theconsequences of the applications of science and recognising their responsibility toconserve, protect and maintain the quality of all environments for future generations.

Students are encouraged to develop attitudes on which scientific investigationsdepend, such as curiosity, honesty, flexibility, persistence, critical thinking,willingness to suspend judgement, tolerance of uncertainty and an acceptance ofthe provisional status of scientific knowledge. Students need to balance these withcommitment, tenacity, a willingness to take risks and make informed judgementsand, at times, inflexibility. As well as knowing something of and/or about chemistry,students need to value and appreciate chemistry if they are to become scientificallyliterate persons.

6.4 Other Considerations

Safety Issues

Schools have a legal obligation in relation to safety. Teachers will need to ensurethat they comply with the Occupational Health and Safety Act 1983 (NSW), theDangerous Goods Act 1975 (NSW), the Dangerous Goods Regulation 1978 (NSW)and the Hazardous Substances Regulation 1996 (NSW), as well as system andschool requirements in relation to safety when implementing their programs.

Animal Research ActSchools have a legal responsibility in relation to the welfare of animals. All practicalactivities involving animals must comply with the Animal Research Act 1985 (NSW)as described in the Animals in Schools: Animal Welfare Guidelines for Teachersproduced on behalf of the Schools Animal Care and Ethics Committee (SACEC) bythe NSW Department of Education and Training.

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7 Objectives and Outcomes

7.1 Table of Objectives and Outcomes


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Objectives

Students developknowledge andunderstanding of:

1. the history ofchemistry

2. the nature andpractice of chemistry

3. applications and uses of chemistry

4. implications forsociety and theenvironment

5. current issues,research anddevelopments

6. atomic structure andperiodic table

7. energy

8. chemical reactions

9. carbon chemistry

10. stoichiometryDo

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Preliminary Course Outcomes

A student:

P1. outlines the historicaldevelopment of majorprinciples, concepts andideas in chemistry

P2. applies the processes thatare used to test and validatemodels, theories and laws ofscience with particularemphasis on first-handinvestigations in chemistry

P3. assesses the impact ofparticular technologicaladvances on understandingin chemistry

P4. describes applications ofchemistry which affectsociety or the environment

P5. describes the scientificprinciples employed inparticular areas of researchin chemistry

P6 explains trends andrelationships betweenelements in terms of atomicstructure and bonding

P7. describes chemical changesin terms of energy inputsand outputs

P8. describes factors thatinfluence the type and rateof chemical reactions

P9. relates the uses of carbon tothe unique nature of carbonchemistry

P10. applies simple stoichiometricrelationships

HSC Course Outcomes

A student:

H1. evaluates how majoradvances in scientificunderstanding andtechnology have changedthe direction or nature ofscientific thinking

H2. analyses the ways in whichmodels, theories and laws inchemistry have been testedand validated

H3. assesses the impact ofparticular advances inchemistry on thedevelopment of technologies

H4. assesses the impacts ofapplications of chemistry onsociety and the environment

H5. identifies possible futuredirections of chemicalresearch

H6. explains reactions betweenelements and compounds interms of atomic structuresand periodicity

H7. describes the chemical basisof energy transformations inchemical reactions

H8. assesses the range offactors which influence thetype and rate of chemicalreactions

H9. describes and predictsreactions involving carboncompounds

H10. analyses stoichiometricrelationships

Preliminary Course Outcomes

P11. identifies and implementsimprovements toinvestigation plans

P12. discusses the validity andreliability of data gatheredfrom first-hand investigationsand secondary sources

P13. identifies appropriateterminology and reportingstyles to communicateinformation andunderstanding

P14. draws valid conclusions fromgathered data andinformation

P15. implements strategies towork effectively as anindividual or as a member ofa team

A student:

P16. demonstrates positive valuesabout, and attitude towards,both the living and non-livingcomponents of theenvironment, ethicalbehaviour and a desire for a critical evaluation of theconsequences of theapplications of science

HSC Course Outcomes

H11. justifies the appropriatenessof a particular investigationplan

H12. evaluates ways in whichaccuracy and reliability could be improved ininvestigations

H13. uses terminology and reporting stylesappropriately andsuccessfully to communicate informationand understanding

H14. assesses the validity ofconclusions from gathereddata and information

H15. explains why aninvestigation is bestundertaken individually or by a team

A student:

H16. justifies positive values aboutand attitude towards both theliving and non-livingcomponents of theenvironment, ethicalbehaviour and a desire for critical evaluation of the consequences of theapplications of science

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Do

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11. planninginvestigations

12. conductinginvestigations

13. communicatinginformation andunderstanding

14. developing scientificthinking and problem-solving

15. working individuallyand in teams

Students will developpositive values about andattitudes towards:

16. themselves, others,learning as a lifelongprocess, chemistryand the environment

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7.2 Key Competencies

Chemistry provides the context within which to develop general competenciesessential for the acquisition of effective, higher-order thinking skills necessary forfurther education, work and everyday life.

Key competencies are embedded in the Chemistry Stage 6 Syllabus to enhancestudent learning and are explicit in the objectives and outcomes of the syllabus. Thekey competencies of collecting, analysing and organising information andcommunicating ideas and information reflect core processes of scientific inquiryand the skills identified in the syllabus assist students to continue to develop theirexpertise in these areas.

Students work as individuals and as members of groups to conduct investigations and,through this, the key competencies planning and organising activities and workingwith others and in teams are developed. During investigations, students useappropriate information technologies and so develop the key competency of usingtechnology. The exploration of issues and investigation of problems contributestowards students� development of the key competency solving problems. Finallywhen students analyse statistical evidence, apply mathematical concepts to assistanalysis of data and information and construct table and graphs, they are developingthe key competency using mathematical ideas and techniques.


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8 Content: Chemistry Stage 6 Preliminary Course

8.1 Chemistry Skills

During the Preliminary course it is expected that students will further develop skillsin planning and conducting investigations, communicating information andunderstanding, scientific thinking and problem-solving and working individually andin teams. Each module specifies content through which skill outcomes can beachieved. Teachers should develop activities based on that content to providestudents with opportunities to develop the full range of skills.

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Content

Students:

11.1 identify data sources to:a) analyse complex problems to determine appropriate ways in which

each aspect may be researchedb) determine the type of data which needs to be collected and explain

the qualitative or quantitative analysis that will be required for thisdata to be useful

c) identify the orders of magnitude that will be appropriate and theuncertainty that may be present in the measurement of data

d) identify and use correct units for data that will be collectede) recommend the use of an appropriate technology or strategy for

data collection or gathering information that will assist efficientfuture analysis

11.2 plan first-hand investigations to:a) demonstrate the use of the terms �dependent� and �independent� to

describe variables involved in the investigationb) identify variables that need to be kept constant, develop strategies

to ensure that these variables are kept constant, and demonstratethe use of a control

c) design investigations that allow valid and reliable data andinformation to be collected

d) design and trial procedures to undertake investigations and explainwhy a procedure, a sequence of procedures or repetition ofprocedures is appropriate

e) predict possible issues that may arise during the course of aninvestigation and identify strategies to address these issues ifnecessary

11.3 choose equipment or resources by:a) identifying and/or setting up the most appropriate equipment or

combination of equipment needed to undertake the investigationb) carrying out a risk assessment of intended experimental

procedures and identifying and addressing potential hazardsc) identifying technology that could be used during investigations and

determining its suitability and effectiveness for its potential role inthe procedure or investigations

d) recognising the difference between destructive and non-destructivetesting of material and analysing potentially different results ofthese two procedures

Preliminary CourseOutcomes

A student:

P11. identifies andimplementsimprovements toinvestigation plans

P12. discusses the validityand reliability of datagathered from first-hand investigationsand secondarysources

P13. identifies appropriateterminology andreporting styles tocommunicateinformation andunderstanding


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12.1 perform first-hand investigations by:a) carrying out the planned procedure, recognising where and when

modifications are needed and analysing the effect of theseadjustments

b) efficiently undertaking the planned procedure to minimise hazardsand wastage of resources

c) disposing of any waste materials produced carefully and safelyduring the investigation

d) identifying and using safe work practices during investigations

12.2 gather first-hand information by:a) using appropriate data collection techniques, employing appropriate

technologies including data loggers and sensorsb) measuring, observing and recording results in accessible and

recognisable forms, carrying out repeat trials as appropriate

12.3 gather information from secondary sources by:a) accessing information from a range of resources including popular

scientific journals, digital technologies and the Internet b) practising efficient data collection techniques to identify useful

information in secondary sourcesc) extracting information from numerical data in graphs and tables as

well as from written and spoken material in all its formsd) summarising and collating information from a range of resourcese) identifying practising male and female Australian scientists, the

areas in which they are currently working and information abouttheir research

12.4 process information to:a) assess the accuracy of any measurements and calculations and

the relative importance of the data and information gatheredb) identify and apply appropriate mathematical formulae and conceptsc) best illustrate trends and patterns by selecting and using

appropriate methods, including computer-assisted analysisd) evaluate the relevance of first-hand and secondary information and

data in relation to the area of investigation e) assess the reliability of first-hand and secondary information and

data by considering information from various sourcesf) assess the accuracy of scientific information presented in mass

media by comparison with similar information presented in scientificjournals

13.1 present information by:a) selecting and using appropriate text types or combinations thereof,

for oral and written presentationsb) selecting and using appropriate media to present data and

informationc) selecting and using appropriate methods to acknowledge sources

of informationd) using symbols and formulae to express relationships and using

appropriate units for physical quantitiese) using a variety of pictorial representations to show relationships

and presenting information clearly and succinctlyf) selecting and drawing appropriate graphs to convey information

and relationships clearly and accuratelyg) identifying situations where use of a curve of best fit is appropriate

to present graphical information

P14. draws validconclusions fromgathered data andinformation

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14.1 analyse information to:a) identify trends, patterns and relationships as well as contradictions

in data and informationb) justify inferences and conclusions c) identify and explain how data supports or refutes an hypothesis, a

prediction or a proposed solution to a problem d) predict outcomes and generate plausible explanations related to

the observationse) make and justify generalisations f) use models, including mathematical ones, to explain phenomena

and/or make predictionsg) use cause and effect relationships to explain phenomenah) identify examples of the interconnectedness of ideas or scientific

principles

14.2 solve problems by:a) identifying and explaining the nature of a problemb) describing and selecting from different strategies those which could

be used to solve a problemc) using identified strategies to develop a range of possible solutions

to a particular problemd) evaluating the appropriateness of different strategies for solving an

identified problem

14.3 use available evidence to:a) design and produce creative solutions to problemsb) propose ideas that demonstrate coherence and logical progression

and include correct use of scientific principles and ideasc) apply critical thinking in the consideration of predictions,

hypotheses and the results of investigationsd) formulate cause and effect relationships

8.2 The Chemical Earth

Contextual OutlineThe Earth includes a clearly identifiable biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere andatmosphere. All of these are mixtures of thousands of substances and the use of thispool of resources requires the separation of useful substances. The processes ofseparation will be determined by the physical and chemical properties of the substancesthemselves and the physical and chemical properties of the substances required.

In order to use the Earth�s resources effectively and efficiently, it is necessary tounderstand the properties of the elements and compounds found in mixtures that makeup earth materials. Using an appropriate model of the atom and applying the theoriesand laws of chemistry to the range of earth materials allows a useful classification ofthe materials and a better understanding of the properties of substances.

Assumed KnowledgeDomain: knowledge and understandingRefer to the Science 4–5 Syllabus for the following:5.7.2a identify the atom as the smallest unit of an element and distinguish between

atoms and molecules5.7.3a identify that a new compound is formed by rearranging atoms rather than

creating matter5.7.3b classify compounds into groups based on common chemical characteristics5.7.3c construct word equations from observations and written descriptions of a

range of chemical reactions5.7.3d identify a range of common compounds using their common names and

chemical formulae5.7.3e qualitatively describe reactants and products in decomposition reactions

Outcomes

The main course outcomes to which this module contributes are:

A student:P2 applies the processes that are used to test and validate models, theories and laws

of science with particular emphasis on first-hand investigations in chemistryP3 assesses the impact of particular technological advances on understanding in

chemistryP6 explains trends and relationships between elements in terms of atomic

structure and bondingP10 applies simple stoichiometric relationshipsP11 identifies and implements improvements to investigation plansP12 discusses the validity and reliability of data gathered from first-hand

investigations and secondary sourcesP13 identifies appropriate terminology and reporting styles to communicate

information and understandingP14 draws valid conclusions from gathered data and informationP15 implements strategies to work effectively as an individual or as a member of a teamP16 demonstrates positive values about, and attitude towards, both the living and

non-living components of the environment, ethical behaviour and a desire forcritical evaluation of the consequences of the applications of science.


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1. The living and non-livingcomponents of the Earthcontain mixtures

Students learn to:� recall the difference between

elements, compounds andmixtures in terms of particletheory

� recall that compounds areclassified into groups basedon common chemicalcharacteristics

� identify that the biosphere,lithosphere, hydrosphereand atmosphere containexamples of mixtures ofelements and compounds

� identify and describe uses ofmixtures which are obtainedfrom the Australianenvironment and which areused without the need forseparation procedures

� explain why the elementalcomposition of the Earth isfixed in time

� identify and describeprocedures that can be usedto separate naturallyoccurring mixtures of:� solids of different sizes� solids and liquids� dissolved solids in liquids� liquids� gases

� assess separationtechniques for theirsuitability in separatingexamples of earth materials,identifying the differences inproperties which enablethese separations

� describe situations in whichgravimetric analysis suppliesuseful data for chemists andother scientists

� apply systematic naming ofinorganic compounds(binary compounds,hydroxides, acids, salts ofacids) as they areintroduced in the laboratory

� identify IUPAC names forcarbon compounds as theyare encountered

Students:� identify data sources, plan,

choose equipment andperform a first-handinvestigation to separate thecomponents of a naturallyoccurring or appropriatemixture such as sand, saltand water, and gather first-hand information by carryingout a gravimetric analysis ofthe mixture to estimate itspercentage composition

� identify data sources, gather,process and analyseinformation from secondarysources to identify theindustrial separationprocesses used on amixture obtained from thebiosphere, lithosphere,hydrosphere or atmosphereand use the evidenceavailable to:� identify the properties of

the mixture used in itsseparation

� identify the products ofseparation and their uses

� discuss issues associatedwith wastes from theprocesses used

� identify an impact that theseparation process mayhave had on chemistrysuch as the identificationof new compounds oridentification of the needfor improved techniques

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2. Although most elementsare found in combinationson Earth, some elementsare found uncombined

Students learn to:� identify the five most

abundant (by weight)elements in each of thebiosphere, lithosphere,hydrosphere andatmosphere and describethe most common physicaland chemical forms in whichthey are found

� recall the atom as thesmallest unit of an elementand distinguish betweenatoms and molecules

� explain the relationshipbetween the reactivity of anelement and the likelihood ofits existing as anuncombined element

� classify elements as metals,non-metals and semi-metalsaccording to their physicalproperties

� account for the uses ofmetals and non-metals interms of their physicalproperties

� recall some relationshipsbetween elements using thePeriodic Table

Students:� plan and perform an

investigation to examinesome physical properties,including malleability,hardness and electricalconductivity, and some usesof a range of commonelements to presentinformation about theclassification of elements asmetals, non-metals or semi-metals

