st. tammany chapter 2

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CHAPTER 2A Fragile New Nation

An ad in the New York Packet for The Federalist; or, The New Constitution, published in two volumes in 1788 by J. and A. McLean.

The New York press, beginning a complex relationship with Tammany Hall that will stretch into the 20th century, reports the advent of the Society of St. Tammany at the end of April 1787. Two of Tammany’s founders, John Pintard and Matthew L. Davis, immediately begin to see the value of creating favorable notices in the newspapers—press releases—for a society that began with a public, patriotic agenda. It would soon be augmented by the private and political. One of the society’s early public acts is the creation of America’s first museum, founded by John Pintard. In 1787, reacting to the shortcomings of the Articles of Confederation, the United States Constitution is adopted at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia. In 1789, after being promoted by Alexander Hamilton’s Federalist Papers, the Constitution is ratified by the United States. The constitution of the Society of St. Tammany appears soon thereafter, stating, among other amendments, that the society would be divided into the public and the private—with the public being subservient to the private. It will also exclude immigrants from being society officials—known as sachems. This will eventually change. The society adopts Philadelphia’s Son’s of St. Tammany’s use of Indian customs, calling the tavern that they meet in a “Wigwam,” making the bucktail their official badge, and dressing in Indian garb during parades and celebrations.

Much to the distress of President George Washington, the First Party System is created. It pits Thomas Jefferson’s Democratic-Republican Party against Alexander Hamilton’s Federalist Party. It is the age-old conflict of States rights versus the power of the Federal Government. It is a war that is raging to this day. At first both Federalists and Democratic-Republicans were members of the Society of St. Tammany. But soon the Democratic-Republican majority of the society began to criticize some of the policies of George Washington—mainly his sending troops to quell the Whiskey Rebellion. This criticism leads the Federalists to quit en masse.

Answering to what they perceived as Hamilton’s centralized, elitist, pro British platform, the society throws in their lot with Jefferson’s Democratic-Republican’s. Washington, having served the nation for eighteen years, publishes his Farewell Address in September of 1796. It is said to be written in part by Alexander Hamilton, and would define Federalist Party doctrine. And so, the battle begins.

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A Fragile New Nation

1787

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On April 30, the first notice of New York City’s Society of St. Tammany is reported in the New York Daily Advertiser: “

“The members of St. Tammany’s Society in the City of New York are requested to meet at their wigwam, held at Mr. Talmage Hall’s, No. 49 Cortlandt Street, on Tuesday, the first day of May next, at sun, to celebrate the annual meeting.

By order of the Sachem.Putticatwamina, Sec’ry.”

It is worth noting that by the end of the 18th century, there will have been at least ninety newspapers published in New York City. 1

The following day, May 1, the New York Packet reports:

“The St. Tammany Society in this City will celebrate this day, it being the Anniversary of their Saint. We are informed that a number of other gentlemen likewise intend to observe the day, in honor of

Immortal Tammany I of Indian Race,Great in the field, and foremost in the chase!”

In successive days, there are identical reports in the New York Journal and Patriotic Register of May 3, the New York Packet of May 4, the New York Daily Advertiser of May 4, and the New York Independent Journal of May 5, demonstrating the technique of a press release, true or not, that will serve Tammany Hall’s agenda into the 19th century:

“Tuesday last being St. Tammany’s Day, (the Tutelar Saint of America,) the St. Tammany Society of this City held their Anniversary Meeting at the Wigwam at Hall’s. At eight o’clock P. M. the Society sat down to an elegant supper, provided by Mr. Hall, after which the following toasts were drank, viz. :

1st. The Day, and all who honor it.2nd. The Land of Liberty.3rd. Congress and their Allies.4th. The State of New York, and all who wish it prosperity.5th. His Excellency, the truly great and virtuous George Washington, Esq.6th. Louis XVI, King of France, his amiable Queen and Royal Family. 7th. Perpetual Unanimity and prosperity to the Sons of Tammany throughout the world.8th. The noble patriots who fell in the cause of American Liberty.9th. May the war hatchet be buried and the pipe of peace be smoked, till time shall be no more.10th. May the industry of the Beaver, the frugality of the Ant, and the constancy of the Dove be perpetual characteristics of the Sons of St. Tammany.11th. The daughters of St. Tammany and their papooses.12th. May the American chain never be tarnished by the rust of discord.13th. May honor, virtue, a true sense of liberty, and a detestation of slavery be the characteristics of Americans, and all their adopted brethren.

The evening being spent with that cordiality, good humour and love that always prevails when the Sons of St. Tammany meet, after drinking the above toasts and singing some excellent songs in honor of their Tutelar Saint, and smoking the pipe of peace, every man departed to his own wigwam and hunting ground. In hopes the ensuing year to spend In peace and love with every friend. A correspondent observes that the establishing of St. Tammany Society does honor to the promoters and makes not the least doubt but it will be the most respectable Society in this city in the course of a little time.”

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America Through the Eyes of St. Tammany

1787 By this time the Articles of Confederation are just not cutting it. The concepts that applied, for good or bad, to the Iroquois Nation’s Great Law of Peace for hundreds of years does not translate well for the new nation. The problem, as succinctly stated by George Washington is “no money.” 2 No State pays all their taxes. Georgia pays nothing. The government can print money, but it is worthless. The army is not paid and some troops are deserting while others threaten mutiny. No interest is paid on debt to foreign governments and in 1786 the U.S. defaults on these loans. 3 Declining to become king, Washington resigns his commission as commander in chief after bidding his troops farewell at Fraunces Tavern in New York City on December 23, 1783. It is an act that will stun England, with King George III remarking that Washington was “the greatest character of the age.” 4 In May 1787, after a brief retirement, Washington is persuaded to attend the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia and becomes its president. The Convention adopts the Constitution of the United States on September 17. When it is finally ratified, it will become the supreme law of the land, defining the separation of powers by the three branches of the Federal government: Congress, the Presidency and the Supreme Court.Between October 1787 and August 1788 the Constitution is promoted by The Federalist; or The New Constitution, a series of 85 articles, published anonymously in The Independent Journal and The New York Packet under the pseudonym “Publius,” after the Roman council Publius Valerius Publicola. 5 Not until the 20th Century will the authors of the now titled Federalist Papers be reveled as Alexander Hamilton, John Jay and James Madison by the historian Douglass Adair in his classic two-part essay, The Authorship of the Disputed Federalist Papers, in The William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd Series 1, 1944.

Washington’s Farewell to the Officers of His Army by Currier & Ives, from the collection of the Museum of the City of New York.

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1789

On March 4, after an arduous ratification process, the Constitution of the United States is put into effect at the opening of the 1st United States Congress in New York City.

On March 9, a resolution establishing the Tammany Society or Columbian Orderis signed.

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1789

From The Iconography of Manhattan Island, 1498 - 1909Compiled from the Original Sources and Illustrated by Photo-Intaglio

Reproductions of Important Map, Plans, Views and Documents in Public and Private Collections

by Isaac Newton Phelps Stokes.Original source, the New York Public Library.

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The Electoral College, having been formed by the Constitutional Convention, elects George Washington as president. On April 30, he is sworn in by Robert R. Livingston, Chancellor of New York at New York City’s Federal Hall on Wall Street. During his administration he struggles to prevent the emergence of political parties “viewing them as factions harmful to the public good.” 6 It is not to be. Seeking a balance to his cabinet he appoints Thomas Jefferson Secretary of State and Alexander Hamilton Secretary of the Treasury. The two men quarrelfrom the beginning.His vice president, John Adams in a widely quoted letter to his wife Abigail from 1780 states: “There is nothing which I dread so much as a division of the republic into two great parties, each arranged under its leader, and concerting measures in opposition to each other. This, in my humble apprehension, is to be dreaded as the greatest political evil under our Constitution.”

The Inauguration of Washington, by Currier & Ives, from the collection of the Museum of the City of New York.

Just shy of a fortnight later, on May 12 (observing the New Style Calendar) a notice appears in the New York Daily Advertiser:

“The Sons of St. Tammany intend celebrating their Anniversary Festival, on Tuesday, the 1st of May, Old Stile, (corresponding with 12th inst.) at the place appointed. Those brethren who are not supplied with Tickets, are requested to call on the Stewards for them immediately, or at Aorson’s Tavern, on This Evening, the 8th inst., where they will attend Those strangers who are now in this city, and who are Members of this Society in any other state, are invited to join on the occasion.

Dinner on the table at 3 o·clock.By order of the Grand Sachem.William Tapp, Sec’ry pro tem.”