� analyse information fromsecondary sources todistinguish the physicalproperties of metals andnon-metals

� solve problems and processinformation from secondarysources and use a PeriodicTable to present informationabout the classification ofelements as:� metals, non-metals and

semi-metals� solids, liquids and gases

at 25ûC and normalatmospheric pressure


24

3. Elements in Earthmaterials are present ascompounds because ofinteractions at the atomiclevel

Students learn to:� recall that matter is made of

particles that arecontinuously moving andinteracting

� recall the model for atomicstructure and the distributionof electrons, protons andneutrons

� describe qualitatively theenergy levels of electrons inatoms

� describe the formation ofions in terms of atomsgaining or losing electrons

� apply the Periodic Table topredict the ions formed byatoms of metals and non-metals

� apply Lewis electron dotstructures to visualise:� the formation of ions� the electron sharing in

some simple molecules� recall that particles with

opposite charges will attracteach other and identify thatthis attraction forms ioniccompounds

� explain why the formula foran ionic compound isempirical

� describe molecules asparticles which can moveindependently of each other

� distinguish betweenmolecules containing oneatom (the noble gases) andmolecules with more thanone atom

� describe the formation ofcovalent molecules in termsof sharing of electrons

� construct formulae forcompounds formed from� ions� atoms sharing electrons

� recall the construction ofword equations fromobservations and writtendescriptions of a range ofreactions

Students:� analyse information by

constructing or using modelsshowing the structure ofmetals, ionic compoundsand covalent compounds

� solve problems, process andanalyse information fromsecondary sources to writeionic equations showingmetal and non-metal atomsforming ions

25


4. Energy is required toextract some elementsfrom their naturallyoccurring sources

Students learn to:� identify the differences

between physical andchemical change in terms ofrearrangement of particles

� summarise the differencesbetween the boiling andelectrolysis of water as anexample of the differencebetween physical andchemical change

� recall qualitative descriptionsof reactants and products indecomposition reactions

� identify light, heat andelectricity as the commonforms of energy that may bereleased or absorbed duringthe decomposition orsynthesis of substances andidentify examples of thesechanges occurring ineveryday life

� explain that the amount ofenergy needed to separateatoms in a compound is anindication of the strength ofthe attraction, or bond,between them

� recall a range of commoncompounds using theircommon names andchemical formulae

� recall that a new substanceis formed by rearrangingatoms rather than creatingmatter

Students:� plan and safely perform a

first-hand investigation toshow the decomposition of acarbonate by heat, usingappropriate tests to identifycarbon dioxide and the oxideas the products of thereactions

� gather information usingfirst-hand or secondarysources to:� observe the effect of light

on silver salts and identifyan application of the useof this reaction

� observe the electrolysis ofwater, analyse theinformation provided asevidence that water is acompound and identify anapplication of the use ofthis reaction

� analyse and presentinformation to model theboiling of water and theelectrolysis of water tracingthe movements of andchanges in arrangements ofmolecules

� gather information fromsecondary sources to relatethe technology ofelectrolysis to the increasedchemical understanding ofthe composition ofcompounds such as water


26

5. The properties of Earth�snatural resources aredetermined by theirbonding and structure

Students learn to:� identify differences between

physical and chemicalproperties of elements,compounds and mixtures

� compare some physical andchemical properties of arange of common oresincluding bauxite and an ironore mined in Australia withthose of the elements fromwhich they are formed

� identify and describe someuses of the ores or materialsfrom the ores

� describe the physicalproperties used to classifycompounds as ionic orcovalent

� distinguish between metallic,ionic and covalent bonds

� describe metals as three-dimensional lattices of ionsin a sea of electrons

� describe ionic compounds interms of repeating three-dimensional lattices of ions

� describe covalentcompounds as molecules oras covalent lattices

� identify common elementsthat exist as molecules or ascovalent lattices

� explain the relationshipbetween the properties ofconductivity and hardnessand the structure of ionic,covalent molecular andcovalent network structures

Students:� perform a first-hand

investigation to compare theproperties of some commonelements in their elementalstate with the properties ofthe compound(s) of theseelements (eg Mg and O)

� choose resources andprocess information fromsecondary sources toconstruct and discuss thelimitations of models of ioniclattices, covalent moleculesand covalent and metalliclattices

� perform an investigation toexamine the physicalproperties of a range ofcommon substances inorder to classify them asmetallic, ionic or covalentsubstances and relate theircharacteristics to their uses

27


8.3 Metals

Contextual OutlineThe cultural development of humans has been closely connected with theirdiscovery of materials and invention of tools to the point where major advances incultural achievement have been described in terms of the materials they learned touse. This has included their use of metals and discoveries of increasinglysophisticated methods of extraction of metals from their ores.

Because metals make up the majority of elements, an examination of the physicaland chemical properties of metals is also an appropriate context in which toconsider the organisation of the common Periodic Table. The development of aPeriodic Table represented a breakthrough in the systematic organisation and studyof chemistry and enabled scientists to predict the discovery of further elements.

Assumed KnowledgeDomain: knowledge and understandingRefer to the Science Stages 4–5 Syllabus for the following:5.7.1b distinguish between elements, using information about the numbers of

protons, neutrons and electrons5.7.1d describe an appropriate model that has been developed to describe atomic

structure5.7.2b describe some relationships between elements using the Periodic Table5.7.3e qualitatively describe reactants and products in the following chemical reactions:

i) corrosionii) acids on metals and carbonatesiii) neutralisation

Outcomes

The main course outcomes to which this module contributes are:A student:P1 outlines the historical development of major principles, concepts and ideas in

chemistryP5 describes the scientific principles employed in particular areas of research in

chemistryP6 explains trends and relationships between elements in terms of atomic

structure and bondingP8 describes the factors that influence the type and rate of chemical reactionsP10 applies simple stoichiometric relationshipsP11 identifies and implements improvements to investigation plansP12 discusses the validity and reliability of data gathered from first-hand

investigations and secondary sourcesP13 identifies appropriate terminology and reporting styles to communicate

information and understandingP14 draws valid conclusions from gathered data and informationP15 implements strategies to work effectively as an individual or as a member of a

teamP16 demonstrates positive values about and attitude towards both the living and



28

1. Metals have beenextracted and used formany thousands of years

Students learn to:� outline and trace some

uses of different metalsthrough history, includingcontemporary uses, asuncombined metals or asalloys

� describe the use of commonalloys including steel, brassand solder and explain howthese relate to theirproperties

� describe an ancient metalextraction process andrecount the separationand/or decompositionprocesses involved

� explain why energy input isnecessary to extract a metalfrom its ore

� recall how to construct wordequations from observationsand written descriptions ofchemical reactions

� construct word and balancedformulae equations ofchemical reactions as theyare encountered

Students:� analyse information from

secondary sources tocompare the properties ofan alloy with those of themetals in the mixture

� gather, process, analyse andpresent information fromsecondary sources on therange of alloys producedand the reasons for theproduction and use of thesealloys

� identify data, chooseresources and processinformation from secondarysources on the reasons whythere are more metalsavailable for people to usenow than there were 200years ago

� gather, process and analyseinformation and use theavailable evidence to relatethe chronology of theBronze Age, the Iron Ageand the modern era andpossible futuredevelopments to aconsideration of thechemistry of metals andtheir extraction

29


2. Metals differ in theirreactivity with otherchemicals and thisinfluences their uses

Students learn to:� recall qualitative descriptions

of reactants and products incorrosion, acids on metalsand carbonates andneutralisation

� describe observablechanges when metals reactwith dilute acid, water andoxygen

� describe and justify thecriteria used to place metalsinto an order of activitybased on their ease ofreaction with oxygen, waterand dilute acids

� identify the reaction ofmetals with acids as anionisation requiring thetransfer of electrons

� identify metals that can reactwith both acids and alkalisand compare the products in each case

� outline examples of theselection of metals fordifferent purposes based on their reactivity, with aparticular emphasis oncurrent developments in the use of metals

� outline the relationshipbetween the relativeactivities of metals and theirpositions on the PeriodicTable

� identify the importance of ionisation energy indetermining the relativereactivity of metals


investigation and/or processinformation from secondarysources to determine themetal activity series

� present graphicalinformation from secondarysources to examineionisation energies of metalsand analyse the data toidentify trends and patterns

� solve problems and analyseinformation from first-handdata or secondary sourcesto write word and balancedformulae equations for thereaction of metals withwater, oxygen, dilute acidand dilute alkalis

� solve problems and analyseinformation from first-handdata or secondary sourcesto write half-equations torepresent the electrontransfer reactions occurringwhen metals react withhydrochloric and dilutesulfuric acids


30

3. As metals and otherelements were discovered,scientists recognised thatpatterns in their physicaland chemical propertiescould be used to organisethe elements into aPeriodic Table

Students learn to:� recall descriptions of some

relationships betweenelements using the PeriodicTable

� recall an appropriate modelthat has been developed todescribe atomic structure

� outline the history of thedevelopment of the PeriodicTable including its origins,the original data used toconstruct it and thepredictions made after itsconstruction

� explain the relationshipbetween the position ofelements in the PeriodicTable, and � electrical conductivity � hardness � ionisation energy � atomic radius � melting point � boiling point � combining power � electronegativity

Students:� process information from

secondary sources todevelop a Periodic Table byrecognising patterns andtrends in the properties ofelements and use availableevidence to predict thecharacteristics of unknownelements both in groups andacross periods

� process information fromsecondary sources to readand interpret tables andgraphs to extract informationabout trends and patterns inthe properties of elements

� process information fromsecondary sources tointerpret and use a numberof different versions of thePeriodic Table

31


4. Energy is required toextract metals from theirores

5. For efficient resource use, industrial chemicalreactions must usemeasured amounts ofeach reactant

6. The relative abundanceand ease of extraction ofmetals influences theirvalue and breadth of usein the community

Students learn to:� define the terms mineral and

ore with reference toeconomic and non-economicdeposits of naturalresources

� describe the separationprocesses, chemicalreactions and energyconsiderations involved inthe extraction of copper fromone of its ores

� describe the relationshipbetween the historical use oftwo common metals andtheir ease of refining andactivity

� recall distinctions betweenelements, using informationabout the numbers ofprotons, neutrons andelectrons

� define the mole as thenumber of atoms in exactly12g of carbon-12(Avogadro�s number)

� compare mass changes insamples of metals whenthey combine with oxygen

� describe the contribution ofGay-Lussac to theunderstanding of gaseousreactions and relate this toan understanding of themole concept

� recount Avogadro�s law anddescribe its importance indeveloping the mole concept

� discuss the importance ofpredicting yield in theidentification, mining andextraction of commercial oredeposits

� distinguish betweenempirical formulae andmolecular formulae

� describe the relationshipbetween the commercialprices of common metals,their actual abundances andrelative costs of production

� explain why ores are non-renewable resources

� recount the steps taken torecycle a named metal suchas aluminium

Students:� choose equipment and

perform a first-handinvestigation to extractcopper from coppercarbonate (malachite orazurite)

� process information fromsecondary sources and usethe available evidence toanalyse:� the chemistry of an

extraction process in anAustralian metal refinery

� the environmental impactof this extraction process

� process information fromsecondary sources tointerpret balanced chemicalequations in terms of moleratios

� perform a first-handinvestigation to measure andidentify the mass ratios ofmetal to non-metal(s) in acommon compound andcalculate its empiricalformula

� solve problems and analyseinformation from secondarysources to performcalculations involvingAvogadro�s number, numberof moles present inreactants and productsusing: n = m

M� process information from

secondary sources toinvestigate the relationshipbetween the volumes ofgases involved in reactionsinvolving a metal and relatethis to an understanding ofthe mole

� justify the increasedrecycling of metals in oursociety and across the world

� analyse information tocompare the cost andenergy expenditure involvedin the extraction ofaluminium from its ore andthe recycling of aluminium


32

8.4 WaterContextual OutlineThe first astronauts who viewed the Earth from space commented on the beauty ofour water-rich blue planet. Earth's position in the solar system enables its retentionof water in solid, liquid and gaseous forms on and around its surface. The particularproperties of the water molecule assisted the evolution of life and continue tosupport life processes.

The concepts of bonding and intermolecular forces are used to increaseunderstanding of the special nature of the water molecule. The chemistry ofsolutions is examined in greater detail to explain the differences between bodies offresh and saline water as well as assisting in the explanation of common chemicalreactions that occur in an aqueous medium.

Assumed KnowledgeDomain: knowledge and understandingRefer to the Science Stages 4–5 Syllabus for the following:5.7.3e qualitatively describe the reactants and products in precipitation reactions5.11.2a relate pollution to contamination by unwanted substances

Outcomes


A student:P2 applies the processes that are used to test and validate models, theories and

laws of science with particular emphasis on first-hand investigations inchemistry

P4 describes applications of chemistry which affect society or the environmentP6 explains trends and relationships between elements in terms of atomic

structure and bondingP7 describes chemical changes in terms of energy inputs and outputsP8 describes factors that influence the type and rate of chemical reactionsP9 relates the uses of carbon to the unique nature of carbon chemistryP10 applies simple stoichiometric relationshipsP11 identifies and implements improvements to investigation plansP12 discusses the validity and reliability of data gathered from first-hand

investigations and secondary sources.P13 identifies appropriate terminology and reporting styles to communicate

information and understandingP14 draws valid conclusions from gathered data and informationP15 implements strategies to work effectively as an individual or as a member of a

teamP16 demonstrates positive values about and attitude towards both the living and


33


1. Water is distributed onEarth as a solid, liquid and gas

Students learn to:� recall the terms, solute,

solvent and solution� recall the importance of

water as a solvent� compare the state,

percentage and distributionof water in the biosphere,lithosphere, hydrosphereand atmosphere

� outline the significance ofthe different states of wateron Earth in terms of wateras:� a constituent of cells and

its role as both a solventand a raw material inmetabolism

� a habitat in whichtemperature extremes areless than nearbyterrestrial habitats

� an agent of weathering ofrocks both as liquid andsolid

� a natural resource forhumans and otherorganisms

Students:� perform an investigation and

gather data to solveproblems and analyseinformation involvingcalculations of the density ofwater as a liquid and a solidusing: density = mass

volume� analyse information by using

models to account for thediffering densities of ice andliquid water

� plan and perform aninvestigation to identify anddescribe the effect of anti-freeze and salt on thefreezing point and/or boilingpoint of water


34

2. The wide distribution andimportance of water onEarth is a consequence ofits molecular structure

Students learn to:� construct Lewis electron dot

structures of water,ammonia and hydrogensulfide to identify thedistribution of electrons

� compare the molecularstructure of water, ammoniaand hydrogen sulfide, thedifferences in their molecularshapes and in their meltingand boiling points

� describe the model whichaccounts for the unequaldistribution of electrons inthe water molecule

� identify the water moleculeas a polar molecule

� describe the attractive forcesbetween polar molecules asdipole-dipole forces

� explain the followingproperties of water in termsof its intermolecular forces:� surface tension� adhesion� cohesion� viscosity� boiling and melting points� hardness and brittleness


secondary sources to graphand compare the boiling andmelting points of water withother similar sizedmolecules

� identify data and processinformation from secondarysources to model thestructure of the watermolecule and effects offorces between watermolecules

� choose equipment andperform first-handinvestigations todemonstrate the followingproperties of water:� surface tension� adhesion� cohesion� viscosity

� gather and processinformation from secondarysources and use theavailable evidence toanalyse the implications ofone of the properties ofwater for plants or animals

35


3. Water is an importantsolvent in biologicalsystems, transportingmaterials into and out of cells. It is the mediumthrough which aquaticorganisms obtain gasesas well as other nutrients

Students learn to:� explain changes, if any, to

particles and give reasonsfor those changes when thefollowing types of chemicalsinteract with water� a soluble ionic compound

such as sodium chloride� a soluble molecular

compound such assucrose

� a soluble or partiallysoluble molecular elementor compound such asiodine, oxygen orhydrogen chloride

� a covalent networkstructure substance suchas silicon or silicondioxide

� a substance with largemolecules, such ascellulose or poly(ethene)

� summarise the relationshipsbetween the bonding typesin common substances andtheir solubilities in water

� analyse the relationshipbetween the solubility ofsubstances in water and thepolar nature of the watermolecule

� explain the relationshipbetween the ionisation ofsome molecules in waterand the formation of acidsand alkaline solutions

� distinguish between diffusionand osmosis involved in themovement of substances inand out of cells and relatethis movement to theparticle theory of matter


investigation to test thesolubilities in water of arange of substances thatinclude ionic, solublemolecular, insolublemolecular, covalent networksand large molecules

� process information fromsecondary sources tovisualise the dissolution inwater of various types ofsubstances and solveproblems by using models toshow the changes that occurin particle arrangement asdissolution occurs


36

4. The concentration of salts in water will varyaccording to theirsolubility, andprecipitation will occurwhen the ions of aninsoluble salt are insolution together

Students learn to:� recall qualitative descriptions

of reactants and products inprecipitation reactions

� identify some combinationsof solutions which willproduce precipitates, usingsolubility data

� describe a model that tracesthe movement of ions whensolution and precipitationoccur

� identify the dynamic natureof ion movement in asaturated dissolution

� describe an example of areversible reaction, notinvolving a saturatedsolution, that eventuallyreaches equilibrium

� describe the molarity of asolution as the number ofmoles of solute per litre ofsolution using: c =

� explain whydifferent measurements ofconcentration are important

� recall the relationshipbetween pollution andcontamination by unwantedsubstances

� explain why theconcentrations of mercuryand other heavy metals aremonitored in naturalwaterways

Students:� solve problems and analyse

information to write ionicequations to represent thedissolution and precipitationof ionic compounds in water

� present information inbalanced chemicalequations and identify theappropriate phasedescriptors � (s), (l), (g),and (aq) � for all chemicalspecies

� perform a first-handinvestigation, using micro-techniques, to compare thesolubility of appropriate saltsin solution throughprecipitation reactions

� process information to carryout simple calculations todescribe the concentrationof given solutions, givenmasses of solute andvolumes of solution

� perform a first-handinvestigation to makesolutions to specified volume-to-volume andmass-to-volumespecifications and dilute themto specified concentrations(cV=constant)

� gather and processinformation from first-handinvestigations or secondarysources to calculate massand concentrationrelationships in precipitationreactions as they areencountered

� gather and processinformation from first-handinvestigations or secondarysources and use availableevidence to discuss theimportance of monitoringconcentrations of heavymetals in industrial wastes

orgather and processinformation from first-handinvestigations or secondarysources and use availableevidence to explain why caremust be taken in choosingsites for disposal of toxicwastes

n��V

37


5. Water has a higher heatcapacity than many otherliquids

Students learn to:� explain what is meant by the

specific heat of a substance� compare the specific heat of

water with a range of othersolvents

� explain and use the equation∆H = �mC∆T

� explain how water�s ability toabsorb heat is used tomeasure energy changes inchemical reactions

� describe dissolutions whichrelease heat as exothermicand give examples

� describe dissolutions whichabsorb heat as endothermicand give examples

� explain endothermic andexothermic dissolutions interms of bond-breaking andbond-making

� explain why water�s ability toabsorb heat is important toaquatic organisms and to lifeon earth generally

� explain what is meant bythermal pollution anddiscuss the implications forlife if a body of water isaffected by thermal pollution

Students:� choose resources and

perform a first-handinvestigation to measure thechange in temperature whensubstances dissolve in waterand calculate the molar heatof solution

� process and presentinformation from secondarysources to assess thelimitations of calorimetryexperiments and designmodifications to equipmentused

� process and presentinformation from secondarysources to compare thespecific heat of water withthat of other solvents anddiscuss the importance ofthis property of water toaquatic life


38

8.5 Energy Contextual OutlineAnthropologists and palaeontologists tell us that one of the important culturalachievements of early humans was the discovery of fire and the invention of ways touse fire. Burning is then one of the most common and oldest chemical reactions.People meet this in their everyday life in such varied ways as lighting a match,cooking with gas and using fires.

The arrival of the industrial revolution and the increased need for fuels to powermachinery mean that humans have become increasingly dependent on fuels. Heat isa major product of the burning process. Most burning of fuels in our society is doneto produce heat for powering machinery, cooking or providing warmth. The efficiencywith which this is done is becoming of increasing concern to society because fossilfuels, which have been the mainstay fuels, are finite and non-renewable.

People are becoming increasingly concerned about the damage done to the Earth�senvironment by careless and inefficient use of fossil fuels. Strategies for the efficientuse of fuels can be assessed in the light of the factors that drive chemical reactions,including combustion. As fossil fuels are carbon compounds, an understanding ofthe structure and properties of simple carbon compounds assists understanding ofthe issues associated with the use of these fuels.

Assumed KnowledgeDomain: knowledge and understandingRefer to the Science Stages 4–5 Syllabus for the following:5.7.3a identify that a new compound is formed by rearranging atoms rather than by creating

matter5.7.3b classify compounds into groups based on common chemical characteristics5.7.3c construct word equations from observations and written descriptions of a range of

reactions5.7.3d identify a range of common compounds using their common names and chemical

formulae5.7.3e qualitatively describe reactants and products in combustion and decomposition reactions

OutcomesThis module contributes to the following Preliminary course outcomes.A student:P3 assesses the impact of particular technological advances on understanding in chemistryP4 describes applications of chemistry which affect society or the environmentP7 describes chemical changes in terms of energy inputs and outputsP8 describes factors that influence the type and rate of chemical reactionsP9 relates the uses of carbon to the unique nature of carbon chemistryP10 applies simple stoichiometric relationshipsP11 identifies and implements improvements to investigation plansP12 discusses the validity and reliability of data gathered from first-hand investigations and

secondary sourcesP13 identifies appropriate terminology and reporting styles to communicate information and

understandingP14 draws valid conclusions from gathered data and informationP15 implements strategies to work effectively as an individual or as a member of a teamP16 demonstrates positive values about and attitude towards both the living and non-living

components of the environment, ethical behaviour and a desire for critical evaluation ofthe consequences of the applications of science.

39


1. Living organisms makehigh energy compounds

2. There is a wide variety ofcarbon compounds

Students learn to:� recall the role of

photosynthesis inecosystems

� outline the role ofphotosynthesis intransforming light energy tochemical energy and recallthe raw materials for thisprocess

� outline the role of theproduction of high energycarbohydrates from carbondioxide as the importantstep in the stabilisation ofthe sun�s energy in a formthat can be used by animalsas well as plants

� identify the photosyntheticorigins of the chemicalenergy in coal, petroleumand natural gas

� describe coal, petroleumand natural gas as naturallysynthesised fuels resultingfrom geological processesacting on carboncompounds

� identify the position ofcarbon in the Periodic Tableand describe its electronconfiguration

� describe the allotropes ofcarbon and relate theirphysical properties to theiratomic arrangement

� identify that carbon can formsingle, double or triplecovalent bonds with othercarbon atoms

� explain the relationshipbetween carbon�s combiningpower and ability to form avariety of bonds and theexistence of a large numberof carbon compounds

Students:� process and present

information from secondarysources to describe theprocesses believed to beinvolved in the formation ofcoal, petroleum or naturalgas

� process and presentinformation from secondarysources on the range ofcompounds found in eithercoal, petroleum or naturalgas and on the location ofdeposits of the selectedfossil fuel in Australia

� perform a first-handinvestigation, analyseinformation and useavailable evidence to modelthe differences in atomicarrangement of graphite,diamond and fullernes

� process and presentinformation from secondarysources on the uses ofcarbon allotropes and relatetheir uses to their physicalproperties

� identify data, and chooseresources from secondarysources such as molecularmodel kits, digitaltechnologies or computersimulations to solveproblems by modelling theformation of single, doubleand triple bonds in simplecarbon compounds


40

3. A variety of carboncompounds are extractedfrom organic sources

Students learn to:� describe the use of

fractional distillation toseparate the components ofpetroleum and identify therelative amounts and uses ofeach fraction obtained

� identify and use thenomenclature for describingstraight-chainedhydrocarbons from C1 to C8

� compare and contrast theproperties of hydrocarbonsC1 to C8 and use the term�homologous series� todescribe a series with thesame functional group

� explain the relationshipbetween the melting point,boiling point and volatility ofthe above hydrocarbons,and their non-polar natureand intermolecular forces(dispersion forces)

� assess the safety issuesassociated with the storageand use of the hydrocarbonsC1 to C8 in view of theirweak intermolecular forces(dispersion forces)


investigation and gather first-hand information using theprocess of fractionaldistillation to separate thecomponents of a mixturesuch as ethanol and water

� process and analyseinformation from secondarysources on the range ofcompounds found in each ofcoal, petroleum and naturalgas

� gather, process and presentinformation on the use offractional distillation inindustry

� plan, identify and gatherdata from secondarysources to model thestructure of hydrocarbonsC1 to C8

� process and presentinformation from secondarysources and use availableevidence to identify safetyissues associated with thestorage and use ofhydrocarbons

41


4. Combustion providesanother opportunity toexamine the conditionsunder which chemicalreactions occur

Students learn to:� describe the indicators of

chemical reactions� recall qualitative descriptions

of reactants and products incombustion reactions

� identify combustion as anexothermic chemicalreaction

� identify the role of a wickand explain the conditionsunder which it is needed

� outline the changes inmolecules during chemicalreactions in terms of bond-breaking and bond-making

� explain that energy isrequired to break bonds andenergy is released whenbonds are formed

� describe the energy neededto begin a chemical reactionas activation energy

� describe the energy profilediagram for bothendothermic and exothermicreactions

� explain the relationshipbetween ignitiontemperature and activationenergy

� identify the sources ofpollution which accompanythe combustion of organiccompounds and explain howthese can be avoided

� describe chemical reactionsby using full balancedchemical equations tosummarise examples ofcomplete and incompletecombustion

Students:� solve problems and perform

a first-hand investigation tomeasure the change inmass when a mixture suchas wood is burned in anopen container

� analyse the structure of aburning candle to identifythe changes of stateinvolved in combustion

� process information fromsecondary sources toidentify and describepractical applications of theuse of a range ofhydrocarbons

� perform first-handinvestigations to observe,and/or process informationfrom secondary sources todescribe examples ofendothermic and exothermicchemical reactions


42

5. The extent and rate ofenergy release areaffected by factors suchas types of reactants

Students learn to:� describe combustion in

terms of slow, spontaneousand explosive reactions andexplain the conditions underwhich these occur

� explain the importance ofcollisions between reactingparticles as a criterion fordetermining reaction rates

� explain the relationshipbetween temperature andthe kinetic energy ofparticles

� describe the role of catalystsin chemical reactions, usinga named industrial catalystas an example

� explain a model of the roleof catalysts in changing therate of chemical reaction

Students:� solve problems, identify

data, perform first-handinvestigations and gatherfirst-hand data whereappropriate, to observe theimpact on reaction rates ofchanging:� temperature� concentration� size of solid particles and of adding catalysts

� use the available evidenceto model the effect oftemperature on collision rateand thus reaction rate

� process information fromsecondary sources toinvestigate the conditionsunder which explosionsoccur and relate these to theimportance of collisionsbetween reacting particles

� analyse information and usethe available evidence torelate the conditions underwhich explosions occur tothe need for safety in workenvironments where fineparticles mix with air

� analyse information fromsecondary sources todevelop models to simulatethe role of catalysts inchanging the rate ofchemical reactions

� process information fromsecondary sources to reporton an example of the use ofcatalysts in industry

43



44

9 Content: Chemistry Stage 6 HSC Course

9.1 Chemistry Skills

During the HSC course it is expected that students will further develop skills inplanning and conducting investigations, communicating information andunderstanding, scientific thinking and problem-solving and working individually andin teams. Each module specifies content through which skill outcomes can beachieved. Teachers should develop activities based on that content to providestudents with opportunities to develop the full range of skills.

HSC Course Outcomes

A student:

H11. justifies theappropriateness of aparticular investigationplan

Content

Students:

11.1 identify data sources to:a) analyse complex problems to determine appropriate ways in which

each aspect may be researchedb) determine the type of data which needs to be collected and explain

the qualitative or quantitative analysis that will be required for thisdata to be useful

c) identify the orders of magnitude that will be appropriate and theuncertainty that may be present in the measurement of data

d) identify and use correct units for data that will be collectede) recommend the use of an appropriate technology or strategy for

data collection or gathering information that will assist efficientfuture analysis

11.2 plan first-hand investigations to:a) demonstrate the use of the terms �dependent� and �independent� to

describe variables involved in the investigationb) identify variables that need to be kept constant, develop strategies

to ensure that these variables are kept constant, and demonstratethe use of a control

c) design investigations that allow valid and reliable data andinformation to be collected

d) design and trial procedures to undertake investigations and explainwhy a procedure, a sequence of procedures or repetition ofprocedures is appropriate

e) predict possible issues that may arise during the course of aninvestigation and identify strategies to address these issues ifnecessary

11.3 choose equipment or resources by:a) identifying and/or setting up the most appropriate equipment or

combination of equipment needed to undertake the investigationb) carrying out a risk assessment of intended experimental

procedures and identifying and addressing potential hazardsc) identifying technology that could be used during investigations and

determining its suitability and effectiveness for its potential role inthe procedure or investigations

d) recognising the difference between destructive and non-destructivetesting of material and analysing potentially different results ofthese two procedures

H12. evaluates ways inwhich accuracy andreliability could beimproved ininvestigations

H13. uses terminology and reporting stylesappropriately andsuccessfully tocommunicateinformation andunderstanding