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It what would be an almost identical repeat of the press release of 1787, the New York Journal and Patriotic Register of May 14, the New York Daily Gazette of May 14, and the New York Daily Advertiser of May 14 reports:

“Last Tuesday, being the 12th inst., (or the first of May, old stile) was the Anniversary of St. Tammany, the Tutelar Saint of America. On this occasion marquee, etc., were erected upon the banks of the Hudson, about two miles from the city, for the reception of the brethren’ of that Society, and an elegant entertainment provided, which was served up precisely at 3 o’clock. After dinner the following patriotic toasts were drank, under thirteen discharges, to each toast, from a Maroon Battery: 1. The United States and the new Era.2. The Illustrious Washington, in the triple capacity of Citizen, Soldier and Statesman.3. The Vice-President and Congress of the United States.4. Wisdom, Justice and Fortitude to the three branches of the Federal Legislature.5. The Governor of the State of New York.6. A grateful remembrance of those, who like Heroes fought, and gloriously fell in support of American freedom.7. His Most Christian Majesty and all our allies.8. May Honor, Virtue and Patriotism be the distinguishing Characteristics of the Sons of St. Tammany.9. The Sons and Daughters of St. Tammany throughout the World.10. May the industry of the Beaver, the Frugality of the Ant, and the constancy of the Dove perpetually distinguish the Sons of St. Tammany.11. May the American Chain never be tarnished by the Rust of Discord.12. May we continue to smoke the Calumet of Peace with all Mankind. (At this toast the calumet was smoked by each member in turn, in token of indissoluble friendship and peace.)13. The day, and all who honor it.The number which attended at this festival was very respectable, and affords, to the first Institutors of that Society, a happy presage of its growing importance and respectability. The afternoon was spent in the utmost harmony and the genuine spirit of conviviality and fraternal affection presidedto the last. After singing numbers of Songs adapted to the occasion, and smoking the Calumet of Peace, each member retired to his own Wigwam and Hunting Ground, in hopes of meeting on the next anniversary, in the same brotherly and affectionate manner, to commemorate the glorious deeds and achievements of their renowned Patron.”

This press release is clearly written by the same person as the press release of 1787 and the toasts are inspired by Philadelphia’s Sons of St. Tammany May Day celebrations.

Two days later, on May 14, a press release appears in New York Daily Gazette and The New York Daily Advertiser:

Although brief, this notice is significant. The key phrase being “at the usual Place.” It shows that the Society sought to meet at a regular place, in this case Barden’s Tavern on Broadway. 7

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1789 On May 24, Gaine’s New York Pocket Almanack reports of the incorporation of the St. Tammany Society:

“St. Tammany’s Society Or Independent Order of Liberty.

This being a national society consists of Americans born, who fill all offices, and adopted Americans, who are eligible to the honorary posts of warrior and hunter. It is founded on the true principles of patriotism, and has for its motives charity and brotherly love. Its officers consist of one Grand Sachem, twelve Sachems, one treasurer, one door-keeper—it is divided into thirteen tribes, which severally represent a state; each tribe is governed by a Sachem, the honorary posts in which are one warrior and one hunter.

Officers for the present year.William Mooney, Grand Sachem.

Sachems:White MatlackOliver GleanPhilip HoneJohn BurgerJonathan PierceThomas GreenleafJames TyleeJohn CampbellGabriel FurmanAbel HardenbrookCortlandt Van BurenJoseph Gadwin

Thomas Ash, Treasurer Anthony Ernest, SecretaryGardner Baker, Door-keeper.”

Fac-simile of Plan of the City of New York in 1789 from the collection of theMuseum of the City of New York.

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1789 After the ratification of the United States Constitution, one of the Society’s elected Sachems, printer Thomas Greenleaf publishes the following document:

ST. TAMMANY SOCIETY CONSTITUTIONFirst.This institution shall be called and known by the name of Saint Tammany’s Society or Columbian Order.Second.It shall connect in the indissoluble bonds of patriotic Friendship, American Brethren, of known attachment to the Political Rights of human Nature, and the Liberties of this country.Third.The constitution of this society shall consist of two Parts, viz., The external or public, and the internal or private. The latter shall ever be subordinate to the former admitting no construction contradicting either to the Letter or Spirit of the external, or calculated farther to infringe the equal Privileges of the Sons of St. Tammany, than is necessary to preserve peace, good Order, and Government.Fourth.Every Member, upon Initiation, shall come under an honorary Obligation to maintain the Reputation, Constitution and Harmony—and to preserve inviolably the Arcana of this Society.Fifth.This Society shall be governed by Thirteen Sachems. Annually chosen by Ballot, who shall from a council, and be invested with certain exclusive Judiciary Powers.Sixth.The President of this Society shall be known (and addressed) by the name of Grand Sachem, and be vested with certain exclusive Executive Powers.Seventh.There shall be a Treasurer, annually chosen, who shall preside over its Funds as by Law directed.Eighth.There shall be a Secretary annually chosen, who shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings and Laws, as by Law directed.Ninth.No person shall be eligible to the office of Sachem, unless a native of this Country, nor to the office of Grand Sachem above one year in three, nor to any two offices at one time.Tenth.This Society shall be divided into thirteen ‘distinct Tribes, with one of the Sachems presiding over each, who may have separate meetings, as by Law directed.Eleventh.The Tribes, in their separate Capacity, shall have Power to elect their own Officers, who shall not exceed Three in Number, and be entitled to receive the honorary Titles of Okemaw, Alank or Mackawalaw, at the discretion of the Grand Sachem.Twelfth.The number of States in the American Union, shall be the number constituting a quorum in all meetings of the Sons of Saint Tammany.Thirteenth.When alteration of, or Amendments to this constitution have been constitutionally recommended, and discussed by the Society, at three Meetings, they shall be finally submitted to the Judgment of the Tribes, the consent of Nine Tribes being necessary either for the adoption of the same, or to render void any part of this Constitution.

Two of the articles are especially significant. Article 3 speaks of “The external or public, and the internal or private.” This phrase defines the public and private aspect of Tammany Hall, which in the coming years will increasingly obscure the lines between its public patriotic and social functions and its private political machine. Article 9 states: “No person shall be eligible to the office of Sachem, unless a native of this Country…” This requirement, prohibiting immigrants from becoming members will be completely refuted by the Society after 1822 with the advent of male suffrage. Passed by the New York Legislature, it allows almost all white men to vote. Prior to this only property owners or men with enough wealth to be taxed could vote. This will lead to Irish immigrants dominating Tammany Hall in the 19th century.

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1789 The Grand Sachem, William Mooney is a middle class merchant. His name first appears in the New York Directory of 1786, which lists: “William Mooney, Upholsterer, 14 Nassau Street.” In 1788 he represents the city’s upholsterers in a grand parade staged by Alexander Hamilton celebrating the ratification of the U.S. Constitution, appearing on a float with a chair for the impending president of the United States. 8 In what will be a long line of members of Tammany Hall betraying the public trust, he secures the position of the superintendent of the Alms House through his society connections. His salary is $1000.00 per year, with an additional $500.00 for family expenses. An investigation reveals that he collects nearly $5,000.00 a year and steals supplies totaling $1,000.00 In 1809 he is forced to resign his office. 9 When asked to account for these items he lists them as “trifles for Mrs. Mooney.” 10

Silhouette of William Mooney, from the collection of theNew-York Historical Society.

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1789 Mr. Mooney notwithstanding, the real driving force behind the Society of St. Tammany and most likely the author of its Constitution is John Pintard. 11 Born on May 18th, 1759 in New York City, his name is the same as his father John Pintard, a shipping merchant. His mother, Mary Cannon dies soon after his birth and he is orphaned at one and a half years when his father dies. 12 His uncle, Lewis Pintard, raises him. He attends the College of New Jersey—later Princeton University—but leaves to join the Continental Army in New York City at the beginning the Revolutionary War. After Washington’s retreat from New York City, he returns to school earning a bachelor’s degree. He shows an early interest in history by writing an account of Washington’s evacuation of New York. 13 In May of 1782 his name appears for the first time as a signer of The Constitution Of The New Jersey Society Of The Sons Of St. Tammany No.1. 14 It is first and only reference of the New Jersey Society. At the end of the war he becomes a clerk to his uncle who is involved with Britain’s East India Company. After the war he strikes out on his own in the East India trade, establishing a shipping company at 12 Wall Street. His ships Belgiosa and Jay are among the first vessels that do trade with China, whereby he makes his fortune. In 1789, he is elected assistant alderman of New York City’s East Ward. 15

John Pintard, from the collection of the New York Public Library.

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On July 14, In Paris, French Revolutionaries storm the medieval fortress and prison known as the Bastille.