45


12.1 perform first-hand investigations by:a) carrying out the planned procedure, recognising where and when

modifications are needed and analysing the effect of theseadjustments

b) efficiently undertaking the planned procedure to minimise hazardsand wastage of resources

c) disposing carefully and safely of any waste materials producedduring the investigation

d) identifying and using safe work practices during investigations

12.2 gather first-hand information by:a) using appropriate data collection techniques, employing appropriate

technologies including data loggers and sensorsb) measuring, observing and recording results in accessible and

recognisable forms, carrying out repeat trials as appropriate

12.3 gather information from secondary sources by:a) accessing information from a range of resources including popular

scientific journals, digital technologies and the Internet b) practising efficient data collection techniques to identify useful

information in secondary sourcesc) extracting information from numerical data in graphs and tables as

well as from written and spoken material in all its formsd) summarising and collating information from a range of resourcese) identifying practising male and female Australian scientists, the

areas in which they are currently working and information abouttheir research

12.4 process information to:a) assess the accuracy of any measurements and calculations and

the relative importance of the data and information gatheredb) identify and apply appropriate mathematical formulae and conceptsc) best illustrate trends and patterns by selecting and using

appropriate methods, including computer-assisted analysisd) evaluate the relevance of first-hand and secondary information and

data in relation to the area of investigation e) assess the reliability of first-hand and secondary information and

data by considering information from various sourcesf) assess the accuracy of scientific information presented in mass

media by comparison with similar information presented in scientificjournals

13.1 present information by:a) selecting and using appropriate text types or combinations thereof,

for oral and written presentationsb) selecting and using appropriate media to present data and

informationc) selecting and using appropriate methods to acknowledge sources

of informationd) using symbols and formulae to express relationships and using

appropriate units for physical quantitiese) using a variety of pictorial representations to show relationships

and presenting information clearly and succinctlyf) selecting and drawing appropriate graphs to convey information

and relationships clearly and accuratelyg) identifying situations where use of a curve of best fit is appropriate

to present graphical information

14.1 analyse information to:a) identify trends, patterns and relationships as well as contradictions

in data and informationb) justify inferences and conclusions c) identify and explain how data supports or refutes an hypothesis, a

prediction or a proposed solution to a problem d) predict outcomes and generate plausible explanations related to

the observationse) make and justify generalisations f) use models, including mathematical ones, to explain phenomena

and/or make predictionsg) use cause and effect relationships to explain phenomenah) identify examples of the interconnectedness of ideas or scientific

principles

14.2 solve problems by:a) identifying and explaining the nature of a problemb) describing and selecting from different strategies those which could

be used to solve a problemc) using identified strategies to develop a range of possible solutions

to a particular problemd) evaluating the appropriateness of different strategies for solving an

identified problem

14.3 use available evidence to:a) design and produce creative solutions to problemsb) propose ideas that demonstrate coherence and logical progression

and include correct use of scientific principles and ideasc) apply critical thinking in the consideration of predictions,

hypotheses and the results of investigationsd) formulate cause and effect relationships


46

H14. assesses the validityof conclusions fromgathered data andinformation

9.2 The Identification and Production of Materials

Contextual OutlineHumans have always exploited their natural environment for all their needs includingfood, clothing and shelter. As the cultural development of humans continued, theylooked for a greater variety of materials to cater for their needs.

The twentieth century saw an explosion in both the use of traditional materials andin the research for development of a wider range of materials to satisfy the specialistneeds of space travel and the information technologies. Added to this was areduction in availability of the traditional resources to supply the increasing worldpopulation.

Chemists and chemical engineers continue to play a pivotal role in the search fornew sources of traditional materials such as those from the petrochemical industry.As the fossil organic reserves dwindle, new sources of the organic chemicalspresently used have to be found. In addition, chemists are continually searching forcompounds to be used in the design and production of new materials to replacethose that have been deemed no longer satisfactory for needs.

Outcomes


A student:H4 assesses the impacts of applications of chemistry on society and the

environmentH5 identifies possible future directions of chemical researchH6 explains reactions between elements and compounds in terms of atomic

structures and periodicity H7 describes the chemical basis of energy transformations in chemical

reactionsH8 assesses the range of factors which influence the type and rate of chemical

reactionsH9 describes and predicts reactions involving carbon compoundsH10 analyses stoichiometric relationshipsH11 justifies the appropriateness of a particular investigation plan H12 evaluates ways in which accuracy and reliability could be improved in

investigationsH13 uses terminology and reporting styles appropriately and successfully to

communicate information and understandingH14 assesses the validity of conclusions from gathered data and informationH15 explains why an investigation is best undertaken individually or by a teamH16 demonstrates and justifies positive values about and attitude towards both

the living and non-living components of the environment, ethical behaviourand a desire for critical evaluation of the consequences of the applicationsof science.

47


1. Fossil fuels provide bothenergy and raw materialssuch as ethene, for theproduction of othersubstances

Students learn to:� identify the industrial source

of ethene from the catalyticcracking of some of thefractions from the refining ofpetroleum

� explain that catalyticcracking is an example of anindustrial process thatinvolves surface reactionswith inorganic catalysts

� explain the relationshipbetween the properties ofalkanes and alkenes andtheir non-polar nature andweak dispersion forcesbetween molecules

� identify that ethene, becauseof the high reactivity of itsdouble bond is readilytransformed into manyuseful products

� identify that ethene servesas a monomer from whichpolymers are made

� identify poly(ethene) as anaddition polymer and explainthe meaning of this term

� outline the steps in theproduction of poly(ethene)as an example of acommercially and industriallyimportant polymer

� identify the following ascommercially significantmonomers:� vinyl chloride� acrylonitrile� styrene by both their systematic andcommon names

� account for the uses of thepolymers made from theabove monomers in terms oftheir properties

Students:� identify data, plan and

perform a first-handinvestigation to compare thereactivities of appropriatealkenes with thecorresponding alkanes inbromine water in solution

� gather and presentinformation from first-handor secondary sources towrite equations to representall chemical reactionsencountered

� analyse information fromsecondary sources such ascomputer simulations,molecular model kits andmultimedia resources tomodel the polymerisationprocess and use availableevidence to relate thearrangement of covalentbonds in polymers to theloose coiling andintertwining of polymerstrands


48

2. Some scientists continueto research the extractionof materials and energyfrom biomass to reduceour dependence on fossilfuels

Students learn to:� discuss the need for

alternative sources of thecompounds presentlyobtained from thepetrochemical industry

� explain what is meant by acondensation polymer anddescribe the reactioninvolved when acondensation polymer isformed

� describe the structure ofcellulose and identify it asan example of acondensation polymer foundas a major component ofbiomass

� identify that cellulosecontains the basic carbon-chain structures needed tobuild petrochemicals anddiscuss its potential as a rawmaterial

� assess currentdevelopments in the use ofbiopolymers and describe aprocess currently usedindustrially to producebiopolymers


a first-hand investigation toidentify cellulose andanalyse information toexamine the effect of decaybacteria on cellulose

� process data fromsecondary sources toanalyse the efficiency ofconversion of plant materialto ethanol

� use available evidence togather, process and presentdata from secondarysources and analyseprogress in the developmentand use of a namedbiopolymer. This analysisshould name the specificenzyme(s) used or organismused to synthesise thematerial and an evaluationof the use or potential use ofthe polymer producedrelated to its properties

49


3. Other resources, such asethanol, are readilyavailable from plants.Such renewable resourceswill be of increasingimportance as fossil fuelreserves are depleted

Students learn to:� describe the dehydration of

ethanol to ethene andidentify the need for acatalyst in this process andthe catalyst used

� describe the addition ofwater to ethene resulting inthe production of ethanoland identify the need for acatalyst in this process andthe catalyst used

� describe the uses of ethanolas a solvent and relate thisto the polar nature of theethanol molecule

� outline the use of ethanol asa fuel and explain why it canbe called a renewableresource

� describe conditions underwhich fermentation of sugarsis promoted

� summarise the chemistry ofthe fermentation process

� define the molar heat ofcombustion of a compoundand calculate the value forethanol from first-hand data

� assess the potential ofethanol as an alternativefuel and discuss theadvantages anddisadvantages of its use


secondary sources such asmolecular model kits, digitaltechnologies or computersimulations to model� the addition of water to

ethene� the dehydration of ethanol

� plan, choose equipment andperform a first-handinvestigation to gatherinformation about the rangeof substances which can bedissolved by ethanol

� process information fromsecondary sources tosummarise the processesinvolved in the industrialproduction of ethanol fromsugar cane

� process information fromsecondary sources tosummarise the use ofethanol as an alternative carfuel, evaluating the successof current usage

� solve problems, plan andperform a first-handinvestigation to carry out thefermentation of sucrose andmonitor mass changes

� present information fromsecondary sources bywriting a balanced equationfor the fermentation ofglucose to ethanol

� identify data sources,choose resources andperform a first-handinvestigation to determineand compare heats ofcombustion of at least threeliquid alkanols per gram andper mole


50

4. Electrochemical methodsare important in producingmaterials and makingenergy available

Students learn to:� explain the displacement of

metals from solution interms of transfer of electrons

� identify the relationshipbetween displacement ofmetal ions in solution byother metals to the relativeactivity of metals

� account for changes in theoxidation state of species interms of their loss or gain ofelectrons

� describe and explaingalvanic cells in terms ofoxidation/reduction reactions

� outline the construction ofgalvanic cells and trace thedirection of electron flow

� identify the use the termsanode, cathode, electrodeand electrolyte to describegalvanic cells

� describe the industrial use ofelectrolysis for refining anamed metal identifying� oxidant� reductant � electrolyte used� conditions under which

the electrolysis mustoccur and the reason forthese conditions

� identify an example of theuse of electroplating andexplain why the process isused


investigation to identify theconditions under which agalvanic cell is produced

� perform a first-handinvestigation and gather first-hand information to measurethe difference in potential ofdifferent combinations ofmetals in an electrolytesolution

� gather, process and presentinformation on the structureand chemistry of a dry cellor lead-acid cell andevaluate it in comparison to:� button cell� mercury� vanadium redox cell� lithium� liquid junction photovoltaic

device (eg the Gratzelcell)

in terms of:� chemistry� cost and practicality� impact on society� environmental impact

� solve problems and analyseinformation to calculate thepotential E θ requirement ofnamed electrochemicalprocesses using tables ofstandard potentials and half-equations

51


5. Nuclear chemistryprovides a range ofmaterials to assist intracing and thus betterunderstanding complexchemical reactions

Students learn to:� distinguish between stable

and radioactive isotopes anddescribe the conditionsunder which a nucleus isunstable

� describe how transuranicelements are produced innuclear reactors

� describe how commercialradioisotopes are producedin nuclear reactors

� identify instruments andprocesses that can be usedto detect radiation

� identify one use of a namedradioisotope:� in industry � in medicine� to determine and/or verify

reaction mechanisms inchemistry

� describe the way in whichthe above namedradioisotopes are used andrelate this to the chemicalproperties of theradioisotopes described

Students:� process and analyse

information from secondarysources by using a flowdiagram to trace thesequence of fission productsreleased during the decay ofuranium

� process information fromsecondary sources todescribe recent discoveriesof elements

� use available evidence toanalyse benefits andproblems associated withthe use of radioactiveisotopes in identifiedindustries and medicine


52

9.3 The Acidic Environment

Contextual OutlineAcidic environments exist everywhere. The human body has a slightly acidic skinsurface to assist in disease control and the digestive system operates in both acidicand alkaline environments to assist the breakdown of the biopolymers constitutingfood. Indeed, the metabolic processes of organisms are well adapted to life in acidicor alkaline environments.

Many industries use acidic and basic compounds for a wide range of purposes andthese compounds are found in daily use within the home. Because of this, anawareness of the properties of acids and bases is important for safe handling ofmaterials. Currently, concerns exist about the increased release of acidic and basicsubstances into the environment and the impact of these substances on theenvironment and the organisms within those environments.

Outcomes


A student:H1 evaluates how major advances in scientific understanding and technology

have changed the direction or nature of scientific thinkingH2 analyses the ways in which models, theories and laws in chemistry have

been tested and validatedH6 explains reactions between elements and compounds in terms of atomic



reactionsH9 describes and predicts reactions involving carbon compoundsH10 analyses stoichiometric relationships H11 justifies the appropriateness of a particular investigation plan H12 evaluates ways in which accuracy and reliability could be improved in




53


1. Indicators were firstidentified with theobservation that thecolour of some flowersdepends on soilcomposition

2. While we usually think ofthe air around us asneutral, the atmospherenaturally contains acidicoxides of carbon, nitrogenand sulfur. Theconcentrations of theseacidic oxides have beenincreasing since theIndustrial Revolution

Students learn to:� classify common substances

as acidic, basic or neutral� identify that indicators such

as litmus, phenolphthalein,methyl orange and bromo-thymol blue can be used todetermine the acidic or basicnature of a material over arange, and that the range isidentified by change inindicator colour

� identify and describe someeveryday uses of indicatorsincluding the testing of soilacidity/basicity

� identify oxides of non-metalswhich act as acids anddescribe the conditions underwhich they act as acids

� analyse the position of thesenon-metals in the PeriodicTable and generalise about therelationship between positionof elements in the PeriodicTable and acidity/basicity ofoxides

� define Le Chatelier�s principle� identify factors which can affect

the equilibrium in a reversiblereaction

� describe the solubility ofcarbon dioxide in water undervarious conditions as anequilibrium process and relatethis to Le Chatelier�s principle

� identify natural and industrialsources of sulfur dioxide andoxides of nitrogen

� describe, using equations,examples of chemical reactionswhich release sulfur dioxideand chemical reactions whichrelease oxides of nitrogen

� assess the evidence whichindicates increases inatmospheric concentration ofoxides of sulfur and nitrogen

� calculate volumes of gasesgiven masses of somesubstances in reactions, andcalculate masses ofsubstances given gaseousvolumes, in reactions involvinggases at 0ûC and 101.3kPa or25ûC and 101.3kPa

� explain the formation andeffects of acid rain


investigation to prepare andtest a natural indicator

� identify data and chooseresources to gatherinformation about the colourchanges of a range ofindicators

� solve problems by applyinginformation about the colourchanges of indicators toclassify some householdsubstances as acidic, neutralor basic

� identify data, plan andperform a first-handinvestigation to decarbonatesoft drink and gather data tomeasure the mass changesinvolved and calculate thevolume of gas released at25ûC and 101.3kPa

� process and presentinformation from secondarysources to describe theproperties of sulfur dioxideand the oxides of nitrogen

� choose resources, gatherand analyse informationfrom secondary sources tosummarise the industrialorigins of the above gasesand evaluate reasons forconcern about their releaseinto the environment


54

3. Acids occur in manyfoods, drinks and evenwithin our stomachs

Students learn to:� define acids as proton

donors and describe theionisation of acids in water

� identify acids such as aceticacid (ethanoic acid), citricacid (2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid),vitamin C and hydrochloricacid as naturally occurringacids, and acids such assulfuric acid andhydrobromic acid asmanufactured acids

� describe the use of the pHscale in comparing theconcentrations of acids andalkalis

� describe acids and theirsolutions with theappropriate use of the termsstrong, weak, concentratedand dilute

� identify pH as -log10 [H+] and

explain that a change in pHof 1 means a ten-foldchange in [H

+]

� compare the relativestrengths of equalconcentrations of citric,acetic and hydrochloricacids and relate this to thedegree of ionisation of theirmolecules

� describe the differencebetween a strong and aweak acid in terms of anequilibrium between theintact molecule and its ions


a first-hand investigation touse pH meters/probes andindicators to distinguishbetween acidic, basic andneutral chemicals

� plan and perform a first-hand investigation tomeasure the pH of identicalconcentrations of strong andweak acids

� gather and processinformation from secondarysources to write ionicequations to represent theionisation of acids

� use available evidence tomodel the molecular natureof acids and simulate theionisation of strong andweak acids

� gather and processinformation from secondarysources to explain the use ofacidic oxides such as sulfurdioxide as food additives

� identify data, gather andprocess information fromsecondary sources toidentify examples ofnaturally occurring acids andbases and their chemicalcomposition, and describetheir pH in their naturallyoccurring form

55


4. Because of the prevalenceand importance of acids,they have been used andstudied for hundreds ofyears. Over time, thedefinitions of acid andbase have been refined

Students learn to:� outline the historical

development of ideas aboutacids including those of:� Arrhenius � Lavoisier� Davy

� outline the Brönsted-Lowrytheory of acids and bases

� describe the relationshipbetween an acid and itsconjugate base and a baseand its conjugate acid

� identify a range of saltswhich form acidic, basic orneutral solutions and explaintheir acidic, neutral or basicnature

� identify conjugate acid/basepairs

� identify amphiproticsubstances and writeequations to describe theirbehaviour in acidic andbasic solutions

� outline the Lewis definitionof an acid

� assess the importance ofeach definition in terms ofunderstanding

� identify neutralisation as aproton transfer reactionwhich is exothermic

� describe the correcttechnique for conductingtitrations and preparation ofstandard solutions

� qualitatively describe theeffect of buffers withreference to a specificexample in a natural system

Students:� gather and process

information from secondarysources to trace anddescribe developments inunderstanding anddescribing acid/basereactions and use availableevidence to explain theexpanded view of an acid asdeveloped by Lewis

� choose equipment andperform a first-handinvestigation to identify thepH of a range of saltsolutions

� analyse information fromsecondary sources topredict combining volumesand masses of acids andbases and products inneutralisation reactions

� perform a first-handinvestigation and solveproblems using titrations andincluding the preparation ofstandard solutions, and useavailable evidence toquantitatively andqualitatively describe thereaction between selectedacids and bases

� process information fromsecondary sources to:� visualise the

rearrangement ofparticles, and change inelectrical conductivity andpH, which occurs in thereaction vessel duringtitration

� explain the purpose ofaccuracy during titration

� identify and describemodern analyticalmethods used toaccurately measureconcentrations

� perform a first-handinvestigation to determinethe concentration of acommercial acidic or alkalinesubstance such as vinegar,orange juice or windowcleaner


56

5. Esterification is a naturallyoccurring process whichcan be modelled in thelaboratory

Students learn to:

� describe the differencesbetween the alkanol andalkanoic acid functionalgroups in carboncompounds

� explain the difference inmelting point and boilingpoint caused by the alkanoicacid and alkanol functionalgroups

� identify esterification as thereaction between an acidand an alkanol anddescribe, using equations,examples of esterification

� describe the purpose ofusing concentrated sulfuricacid in esterification forcatalysis and absorption ofwater

� explain the need forrefluxing during esterification

� outline some examples ofthe occurrence, productionand uses of esters


investigation to measuretemperature change duringneutralisation and calculatethe molar heat of reaction

� process information fromsecondary sources tocalculate pH of strong acidsgiven appropriate hydrogenion concentrations

� analyse information fromsecondary sources toassess the use ofneutralisation reactions as asafety measure or tominimise damage inaccidents or chemical spills

� identify data, plan selectequipment and perform afirst-hand investigation toprepare an ester using reflux

� process information fromsecondary sources toidentify and describe theuses of esters as flavoursand perfumes in processedfoods and cosmetics

57


9.4 Chemical Monitoring and Management

Contextual OutlineThe state of our environment is an important issue for society. Pollution of air, landand water in urban, rural and wilderness areas is a phenomenon that affects thehealth and survival of all organisms, including humans. An understanding of thechemical processes involved in interactions in the full range of global environments,including atmosphere and hydrosphere, is indispensable to an understanding of howenvironments behave and change. It is also vital in understanding how technologies,which in part are the result of chemical research, have affected environments. Thismodule encourages discussion of how chemists can assist in reversing orminimising the environmental problems caused by technology and the humandemand for products and services.

Some modern technologies can facilitate the gathering of information about theoccurrence of chemicals � both those occurring in natural environments and thosethat are released as a result of human technological activity. Such technologiesinclude systems that have been developed to quantify and compare amounts ofsubstances, including the mole concept and molarity.

Outcomes


A student:H2 analyses the ways in which models, theories and laws in chemistry have

been tested and validatedH3 assesses the impact of particular advances in chemistry on the development

of technologies H6 explains reactions between elements and compounds in terms of atomic








58

1. Much of the work ofchemists involvesmonitoring the reactantsand products of reactionsand managing reactionconditions

2. Chemical processes inindustry requiremonitoring andmanagement to maximiseproduction and ensurequality control

Students learn to:� outline the role of a chemist

employed in a namedindustry or enterprise,identifying the branch ofchemistry undertaken by thechemist and explaining achemical principle that thechemist uses

� describe an example of achemical reaction such ascombustion, where reactantsform different productsunder different conditionsand thus would needmonitoring

� identify and describe theindustrial uses of ammonia

� identify that ammonia canbe synthesised from itscomponent gases, nitrogenand hydrogen

� describe that synthesis ofammonia occurs as areversible reaction that willreach equilibrium

� identify the reaction ofhydrogen with nitrogen asexothermic

� explain why the rate ofreaction is increased byhigher temperatures

� explain why the yield ofproduct in the Haberprocess is reduced at highertemperatures using LeChatelier�s principle

� explain why the Haberprocess is based on adelicate balancing actinvolving reaction energy,reaction rate and equilibrium

� explain that the use of acatalyst will lower thereaction temperaturerequired and identify thecatalyst(s) used in the Haberprocess

� analyse the impact ofincreased pressure on thesystem involved in the Haberprocess

� explain why monitoring ofthe reaction vessel used inthe Haber process is crucialand discuss the monitoringrequired

Students:� gather, process and present

information from secondarysources about the work ofpractising scientistsidentifying:� the variety of chemical

occupations� a specific chemical

occupation for moredetailed study

� gather and processinformation from secondarysources to describe theconditions under whichHaber developed theindustrial synthesis ofammonia and evaluate itssignificance at that time inworld history

� gather and processinformation from secondarysources to performcalculations to demonstratethe effect of volume,temperature andconcentration changes onproduct formation in theHaber process

59


3. Manufactured products,including food, drugs andhousehold chemicals, areanalysed to determine orensure their chemicalcomposition and/or energycontent

Students learn to:� describe chemical tests to

identify the following:anions:

� phosphate� sulfate� carbonate� chloride

cations:� barium� calcium� lead� copper� iron

� deduce the ions present in asample from the results ofthese tests

� describe the use of atomicabsorption spectroscopy(AAS) in detectingconcentrations of metal ionsin solutions and assess itsimpact on scientificunderstanding of the effectsof trace elements

Students:� perform first-hand

investigations to carry out arange of tests, includingflame tests, or useinformation from secondarysources to identify thefollowing ions:� phosphate� sulfate� carbonate� chloride� barium� calcium� lead� copper� iron

� gather, process and presentinformation to describe andexplain evidence for theneed to monitor levels ofone of the above ions insubstances used in society

� identify data, plan, selectequipment and perform first-hand investigations toanalyse the:� phosphorus content in

detergent� nitrogen content of

fertiliser� sulfate content of lawn

food or fertiliser� ethanol in wine or beer� citric acid in orange juiceand explain the chemistryinvolved in each case

� analyse information toevaluate the reliability of theresults of one of the aboveinvestigations and topropose solutions toproblems encountered in theprocedure

� solve problems by devising aprocedure that could beused to identify the watercontent, alcohol content andaspirin content of a medicine

� gather, process and presentinformation to interpretsecondary data from AASmeasurements and evaluatethe effectiveness of this inpollution control


60

4. Human activity hascaused changes in thecomposition and thestructure of theatmosphere. Chemistsmonitor these changes sothat further damage canbe limited

Students learn to:� describe the composition

and layered structure of theatmosphere

� identify the main pollutantsfound in the atmosphere andtheir sources

� describe ozone as amolecule able to act both asan upper atmosphere UVradiation shield and a loweratmosphere pollutant

� describe the formation of acoordinate covalent bond

� demonstrate the formation ofcoordinate covalent bondsusing Lewis electron dotstructures

� compare the properties ofthe oxygen allotropes O2

and O3 and account for themon the basis of molecularstructure and bonding

� compare the properties ofthe gaseous forms ofoxygen and the oxygen freeradical

� explain the effects ofultraviolet radiation on manypolymers including those inliving tissue

� identify the origins ofchlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)and halogens in theatmosphere

� identify and systematicallyname straight chainhaloalkanes and alkeneswith up to eight carbonatoms

� identify and name examplesof isomers (excludinggeometrical and optical) ofhaloalkanes up to eightcarbon atoms

� discuss the problemsassociated with the use ofCFCs and assess theeffectiveness of steps takento alleviate these problems

� analyse the informationavailable that indicateschanges in atmosphericozone concentrations,describe the changesobserved and explain howthis information wasobtained


information from secondarysources to compareamounts of components ofthe atmosphere by moles,by mass, by volume and bypart per million

� present information fromsecondary sources to writethe equations to show thereactions involving CFCsand ozone to demonstratethe removal of ozone fromthe atmosphere

� gather, process and presentinformation from secondarysources includingsimulations, molecularmodel kits or pictorialrepresentations to modelisomers of haloalkanes

� gather, process and presentinformation from secondarysources such as visualmodels to identify the effectof UV radiation on biologicalmolecules

� present information fromsecondary sources toidentify alternative chemicalsused to replace CFCs andevaluate the effectiveness oftheir use as a replacementfor CFCs

61


5. Human activity alsoimpacts on waterways.Chemical monitoring andmanagement assists inproviding safe water forhuman use and to protectthe habitats of otherorganisms

Students learn to:� identify and describe tests

that can be used todetermine the quality ofwater samples as:� concentrations of

common ions� total dissolved solids� hardness� turbidity� acidity� dissolved oxygen and

biochemical oxygendemand

� nitrogen-to-phosphorusratio

� identify factors that affect theconcentrations of a range ofions in solution in naturalbodies of water such asrivers and oceans

� describe and assesstechniques for accuratedetermination of masses ofsolids in water samples

� describe and assess theeffectiveness of methodsused to purify and sanitisemass water supplies

� describe the design andcomposition of microscopicmembrane filters andexplain how they purifycontaminated water

� identify the need forcollaboration betweenchemists as they collect andanalyse data


investigations to usequalitative and quantitativetests to analyse andcompare the quality of watersamples

� gather, process and presentinformation on the range andchemistry of the tests usedto:� identify heavy metal

pollution of water� monitor possible

eutrophication ofwaterways

� perform first-handinvestigations to test forsolids in water samples fromthe local environment

� gather, process and presentinformation on the featuresof the local town watersupply in terms of:� catchment area � possible sources of

contamination in thiscatchment

� chemical tests available todetermine levels andtypes of contaminants

� physical and chemicalprocesses used to purifywater

� chemical additives in thewater and the reasons forthe presence of theseadditives


62

9.5 Option � Industrial Chemistry

Contextual OutlineIndustry uses chemical reactions to produce chemicals for use by society. Thismodule develops the ideas that some chemicals have been produced to replacenaturally occurring chemicals that are no longer available or are not economicallyviable. The concepts of qualitative and quantitative equilibrium are furtherdeveloped, as these are important processes in industry.

Industrial chemical processes cover the full range of reactions but concentration onsome case studies is sufficient to illustrate the range of reactions and the role ofchemists and chemical engineers involved in these processes. This allows someinsight into the qualitative and quantitative aspects of the chemical industry andallows a consideration of the analytical processes and monitoring that is necessaryfor efficient production.

Outcomes


A student:H1 evaluates how major advances in scientific understanding and technology

have changed the direction or nature of scientific thinkingH3 assesses the impact of particular advances in chemistry on the development

of technologies H5 identifies possible future directions of chemical researchH7 describes the chemical basis of energy transformations in chemical






63


1. Industrial chemistryprocesses have enabledscientists to developreplacements for naturalproducts

2. Many industrial processesconsist of equilibriumreactions

Students learn to:� discuss the issues

associated with shrinkingworld resources with regardto one identified naturalproduct, identifying thereplacement materials usedand/or current research inplace to find a replacementfor the named material

� explain the effect ofchanging the followingfactors on identifiedequilibrium reactions� pressure� volume� concentration� temperature

� interpret the equilibriumconstant expression (nounits required) from thechemical equation ofequilibrium reactions

� identify that temperature isthe only factor that changesthe value of the equilibriumconstant (K)

Students:� identify data, gather and

process information toidentify and discuss theissues associated with theincreased need for a named natural resource and evaluate the progresscurrently being made tosolve the problems identified

� identify data, plan andperform a first-handinvestigation to model anequilibrium reaction

� choose equipment andperform a first-handinvestigation to gatherinformation and qualitativelyanalyse an equilibriumreaction

� process and presentinformation from secondarysources to calculate K froma mixture of initial andequilibrium conditions


64

3. Sulfuric acid is one of themost important industrialchemicals

Students learn to:� outline three uses of sulfuric

acid in industry� describe the processes used

to extract sulfur from mineraldeposits, identifying thephysical properties of sulfurwhich allow its extractionand analysing potentialenvironmental issues thatmay be associated with itsextraction

� outline the steps andconditions necessary for theindustrial production ofH2SO4 from its raw materials

� describe the reactionconditions necessary for theproduction of SO2 and SO3

� apply the relationshipbetween rates of reactionand equilibrium conditions tothe production of SO2 andSO3

� describe, using examples,the reactions of sulfuric acidacting as:� an oxidising agent� a dehydrating agent� a means of precipitating

insoluble sulfates� describe and explain the

exothermic nature of sulfuricacid ionisation

� identify and describe safetyprecautions that must betaken when using anddiluting concentrated sulfuricacid


information from secondarysources to describe thesteps and chemistryinvolved in the industrialproduction of H2SO4 and useavailable evidence toanalyse the process topredict ways in which theoutput of sulfuric acid canbe maximised

� perform first-handinvestigations to observe thereactions of sulfuric acidacting as:� an oxidising agent� a dehydrating agent� a means of precipitating

insoluble sulfates� identify resources, process

and present information fromsecondary sources to relatethe properties of sulfuricacid to its uses, givingexamples

� use available evidence torelate the properties ofsulfuric acid to safetyprecautions necessary for itstransport and storage

65


4. The industrial productionof sodium hydroxiderequires the use ofelectrical energy

5. Saponification is animportant organicindustrial process

Students learn to:� explain the difference

between galvanic cells andelectrolysis in terms ofenergy requirements

� outline the steps in industrial production of sodium hydroxide fromsodium chloride solution anddescribe the reaction interms of net ionic and fullformulae equations

� distinguish between thethree electrolysis methodsused to extract sodiumhydroxide:� mercury process� diaphragm process� membrane processby describing each processand analysing the technicaland environmentaldifficulties involved in eachprocess

� describe saponification asthe hydrolysis in basicsolution of fats and oils toproduce glycerol and salts offatty acids

� describe the conditionsunder which saponificationcan be performed in theschool laboratory andcompare these withindustrial preparation ofsoap