In August, Pintard, seeking to promote the idea of preserving American relics and historic manuscripts in the form of a museum, travels to Boston to meet with Dr. Jeremy Belknap. 16 Belknap, a clergyman and historian, is the author of a History of New Hampshire, one of the first American histories. On August 10, Belknap writes to his friend, Postmaster General Ebenezer Hazard, briefly describing the meeting: “This day a Mr. Pintard called to see me. He says he is an acquaintance of yours, and wants to form a Society of Antiquaries, etc. He seems to have a literary taste, is very loquacious and unreserved. Do give me his character.” 17

On September 5, Hazard replies to Belknap: “Mr. Pintard has mentioned to me his thoughts about an American Antiquarian Society. The idea pleases me much. We shall have the plan upon paper one of these days, and you will doubtless be made acquainted with it.” 18

On September 11, George Washington appoints Alexander Hamilton Secretary of the Treasury. The Assistant Secretary of the Treasury is William Duer, a lawyer, developer and bond speculator.

Alexander Hamilton, from the collection of the New York Public Library.

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On September 25, the first 10 amendments to the U. S. Constitution, know as the Bill of Rights is created during the 1st United States Congress in New York City.

On February 15, taking a cue from Philadelphia’s Sons of St. Tammany reception of Cornplanter, the Society of St. Tammany holds a reception for members of the Oneida Nation who are in New York City conferring with President Washington and New York Governor George Clinton. At the end of the reception a member of the Society “requested that whenever they came this way, they would call, at the wigwam; wished them luck in their business with the brethren of the Grand Council Fire of our nation, and bid them good night.” 19

On February 22, the Society of St. Tammany holds a celebration of the birthday of George Washington, who is 58, commemorating his first year as president. On February 25 the New York Journal and Patriotic Register reports:

“May the auspicious birth of our Great Grand Sachem, George Washington, be ever commemorated by all the loyal Sons of Saint Tammany.” It goes on to say: “…resolved unanimously that the 22nd day of February (corresponding with the 11th of February old style) be this day and ever hereafter commemorated by this Society as the birth of the illustrious George Washington, President of the United States of America.”

On May 12, chiefs of the Cayuga Indians attend the annual celebrations of the Society of St. Tammany. Speaking before the crowd, Dr. William Pitt Smith, who serves in the General Hospital Department of the Continental Army during the American Revolution, defines the objects of the Society:

“1. To impress upon the institution a strong American feature by adopting Indian terms, customs,dresses and ornaments, and that the Order might eventually adopt a pattern for a distinctive national dress.2. To promote intercourse between the states, and to remove local and class prejudices. 3. To establish a society whose membership was not gauged by wealth or class. 4. To cultivate and diffuse political knowledge.” 20

On May 14, The New York Journal and Patriotic Register reports:

“The festival was concluded by an Indian dance led by the Cayuga Indians, in which the officers of the society joined.”

On May 15, the Gazette of the United States reports:

“ The officers of the Society and many of the members were superbly habited in Indian dresses-the novelty of their appearance excited universal attention, and the day being fine, the scene collected a prodigious concourse of people.”

However, not everyone is impressed. Senator William Maclay of Pennsylvania, attending Congress, writes in his diary: “May 12, 1790—This day exhibited a grotesque scene in the streets of New York. Being the old first of May, the Sons of Tammany had a grand parade through the town in Indian dress. Delivered a talk at one of their meeting houses and went away to dinner. There seems to be some kind of order of society under this denomination, but it does not seem well digested as yet. The expense of the dress must have been considerable, and the money laid out in clothing might have had dressed a number of their ragged beggars. But the weather is warm now.” 21

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1790 In June, the American Museum, under the patronage of the Society of St. Tammany is established “For the purpose of collecting and preserving everything relating to the history of America; like-wise, every American production of nature or art.” 22

It is the first museum in the United Stares of America.

A Broadside, printed on the one year anniversary of the founding of the American Museum, from A History of the Metropolitan Museum of Art,

with a Chapter on the Early Institutions of Art in New York by Winifred E. Howe.

From Tamanend to Tammany Hall

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1790

On July 5, the New York Journal and Patriotic Register reports:

“The Society of Tammany also convened yesterday and testified a grateful remembrance of the acts of ‘76 by reading the Declaration of Independence.”