� account for the cleaningaction of soap by describingits molecular structure

� explain that soap, water andoil together form anemulsion with the soapacting as an emulsifier

� distinguish between soapsand synthetic detergents interms of:� the structure of the

molecule� chemical composition� effect in hard water

� distinguish between anionic,cationic and non-ionicsynthetic detergents interms of:� chemical composition� uses

Students:� identify data, plan and

perform a first-handinvestigation to identify theproducts of the electrolysisof sodium chloride

� gather, process and presentinformation from secondarysources to summarise theproperties of NaOH andrelate these to its currentuses

� analyse information fromsecondary sources topredict and explain thedifferent products of theelectrolysis of aqueous andmolten sodium chloride

� solve problems and analyseinformation from secondarysources to calculate thecharge required per mole ofNaOH extracted

� perform a first-handinvestigation to carry outsaponification and test theproduct

� gather, process and presentinformation from secondarysources to identify a rangeof fats and oils used forsoap-making

� perform a first-handinvestigation to gatherinformation and describe theproperties of a namedemulsion and relate theseproperties to its uses

� perform a first-handinvestigation to demonstratethe effect of soap as anemulsifying agent

� solve problems and useavailable evidence todiscuss, using examples, theenvironmental impacts of theuse of soaps and detergents


66

6. The Solvay process hasbeen in use since the1860s

Students learn to:� identify the raw materials

used in the Solvay processand name the products

� describe the current uses ofsodium carbonate

� identify, given a flow chart,the sequence of steps usedin the Solvay process anddescribe the chemistryinvolved in:� brine purification� hydrogen carbonate

formation� formation of sodium

carbonate� ammonia recovery

� discuss environmentalissues associated with theSolvay process and explainhow these issues areaddressed


investigation to assess riskfactors and then carry out,where possible, each of thechemical steps involved inthe Solvay process,identifying any difficultiesassociated with thelaboratory modelling of theprocess

� process information to solveproblems and quantitativelyanalyse the relativequantities of reactants andproducts in each step of theprocess

� use available evidence todetermine the criteria usedto locate a chemical industryusing the Solvay process asan example

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9.6 Option � Shipwrecks and Salvage

Contextual OutlineElectrochemistry plays an important part in both theoretical and practical chemistry.Since the discovery of its theoretical basis, knowledge and understanding of thereactions involved have greatly increased. Today electrochemistry is used in a widerange of applications, from space travel to pacemakers to the humble torch battery.

The ocean represents a massive electrolyte and the effects of the salineenvironment can be investigated and analysed from the perspective of prevention ofcorrosion and its effects. The salvaging of iron ships that have sunk into deep-waterenvironments requires consideration of the effects of anaerobic environments oncorrosion.

OutcomesThe main course outcomes to which this module contributes are:

A student:H3 assesses the impact of particular advances in chemistry on the development

of technologies H5 identifies possible future directions of chemical researchH6 explains reactions between elements and compounds in terms of atomic



reactionsH10 analyses stoichiometric relationshipsH11 justifies the appropriateness of a particular investigation plan H12 evaluates ways in which accuracy and reliability could be improved in





68

1. The chemical compositionof the ocean implies itspotential role as anelectrolyte

2. Ships have been made of metals or alloys ofmetals

Students learn to:� identify the origins of the

minerals in oceans as:� leaching by rainwater

from terrestrialenvironments

� hydrothermal vents inmid-ocean ridges

� outline the role of electrontransfer in oxidation-reduction reactions

� identify that oxidation-reduction reactions canoccur when ions are free tomove in solid and liquidelectrolytes

� describe the work ofGalvani, Davy and Faradayin increasing understandingof electron transfer reactions

� account for the differencesin corrosion of active andpassivating metals

� identify iron and steel as themain metals used in ships

� identify the composition ofsteel and explain how thepercentage composition ofsteel can determine itsproperties

� describe the conditionsunder which rusting of ironoccurs and explain theprocess of rusting


secondary sources to outlineand analyse the impact ofthe work of Galvani, Davyand Faraday inunderstanding electrontransfer reactions

� identify data, selectequipment, plan and performa first-hand investigation tocompare the rate ofcorrosion of pure iron andan identified form of steel

� use available evidence toanalyse and explain theconditions under whichrusting occurs

� gather and processinformation from secondarysources to compare thecomposition, properties anduses of a range of steels

69


3. Electrochemical cellsinvolve oxidation-reduction reactions

Students learn to:� define the terms galvanic

cell and electrolytic cell� distinguish between and

give examples of galvaniccells and electrolytic cells

� describe, using half-equations, what happens atthe anode and cathodeduring electrolysis ofselected aqueous solutions

� describe factors that affectan electrolysis reaction� effect of concentration� nature of electrolyte� nature of electrodes

� define Faraday�s first law ofelectrolysis


investigation and gather first-hand data to determine therelationship between thedifference in reactivity of twometals and the voltage ofthe cell that may beconstructed from them

� perform a first-handinvestigation or processinformation from secondarysources to measure and/orcalculate the cell potentialgiven the potentials and half-equations for the two half-reactions

� process information fromfirst-hand or secondarysources to represent anelectrochemical cell inshorthand notation

� perform a first-handinvestigation to observewhat happens at the anodeand cathode duringelectrolysis of a variety ofaqueous solutions

� solve problems, perform afirst-hand investigation andgather first-hand data toidentify the factors that affectthe rate of an electrolysisreaction


70

4. Iron and steel corrodequickly in a marineenvironment and must beprotected

5. When a ship sinks, therate of decay andcorrosion may bedependent on the finaldepth of the wreck

Students learn to:� identify the ways in which a

metal hull may be protectedincluding:� corrosion resistant metals� development of surface

alloys� new paints

� predict the metal whichcorrodes when two metalsform an electrochemical cellusing a list of standardpotentials

� outline the process ofcathodic protection,describing examples of itsuse in both marine and wetterrestrial environments

� describe the process ofcathodic protection inselected examples in termsof the oxidation/reductionchemistry involved

� outline the effect of:� temperature� pressure on the solubility of gasesand salts

� identify the gases normallydissolved in the oceans andcompare theirconcentrations in the oceansto their concentrations in theatmosphere

� compare and explain thesolubility of selected gasesat increasing depths in theoceans

� predict the effect of lowtemperatures at greatdepths on the rate ofcorrosion of a metal

Students:� identify data, gather and

process information fromfirst-hand or secondarysources to trace historicaldevelopments in the designand construction of ocean-going vessels with a focuson the metals used

� identify data, chooseequipment, plan and performa first-hand investigation tocompare the corrosion rate,in a suitable electrolyte, of avariety of metals, includingnamed modern alloys toidentify those best suited foruse in marine vessels

� solve problems and performa first-hand investigation tocompare the effectiveness ofalternate protection used tocoat a metal such as ironand prevent corrosion

� gather and processinformation to identifyapplications of cathodicprotection, and use availableevidence to identify thereasons for their use and thechemistry involved

� perform a first-handinvestigation to compare anddescribe the rate ofcorrosion of materials indifferent :� oxygen concentrations� temperatures� salt concentrations

� use available evidence topredict the rate of corrosionof a metal wreck at greatdepths in the oceans andgive reasons for theprediction made

71


6. Predictions of slowcorrosion at great depthswere apparently incorrect

7. Salvage of objects fromwrecks requires carefulplanning andunderstanding of thebehaviour of chemicals

Students learn to:� explain that ship wrecks at

great depths are corrodedby electrochemical reactionsand by anaerobic bacteria

� describe the bacteria assulfur-reducing specieswhose wastes produceacidic environments arounddeep wrecks

� explain that acidicenvironments acceleratecorrosion in non-passivatingmetals

� explain that artefacts fromlong submerged wrecks willbe saturated with dissolvedchlorides and sulfates

� describe the processes thatoccur when a saturatedsolution evaporates andrelate this to the potentialdamage to drying artefacts

� identify the use ofelectrolysis as a means ofremoving salt

� identify the use ofelectrolysis as a means ofcleaning and stabilisingstrong metal artefacts

� discuss the range ofchemical procedures whichcan be used to clean,preserve and stabiliseartefacts from wrecks and,where possible, provide anexample of the use of eachprocedure


investigation to compare anddescribe the rate ofcorrosion of materials indifferent acidic and neutralsolutions

� perform a first-handinvestigation to model theevaporation of water fromsalt-saturated wooden,leather and textile artefactsand describe the change inthe artefact as drying occurs

� perform a first-handinvestigation to identifyappropriate electrolytictreatment of a chloride- orsulfate-saturated artefact toremove the salt

orperform a first-handinvestigation to identifyappropriate electrolytictreatment to clean andstabilise a bronze or similaralloy artefact


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9.7 Option � The Biochemistry of Movement

Contextual OutlineModern athletes are more aware of diet than previous generations, because more isknown about the chemistry of the substances in their diet. A increasedunderstanding of the nature of the biochemical reactions involved in muscularcontraction leads to a better and more informed selection of foods.

Biochemists interested in sports performance will continue to seek natural methodsof improving performance by paying close attention to the chains of enzyme-catalysed reactions occurring in the cytosol of the cell as well as within themitochondria. This module provides an overview of the two extremes of exercise andallows discussion of possible directions of further research.

Outcomes


A student:H2 analyses the ways in which models, theories and laws in chemistry have

been tested and validatedH5 identifies possible future directions of chemical researchH7 describes the chemical basis of energy transformations in chemical


reactionsH9 describes and predicts reactions involving carbon compoundsH10 analyses stoichiometric relationships H11 justifies the appropriateness of a particular investigation plan H12 evaluates ways in which accuracy and reliability could be improved in




73


1. ATP is the energycurrency of every living cell

2. Carbohydrates are animportant part of anathlete�s diet

Students learn to:� identify that adenosine

triphosphate is used as anenergy source for nearly allcellular metabolic processes

� explain that the biologicallyimportant part of themolecule contains threephosphate groups linked byhigh energy phosphodiesterbonds

� identify the role of enzymesas catalysts in theconversion of ATP to ADPwith energy made availablefor metabolism, given a flowchart of the biochemicalpathways

� explain that biochemicalfuels are broken down torelease energy for makingATP

� identify mitochondria as thecell organelles involved inaerobic respiration and thesite of most ATP synthesis

� identify that carbohydratesare composed of carbon,hydrogen and oxygenaccording to the formula Cx (H2O)y

� explain that humans storecarbohydrates as glycogengranules in our muscles andliver

� identify glucose as themonomer which forms thepolymer glycogen anddescribe the process ofbond formation between theglucose molecules whichproduces the polymer

Students:� solve problems and process

information from a diagramor model of the structure ofthe adenosine triphosphatemolecule to discuss thenature and organisation ofthe phosphodiester bondsbetween the phosphategroups

� process information fromsecondary sources from adiagram or model of thestructure of a mitochondrionand use available evidenceto analyse the structure interms of the efficiency ofseparation of organicchemical processesoccurring

� process information fromsecondary sources to locatethe site of each step ofrespiration in the cell

� choose resources andperform first-handinvestigations to comparethe structures of glycogenand glucose from diagramsor models

� use available evidence andprocess information fromsecondary sources toanalyse the structures ofglucose and glycogenmolecules and account fortheir solubility in water

� solve problems, chooseequipment and perform afirst-hand investigation toobserve the combustion ofglucose and gather first-hand data to calculate theheat of combustion per mole


74

3. Fats are also importantfuels for cells

Students learn to:� identify that fatty acids are

alkanoic acids with thegeneral formula CH3(CH2)nCOOH

� identify that part of the fattyacid molecule which shouldmix with water and give anexplanation for thisphenomenon

� identify the most commonfatty acids in our diet and inour body stores as the C14-C20 series fromdiagrams or models

� describe glycerol as a trioland identify its systematicname

� explain that fatty acids arestored as esters of glycerol[triacylglycerols(TAGs)] andaccount for the hydrophobicnature of these esters

� assess the importance ofTAGs as an energy densestore for humans

Students:� solve problems, identify

resources and perform first-hand investigations tocompare the structures offatty acids and glycerol fromdiagrams or models

� use available evidence andprocess information fromsecondary sources toanalyse the structure of theglycerol molecule andpredict its viscosity andsolubility in water, givingreasons for their predictions

� perform a first-handinvestigation to identify anddescribe the:� solubility � density of glycerol and compare theseproperties with those ofglucose, and use availableevidence to suggest reasonsfor their similarities anddifferences

� perform a first-handinvestigation to compare theviscosity of glucose with theviscosity of a glycerolsolution and explain thedifferences observed

� perform a first-handinvestigation and gather first-hand data to determine theheat of combustion of a lipid

75


4. Proteins are used as bothstructural molecules andas enzymes to catalysemetabolic reactions

5. Muscle cells causemovement by contractionalong their length

Students learn to:� describe the composition

and general formula foramino acids

� identify the major functionalgroups in an amino acid

� outline the nature of apeptide bond and, using aspecific example, describethe chemistry involved in theformation of a peptide bond

� explain, using a namedexample, the relationshipbetween the chemicalfeatures of a protein and itsshape using appropriatediagrams or models

� account for the shape of aprotein molecule in terms of � electrostatic forces� hydrogen bonding forces� hydrophobic forces� disulfide bonds

� account for the process ofprotein denaturation

� identify enzymes as aspecial class of proteins witha binding site that issubstrate specific

� using a named example ofan enzyme, explain why theenzyme�s binding site issubstrate specific

� describe the generalisedstructure of a skeletalmuscle cell

� identify actin and myosin asthe long parallel bundles ofprotein fibres which form thecontractile filaments inskeletal muscle

� identify the cause of musclecell contraction as therelease of calcium ions aftera nerve impulse activatesthe muscle cell membrane

� identify that the cause of thecontraction movement is theformation of temporarybonds between the actinand myosin fibres andexplain why ATP isconsumed in this process


secondary sources to drawthe generalised structuralformula for an amino acid

� perform first-handinvestigations to observe acharacteristic test forproteins

� solve problems, identifydata, plan, chooseequipment and perform first-hand investigations toobserve the effect ofchanges in pH andtemperature on a namedenzyme reaction and usethe available evidence torelate this to changes in theprimary, secondary and/ortertiary structure of theenzyme involved

� process and analyseinformation from secondarysources to discuss the useof models in thedevelopment ofunderstanding of enzymefunction

� use available evidence torelate the need to maintainprotein stability tophysiological processes thatremove excess heat andhydrogen ions from activemuscle tissue

� perform first-handinvestigations to observe theeffect of ATP on muscle fibre

� analyse information fromsecondary sources todescribe the appearance ofskeletal muscle cells


76

6. There are two types ofmuscle cells and theirdifferences imply thatdifferent fuels are neededand different strategiesare used duringcontraction and relaxation

7. Fats are oxidised torelease energy in cells

8. Glycolysis, the first stage of respiration, is theanaerobic decompositionof glucose to releaseenergy

Students learn to:� identify the characteristics of

type 1 muscle cells as:� contracts relatively slowly� many mitochondria� well-supplied with blood� fewer contractile filaments� carries out aerobic

respiration� used for light, endurance

exercise� identify the characteristics of

type 2 muscle cells as:� contracts relatively rapidly� few mitochondria� poor blood supply� many contractile filaments� carries out mostly

anaerobic respiration� used for heavy and

sprinting-style exercise

� identify the importance ofthe oxidation of long-chainfatty acids in all tissuesexcept the brain

� explain that thedecomposition of fatty acidsoccurs by oxidative removalof 2-carbon fragments

� identify the 2-carbonfragments as acetyl CoA

� identify the site of oxidationof fatty acids as themitochondrial matrix

� identify that the enzymes ofglycolysis are found in cellcytoplasm and that glucoseis the raw material forglycolysis

� summarise the energyrelease in glycolysis andidentify the form in whichthis energy is captured

� identify the end product of glycolysis as 2-oxopropanoate (pyruvate)

� discuss the role of theoxidation of fatty acids in theinhibition of the pyruvateconversion to acetyl CoA

Students:� use available evidence and

process information fromsecondary sources tocompare and contrast thedifferences in structure,function and distribution ofthe type 1 and type 2muscle cells

� process information from asimplified flow chart ofbiochemical pathways toidentify and describe thesteps in the oxidation of atypical fatty acid

� process information from asimplified flow chart ofbiochemical pathways toanalyse the total energyoutput from glycolysis

77


9. Gentle exercise uses type 1 muscles andinvolves aerobicrespiration. The aerobicrespiration of acetyl CoAreleases much moreenergy

10. ATP used in musclecontraction is continuallyregenerated

Students learn to:� describe the tricarboxylic

acid (TCA) cycle as anothermulti-enzyme systeminvolved in respiration

� outline the TCA cycle asoxidative decarboxylationwith the addition of acetylCoA as the energy source ineach cycle

� identify the products of theTCA cycle and explain therole of oxidation andreduction in the cycle

� summarise the role of thecytochrome chain andidentify the location of thechain of enzymes involvedwithin the mitochondrion

� describe the role of oxygenin respiration

� identify NADH and FADH2

as high energy compoundsinvolved in respiration

� describe the NADH/FADH2

reduction / ATP productionas an oxidation/reductionprocess, explain how thehydrogen is bonded to NAD

+

and what happens to theelectrons when these bondsare broken

� construct an equation tosummarise thereduction/oxidation processin ATP regeneration

� define oxidativephosphorylation as theprocess that couples theoxidation of NADH andFADH2 to the production ofhigh energy phosphatebonds in ATP

Students:� process information from a

simplified flow chart ofbiochemical pathways toproduce a flow chartsummarising the steps inaerobic respiration

� process information from asimplified flow chart ofbiochemical pathways toanalyse the total energyoutput from glycolysis andcompare it with the energyoutput from the TCA cycle

� process information from asimplified flow chart ofbiochemical pathways toanalyse the steps inoxidative phosphorylation


78

11. Sprinting involvesmuscles contractingpowerfully and rapidly and utilises type 2 musclecells

Students learn to:� outline the problems

associated with the supplyand use of fuels duringsprinting and relate this tothe sprinting muscles�reliance on non-oxygen/non-mitochondrial based ATPproduction

� outline the steps in thehydrolysis of glycogen whichrelease glucose for use inglycolysis during sprinting

� explain the physiologicalsignificance of the glycogenmolecule in the rapid supplyof glucose molecules

� explain the relationshipbetween the production of2�hydroxypropanoic (lactic)acid during anaerobicrespiration and theimpairment of musclecontractions by changes incellular pH

� identify that lactic acid isproduced and is exportedfrom the cell and recycledinto glucose in the liver

Students:� solve problems and process

information from a simplifiedflow chart of biochemicalpathways to summarise thesteps in glycolysis andanalyse the total energyoutput from this process

� use available evidence andprocess information from asimplified flow chart ofbiochemical pathways totrace the path of lactic acidremoval and compare thiswith the process offermentation

� solve problems and processinformation to discuss theuse of multiple namingsystems in chemistry using lactic acid (2-hydroxypropanoic acid or2-hydroxypropionic acid) asan example

79


9.8 Option � The Chemistry of Art

Contextual OutlineHuman cultural development has been mapped from prehistoric times by records onwalls, in parchments and in sculptures. People have been fascinated by colourthroughout time and artists have searched for pigments to colour their works.

Until the advent of modern chemistry, many pigments were prepared from naturalresources and the recipes for these pigments survived over thousands of years. Partof the continued need for restoration of medieval artworks results from the fadingand peeling of pigments that were prepared without knowledge of the chemistry ofthe canvas or the paints.

The advent of fireworks and coloured �neon� lights are other examples of the use ofcolour. Our fascination with colour is evident from the numbers of people who gatherto watch the night sky light up during fireworks displays. This module develops theidea that the study of the origins of colour in chemicals led to more advancedtheories of atomic structure. These theories have helped us to understand, inparticular, the chemistry and colours of the transition elements.

Outcomes


A student:H1 assesses the impacts of applications of chemistry on society and the

environmentH2 analyses the ways in which models, theories and laws in chemistry have

been tested and validatedH4 assesses the impacts of applications of chemistry on society and the

environmentH6 explains reactions between elements and compounds in terms of atomic

structures and periodicity H11 justifies the appropriateness of a particular investigation plan H12 evaluates ways in which accuracy and reliability could be improved in





80

1. From earliest times,people have used colourto decorate themselvesand their surroundings

2. When people began totravel around the worldmore extensively in thelast 1000 years, the rangeof pigments available toartists increased astrading increased

Students learn to:� identify the sources of the

pigments used in earlyhistory as readily availableminerals

� explain why pigments usedneeded to be insoluble inmost substances

� outline the early uses ofpigments for:� cave drawings� self-decoration including

cosmetics� preparation of the dead

for burial� outline the processes used

and the chemistry involvedto prepare and attachpigments to surfaces in anamed example of medievalor earlier artwork

� explain that colour can beobtained through pigmentsspread on a surface layer(eg paints) or mixed with the bulk of material (eg glass colours)

� describe paints as consisting of:� the pigment � a liquid to carry the

pigment

� describe an historicalexample to illustrate therelationship between thediscovery of new mineraldeposits and the increasingrange of pigments availableto artists

� describe the use of:� a named separation

process� a precipitation process

in extracting andconcentrating pigmentsources

� analyse the relationshipbetween the chemicalcomposition of selectedpigments and the position ofthe metallic component(s) ofeach pigment in the PeriodicTable


a first-hand investigation orprocess information fromsecondary sources toidentify minerals that havebeen used as pigments anddescribe their chemicalcomposition with particularreference to pigmentsavailable and used intraditional art by Aboriginalpeople

� process information fromsecondary sources toidentify the chemicalcomposition of identifiedcosmetics used in anancient culture such as earlyEgyptian or Roman and useavailable evidence to assessthe potential health riskassociated with their use

� identify data, gather andprocess information fromsecondary sources toidentify and analyse thechemical composition of anidentified range of pigments

81


3. By the twentieth century,chemists were using arange of technologies tostudy the spectra, leadingto increasedunderstanding about theorigins of colours ofdifferent elements

Students learn to:� identify Na

+, K

+, Ca

2+, Ba

2+,

Sr2+

, and Cu2+

by their flamecolour

� explain the flame colour interms of electrons releasingenergy as they move to alower energy level

� explain why excited atomsonly emit certain frequenciesof radiation

� distinguish between theterms spectral line, emissionspectrum, absorptionspectrum and reflectancespectrum

� describe the development ofthe Bohr model of the atomfrom the hydrogen spectraand relate energy levels toelectron shells

� explain what is meant by n �the principal quantumnumber

� identify that, as electronsreturn to lower energy levels,they emit quanta of energywhich humans may detectas a specific colour

� outline the use of infra-redand ultra-violet light in theanalysis and identification ofpigments and their chemicalcomposition

� explain the relationshipbetween absorption andreflectance spectra and theeffect of infra-red and ultra-violet light on pigmentsincluding zinc oxide andthose containing copper


investigations to observe theflame colour of Na

+, K

+,

Ca2+

, Ba2+

, Sr2+

, and Cu2+

� gather and processinformation from secondarysources to analyse theemission spectra of sodiumand present information bydrawing energy leveldiagrams to represent thesespectral lines

� gather, process and presentinformation to:� describe the methodology

involved in lasermicrospectral analysis

� assess the importance ofthe technology inassisting identification ofelements in a compound

� provide examples of thetechnology�s use

� solve problems and useavailable evidence todiscuss the merits andlimitations of the Bohr modelof the atom

� solve problems and processinformation to outline thechemical basis ofprocedures used to analysethe materials, techniquesand possible restorationprocedures used on antiquepaintings


82

4. The distribution ofelectrons within shells canbe predicted from thePeriodic Table

Students learn to:� define the Pauli exclusion

principle to identify theposition of electrons aroundan atom

� identify that each orbital cancontain only two electrons

� define the term sub-shell� outline the order of filling of

sub-shells� identify that electrons in their

ground-state electronconfigurations occupy thelowest energy shells, sub-shells and orbitals availableto them and explain whythey are able to jump tohigher energy levels whenexcited

� explain the relationshipbetween the elements withoutermost electronsassigned to s, p, d and fblocks and the organisationof the Periodic Table

� explain the relationshipbetween the number ofelectrons in the outer orbitalof an element and itselectronegativity

� describe how trends insuccessive ionisationenergies are used to predictthe number of electrons inthe outermost shell and thesub-shells occupied bythese electrons


secondary sources toanalyse information aboutthe relationship betweenionisation energies and the orbitals of electrons

� process information fromsecondary sources toallocate electrons to orbitsand thus develop electronconfigurations for a range of elements

� process information fromsecondary sources to useHund�s rule to predict theelectron configuration of anelement according to itsposition in the Periodic Table

83


5. The chemistry of thetransition metals can beexplained by their morecomplicated atomicstructure

6. The properties of thetransition metals can beexplained in terms of theirelectron configurations

Students learn to:� identify the block occupied

by the transition metals inthe Periodic Table

� define the term transitionelement

� explain why transition metalsmay have more than oneoxidation state

� account for colour changesin transition metal ions interms of changing oxidationstates

� explain, using the complexions of a transition metal asan example, why speciescontaining transition metalsin a high oxidation state willbe strong oxidising agents

� account for trends in density,melting point, hardness andmagnetic properties of thefirst transition series in termsof electron configuration

Students:� process and present

information from secondarysources by writing electronconfigurations of the firsttransition series in terms ofsub-shells

� perform a first-handinvestigation to observe thecolour changes of a namedtransition element as itchanges in oxidation state

� solve problems and processinformation from secondarysources to write half-equations and account forthe changes in oxidationstate

� choose equipment, performa first-hand investigation todemonstrate and gatherfirst-hand information aboutthe oxidising strength ofKMnO4

� perform a first-handinvestigation and gatherinformation from secondarysources to analyse thetrends in physical propertiesof the first transition series


84

7. The formation of complexions by transition metalions increases the varietyof coloured compoundsthat can be produced

Students learn to:� explain what is meant by a

hydrated ion in solution� describe hydrated ions as

examples of coordinationcomplex or a complex ionand identify examples

� describe molecules or ionsattached to a metal ion in acomplex ion as ligands

� explain that ligands have atleast one atom with a lonepair of electrons and can beclassified as a Lewis base

� describe the role of a metalion in complex ions as thatof a Lewis acid

� describe the bond betweena metal ion and ligand(s) in a complex ion as a Lewis acid � Lewis baseinteraction

� identify examples ofchelated ligands

� discuss the importance ofmodels in developing anunderstanding of the natureof ligands and chelatedligands, using specificexamples

Students:� use available evidence and

process information fromsecondary sources to drawor model Lewis structuresand analyse this informationto indicate the bondingmechanisms in selectedcomplex ions involving thefirst transition series

� process information fromsecondary sources to givean example of the range ofcolours that can be obtainedfrom one metal such as Crin different ion complexes

� solve problems, process andpresent information fromsecondary sources to reporton the current use of acoordination complex in anidentified area of medicineor biological research

85


9.9 Option � Forensic Chemistry

Contextual OutlineA biologist asks for confirmation of a long-held view that two similar groups oforganisms have evolved from a common ancestor in the near past. A physicistwants an explanation for the different spectra obtained from two apparently similarstars. The earth and environmental scientist wants to know why trees are growingwell at one site and the same species is dying off at a similar site close by. Localcouncil authorities want to trace the source of the chemical that caused a fish kill inthe river downstream of a park used by the general public.

All of the above and others from palaeontologists to plumbers, from investors in oilto investors in jewellery, will ask chemists to identify materials. From engineers facedwith identifying the cause of road slippage to specialist art restorers, technicians willask chemists to describe and explain the qualities of molecules involved in theirwork. The signature shapes, compositions or behaviours of chemicals are usefultools in solving many problems faced by people in all sectors of our society.

Forensic chemists work within the general field of analytical chemistry. They will beasked to work through samples, analyse compounds and mixtures to identify thetrends or patterns in evidence and draw conclusions from a wide range ofinvestigations. The accuracy of the forensic chemist�s analysis is crucial and afterthe analysis and problem-solving is completed, the forensic chemist must also havethe skills to select and use reporting styles that appropriately, as well as accurately,communicate the information obtained from the evidence.

Outcomes


A student:H3 assesses the impact of particular advances in chemistry on the development

of technologies H4 assesses the impacts of applications of chemistry on society and the

environmentH6 explains reactions between elements and compounds in terms of atomic

structures and periodicity H9 describes and predicts reactions involving carbon compoundsH11 justifies the appropriateness of a particular investigation plan H12 evaluates ways in which accuracy and reliability could be improved in





86

1. The job of the forensicchemist is to identifymaterials and trace theirorigins

Students learn to:� outline precautions that may

be necessary to ensureaccuracy and preventcontamination of samples foranalysis

� distinguish between organicand inorganic compounds

� explain that there aredifferent classes of carboncompounds including:� hydrocarbons� alkanols� alkanoic acids which can

be identified bydistinguishing tests

� explain why the inorganicchemical properties of soilsand other materials may beuseful evidence

� discuss, using a recentexample, how progress inanalytical chemistry andchanges in technology canalter the outcome of aforensic investigation

Students:� solve problems and use

available evidence todiscuss the importance ofaccuracy in forensicchemistry

� solve problems and useavailable evidence todiscuss ethical issues thatmay need to be addressedduring an analyticalinvestigation

� identify data, plan andperform first-handinvestigations to determine asequence of tests todistinguish between organicand inorganic compounds

� gather and processinformation from secondarysources to presentinformation summarising aseries of distinguishing teststo separate:� the groups of

hydrocarbons� acids, bases and neutral

salts in the schoollaboratory and in theforensic chemist�slaboratory

87


2. Analysis of organicmaterial can distinguishplant and animal material

3. The range and types oflipids in organic samplescan assist identification ofthe evidence and trace itsorigins

Students learn to:� identify that carbohydrates

are composed of carbon,hydrogen and oxygenaccording to the formula Cx (H2O)y

� identify glucose as amonomer and describe thecondensation reactionswhich produce:� sucrose as an example of

a dissacharide� polysaccharides including

glycogen, starch andcellulose

� describe the chemicaldifference between reducingand non-reducing sugars

� distinguish between plantand animal carbohydrates�composition in terms of thepresence of:� cellulose� starch� glycogen

� identify and describe thespecific carbohydratecompounds produced by anamed organism other thana plant or mammal anddiscuss ways in which thisinformation may be useful toforensic chemists

� identify that fats are alkanoicacids with the generalformula CH3(CH2)nCOOH

� identify that part of the fattyacid molecule which shouldmix with water

� identify glycerol as a trioland compare its reaction incold dilute KMnO4 with thatof 1, 2-propanediol and 1-propanol

� discuss the differences inlipids produced and storedin organisms and explainhow this may be used as anidentifying feature by aforensic chemist

Students:� choose equipment, plan and

perform a first-handinvestigation to carry out aseries of distinguishing teststo separate:� carbohydrates� reducing and non-

reducing sugars� cellulose� starch

� use available evidence andperform first-handinvestigations usingmolecular model kits,computer simulations orother multimedia resourcesto compare the structures oforganic compoundsincluding:� monosaccharides� starch� cellulose� glycogen

� perform first-handinvestigations usingmolecular model kits,computer simulations orother multimedia resourcesto identify the functionalgroups in fatty acids andglycerol

� perform a first-handinvestigation to carry outdistinguishing tests andgather first-hand informationto identify:� fatty acids� glycerol


88

4. Because proteins are amajor structural andmetabolic component ofall living organisms, theanalysis of proteinsamples can be useful inforensic chemistry

5. DNA is an importantcompound found in allliving things but is a mostuseful identificationmolecule

Students learn to:� distinguish between protein

used for structural purposesand the uses of proteins asenzymes

� identify the major functionalgroups in an amino acid

� describe the compositionand general formula foramino acids and explain thatproteins are chains of aminoacids

� describe the nature of thepeptide bond and explainthat proteins can be brokenat different lengths in thechain by choice of enzyme

� compare the processes ofchromatography andelectrophoresis and identifythe properties of mixturesthat allow them to beseparated by either of theseprocesses

� discuss the role ofelectrophoresis in identifyingthe origins of protein andexplain how this could assistthe forensic chemist

� outline the structure andcomposition of DNA

� explain why analysis of DNAallows identification ofindividuals

� describe the process usedto analyse DNA and accountfor its use in:� identifying relationships

between people� identifying individuals


investigations usingmolecular model kits,computer simulations orother multimedia resourcesto present information whichdescribes the compositionand generalised structure ofproteins

� perform a first-handinvestigation and gather first-hand information about adistinguishing test forproteins

� perform a first-handinvestigation to carry outchromatography to separatea mixture of organicmaterials such as thepigments in plants

� perform a first-handinvestigation and gather first-hand information to identifythe range of solvents thatmay be used forchromatography andsuggest mixtures that maybe separated and identifiedby the use of these solvents

� perform a first-handinvestigation to carry out theelectrophoresis of anappropriate mixture and useavailable evidence to identifythe characteristics of themixture which allow it to beseparated by this process

� analyse information todiscuss the range of uses ofDNA analysis in forensicchemistry and use availableevidence in discussing theissues associated with itsuse in terms of the ethics ofmaintenance of data banksof DNA

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6. Much forensic evidenceconsists of very smallsamples and macroscopicanalysis may not beappropriate

7. All elements haveidentifiable emissionspectra and this can beused to identify traceelements

Students learn to:� explain what is meant by the

destructive testing ofmaterial and explain whythis may be a problem inforensic investigations

� identify, outline and assessthe value of the followingtechniques in the analysis ofsmall samples:� electron spectroscopy for

chemical analysis� atomic-force microscopy� scanning tunnelling

microscopy� outline how a mass

spectrometer operates andclarify its use for forensicchemists

� describe the conditionsunder which atoms will emitlight

� identify that the emission ofquanta of energy aselectrons move to lowerenergy levels may bedetected by humans as aspecific colour

� explain why excited atoms inthe gas phase emit orabsorb only certainwavelengths of light

� account for the fact thateach element produces itssignature line emissionspectrum

� discuss the use of lineemission spectra to identifythe presence of elements inchemicals

� explain that the use of infra-red and ultra-violetspectroscopy allows rapididentification of elements ormolecules because of theunique absorption spectra ofeach element

Students:� solve problems, gather and

process information fromsecondary sources toassess the value of thefollowing to the forensicchemist:� electron spectroscopy for

chemical analysis� atomic-force microscopy� scanning tunnelling

microscopy� analyse and present

information from secondarysources to discuss the waysin which mass spectroscopymay provide evidence aboutchemical samples including:� relative molecular mass� range of elemental

isotopes present� relative amounts of

isotopes

� identify data, chooseequipment, plan, andperform a first-handinvestigation using flametests and/or spectroscopeanalysis as appropriate toidentify and gather first-handinformation to describe theemission spectrum of arange of elements includingNa and Hg

� process and presentinformation from secondarysources to analyse andidentify individual elementspresent in a mixed emissionspectrum and use availableevidence to explain howsuch information can assistanalysis of the origins of amixture


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10 Course Requirements

For the Preliminary course:� 120 indicative hours are required to complete the course� the content in each module must be addressed over the course� experiences over the course must cover the scope of each skill as described in

Section 8.1� practical experiences should occupy a minimum of 45 indicative hours of course

time � at least one open-ended investigation integrating the skills and knowledge and

understanding outcomes must be included in the course.

For the HSC course:� the Preliminary course is a prerequisite � the content in each module of the core and one elective must be addressed

over the course� experiences over the course must cover the scope of each skill as described in

Section 9.1� 120 indicative hours are required to complete the course� practical experiences should occupy a minimum of 35 indicative hours of course

time � at least one open-ended investigation integrating the skills and knowledge and

understanding outcomes must be included in the course.

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11 Post-school Opportunities

The study of Chemistry Stage 6 provides students with knowledge, understandingand skills that form a valuable foundation for a range of courses at university andother tertiary institutions.

In addition, the study of Chemistry Stage 6 assists students to prepare foremployment and full and active participation as citizens. In particular, there areopportunities for students to gain recognition in vocational education and training.Teachers and students should be aware of these opportunities.

Recognition of Student Achievement in Vocational Education andTraining (VET)

Wherever appropriate, the skills and knowledge acquired by students in their studyof HSC courses should be recognised by industry and training organisations.Recognition of student achievement means that students who have satisfactorilycompleted HSC courses will not be required to repeat their learning in courses inTAFE NSW or other Registered Training Organisations (RTOs).

Registered Training Organisations, such as TAFE NSW, provide industry training andissue qualifications within the Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF).

The degree of recognition available to students in each subject is based on thesimilarity of outcomes between HSC courses and industry training packagesendorsed within the AQF. Training packages are documents that link an industry�scompetency standards to AQF qualifications. More information about industrytraining packages can be found on the National Training Information Service (NTIS)website (www.ntis.gov.au).

Recognition by TAFE NSW

TAFE NSW conducts courses in a wide range of industry areas, as outlined eachyear in the TAFE NSW Handbook. Under current arrangements, the recognitionavailable to students of Chemistry in relevant courses conducted by TAFE isdescribed in the HSC/TAFE Credit Transfer Guide. This guide is produced by theBoard of Studies and TAFE NSW and is distributed annually to all schools andcolleges. Teachers should refer to this guide and be aware of the recognitionavailable to their students through the study of Chemistry Stage 6. This informationcan be found on the TAFE NSW website (www.tafensw.edu.au/mchoice).

Recognition by other Registered Training Organisations

Students may also negotiate recognition into a training package qualification withanother Registered Training Organisation. Each student will need to provide the RTOwith evidence of satisfactory achievement in Chemistry Stage 6 so that the degreeof recognition available can be determined.


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12 Assessment and Reporting

12.1 Requirements and Advice

The information in this section of the syllabus relates to the Board of Studies�requirements for assessing and reporting achievement in the Preliminary and HSCcourses for the Higher School Certificate.

Assessment is the process of gathering information and making judgements aboutstudent achievement for a variety of purposes.

In the Preliminary and HSC courses those purposes include:� assisting student learning � evaluating and improving teaching and learning programs � providing evidence of satisfactory achievement and completion in the

Preliminary course � providing the Higher School Certificate results.

Reporting refers to the Higher School Certificate documents received by studentsthat are used by the Board to report both the internal and external measures ofachievement.

NSW Higher School Certificate results will be based on:

� an assessment mark submitted by the school and produced in accordancewith the Board�s requirements for the internal assessment program

� an examination mark derived from the HSC external examinations.

Results will be reported using a course report containing a performance scale with bands describing standards of achievement in the course.

The use of both internal assessment and external examinations of studentachievement allows measures and observations to be made at several points and indifferent ways throughout the HSC course. Taken together, the externalexaminations and internal assessment marks provide a valid and reliableassessment of the achievement of the knowledge, understanding and skillsdescribed for each course.

Standards Referencing and the HSC Examination

The Board of Studies will adopt a standards-referenced approach to assessing andreporting student achievement in the Higher School Certificate examination.

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The standards in the HSC are:� the knowledge, skills and understanding expected to be learned by students �

the syllabus standards� the levels of achievement of the knowledge, skills and understanding � the

performance standards.

Both syllabus standards and performance standards are based on the aims,objectives, outcomes and content of a course. Together they specify what is to belearned and how well it is to be achieved.

Teacher understanding of standards come from the set of aims, objectives,outcomes and content in each syllabus together with:� the performance descriptions that summarise the different levels of performance

of the course outcomes� HSC examination papers and marking guidelines� samples of students� achievement on assessment and examination tasks.

12.2 Internal Assessment

The internal assessment mark submitted by the school will provide a summation ofeach student�s achievements measured at points throughout the course. It shouldreflect the rank order of students and relative differences between students�achievements.

Internal assessment provides a measure of a student�s achievement based on awider range of syllabus content and outcomes than may be covered by the externalexamination alone.

The assessment components, weightings and task-requirements to be applied tointernal assessment are identified on page 97. They ensure a common focus for internalassessment in the course across schools, while allowing for flexibility in the design oftasks. A variety of tasks should be used to give students the opportunity to demonstrateoutcomes in different ways and to improve the validity and reliability of the assessment.

12.3 External Examination

In Chemistry Stage 6 the external examinations include written papers for externalmarking. The specifications for the examination in Chemistry Stage 6 are on page 98.

The external examination provides a measure of student achievement in a range ofsyllabus outcomes that can be reliably measured in an examination setting.

The external examination and its marking and reporting will relate to syllabusstandards by:� providing clear links to syllabus outcomes� enabling students to demonstrate the levels of achievement outlined in the

course performance scale� applying marking guidelines based on established criteria.


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12.4 Board Requirements for the Internal Assessment Mark InBoard Developed Courses

For each course the Board requires schools to submit an assessment mark for eachcandidate.

The collection of information for the HSC internal assessment mark must not beginprior to the completion of the Preliminary course.

The Board requires that the assessment tasks used to determine the internalassessment mark must comply with the components, weightings and types of tasksspecified in the table on page 97.

Schools are required to develop an internal assessment program which:� specifies the various assessment tasks and the weightings allocated to each

task� provides a schedule of the tasks designed for the whole course.

The school must also develop and implement procedures to:

� inform students in writing of the assessment requirements for each coursebefore the commencement of the HSC course

� ensure that students are given adequate written notice of the nature and timingof assessment tasks

� provide meaningful feedback on students� performance in all assessment tasks� maintain records of marks awarded to each student for all assessment tasks� address issues relating to illness, misadventure and malpractice in assessment

tasks� address issues relating to late submission and non-completion of assessment

tasks� advise students in writing if they are not meeting the assessment requirements

in a course and indicate what is necessary to enable the students to satisfy therequirements

� inform students about their entitlements to school reviews and appeals to theBoard

� conduct school reviews of assessments when requested by students� ensure that students are aware that they can collect their Rank Order Advice at

the end of the external examinations at their school.

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12.5 Assessment Components, Weightings and Tasks

Preliminary Course

The suggested components, weightings and tasks for the Preliminary course are setout below.

Component Weighting Tasks might include

The Chemical Earth 25 AssignmentsMetals 25 Fieldwork studies and reportsWater 25 Model making Energy 25 Open-ended investigations

Oral reports Practical tests ReportsResearch projectsTopic tests and examinations

Tasks should assess students�abilities to conduct first-handinvestigations and communicateinformation and understandingbased on these investigations

Marks 100

There should be a balance between the assessment of:

� knowledge and understanding outcomes and course content, and

� skills outcomes and course content.


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HSC Course

The internal assessment mark for Chemistry Stage 6 is to be based on the HSCcourse only. Final assessment should be based on a range and balance ofassessment instruments.

Component Weighting Tasks could include:The Identification and 25 Assignments Production Of Materials Fieldwork studies and reportsThe Acidic Environment 25 Model makingChemical Monitoring 25 Open-ended investigationsand Management Oral reportsOption 25 Practical tests

ReportsResearch projectsTopic tests and examinations

Note:� No more than 50% weighting

may be allocated toexaminations and topic tests

� A minimum of 30% weightingmust be allocated to tasks thatassess students� abilities toconduct first-handinvestigations andcommunicate information andunderstandings based on theseinvestigations

Marks 100

There should be a balance between the assessment of:

� knowledge and understanding outcomes and course content, and

� skills outcomes and content.

One task may be used to assess several components. It is suggested that 3�5 tasksare sufficient to assess the HSC course outcomes.

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12.6 HSC External Examination Specifications

The written examination in Chemistry will consist of one examination paper of 3hours duration (plus 5 minutes reading time). The examination paper will consist ofTWO sections:

Section I Core (75 marks)

Part A (15 marks)

� There will be FIFTEEN multiple-choice questions.� All questions will be compulsory.� All questions will be of equal value.� Questions will be based on the HSC core modules.

Part B (60 marks)

� Short-answer and extended response question/s.� Marks for individual questions will be shown on the examination paper.� All questions will be compulsory.� Questions will be based on the HSC core modules.

Section II Option (25 marks)

� There will be FIVE questions: one on each of the FIVE HSC options. Eachquestion may consist of several parts.

� Marks for individual parts will be shown on the examination paper.� Candidates must attempt ONE question only.� All questions will be of equal value.

HSC Options List

� Industrial Chemistry� Shipwrecks and Salvage� The Biochemistry of Movement� The Chemistry of Art� Forensic Chemistry


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Internal Assessment

Core Modules

Option

Note: Assessment ofknowledge, understanding,and skills developed throughconducting first-handinvestigations should beincorporated into the core and option as appropriate.

Marks

Weighting

75

25

100

Weighting

75

25

100

External Assessment

A written examination paperconsisting of:

Core Modules� Multiple-choice questions� Short-answer questions� Longer answer question/s

Option � Short-answer questions� Longer answer question/s

Marks

12.7 Summary of Internal and External Assessment

12.8 Reporting Student Performance Against Standards

Student performance in an HSC course will be reported against standards on acourse report. The course report contains a performance scale for the coursedescribing levels (bands) of achievement, an HSC examination mark and theinternal assessment mark. It will also show, graphically, the statewide distribution ofexamination marks of all students in the course.

Each band on the performance scale (except for band 1), includes descriptions thatsummarise the attainments typically demonstrated in that band.

The distribution of marks will be determined by students� performances against theknown standards and not scaled to a predetermined pattern of marks.


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