With New York City being the temporary capitol, Washington signs the Residence Act on July 16. It establishes that Philadelphia be the new temporary capitol for ten years while the permanent seat of the United States is readied on the banks of the Potomac River by Georgetown, Maryland. The act is a result of a compromise between Secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton and Virginia representative James Madison. Hamilton had issued the First Report on Public Credit on January 14. It proposed that the Federal Government assume the debts incurred by the 13 States during the Revolutionary War, thereby empowering the Federal Government to deal with the country’s serious financial obligations. It will effectively spread the debt throughout the States. Virginia’s Madison opposes this because the Northern states have incurred most of the debt. In exchange for Madison’s support, Hamilton agrees to have the Capitol located on the Potomac river across from Virginia. On December 6, Congress reconvenes in Philadelphia.

Plan of the City of Washington,from the collection of the New York Public Library.

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1790 As settlers press westward, they increasingly come into conflict with Native Americans. One such conflict comes with the Muscogee or Creek Indians of Georgia in 1786. War parties attack settlers along the Oconee River and President Washington mobilizes the Georgia militia. The Chief of the Upper Creek tribe, Alexander McGillivray refuses to negotiate. McGillivray, a half-breed, negotiates the Treaty of Pensacola with Spain in 1784 which recognizes Creek sovereignty over three million acres of land claimed by Georgia. 23 In a letter to the Georgia commissioners, McGillivray describes his grievances: “I can do no less than express my surprise at seeing the ignorance that you display concerning the dissatisfaction of the nation over the usurpation of our hunting grounds by individuals of that state. We have represented it to your governors as the greatest harm that could be done us, and even as recently as last July through Mr. James McGillivray, but your government has never taken the least notice of our representations to make amends for the offense.” 24 Bowing to pressure from Spain who threatens to reduce aid to the Creeks, McGillivray relents. 25 Washington sends his special emissary Colonel Marinus Willett to Georgia to meet with McGillivray. Willett convinces McGillivray to travel to New York City to meet with Washington and Secretary of War Henry Knox. 26

Alexander McGillivray by John Trumbull, from the public domain.

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On July 23, the following account, again clearly written in advance by a Society of St. Tammany member, appears in the New York Daily Advertiser:

“Yesterday arrived in this city Colonel Willett, accompanied by Colonel McGillivray, with thirty warriors of the Creek and Seimonal nations. They embarked at Elizabeth-Town Point about 9:00 o’clock, in the morning and landed on Murray’s wharf about 2 P. M. where they were received by the St. Tammany Society who attended on the occasion, attired in the most splendid dresses and other ‘emblems of that respectable society. The society was drawn up in two files, with the GrandSachem at the head who welcomed Colonel McGillivray ashore; who with the warriors, marched in the centre of the Society, which proceeded through Wall Street. When they came opposite the Federal Hall, Col. McGillivray and the Warriors saluted the Congress who were in the front of the balcony. and returned the compliment. The procession moved on to the Secretary of War’s, where the several Warriors smoked the calumet of peace, and next proceeded to the President’s, where they were particularly introduced; after which they waited on Governor Clinton, still accompanied by the Society. Who afterwards attended them to the City Tavern, where they took up their lodgings during their residence in the City. During the procession from the place of landing to Broadway, the chiefs sung a peculiar song; this, together with the band of music, and the appearance of the troops which preceded and closed the line of march, had a very striking effect on a numerous concourse of spectators who crowded the streets and windows. Notwithstanding the immense crowd collected on the occasion, not the least irregularity or accident happened. About four o’clock the St. Tammany Society having formed a circle in the rear of the City Tavern, Col. McGillivray made one of the chain, when Brother W. P. Smith dismissed the whole in the vernacular phrase of the nation, by recommending to the Society, in the name of the spirit of the free, to depart in peace. Too much credit cannot be given to the St. Tammany Society for their cheerful compliance with the intimation given them that their attendance on this occasion would be peculiarly agreeable.”

It is amazing to note that the trip by sea, from Elizabeth, New Jersey to Manhattan takes five hours.

On August 7, The Treaty of New York is signed by Alexander McGillivray, for the Creeks and Henry Knox, for the United States. The Treaty calls for “perpetual friendship” between the Creeks and The United States. The Creeks agree to cede a large portion of their land to the Federal Government and to return fugitive slaves. In return for this, the U.S. agrees to recognize Creek sovereignty for remaining lands. It is the first treaty between the Native Americans and the United States signed on American soil. Additionally a private agreement, the Treaty of New York, Secret Articles is signed. 27 It bribes the Creeks. Article two states:

“The United States also agree to allow to each of the great medal chiefs herein after named, a commission, a great medal with proper ornaments, and each one hundred dollars annually for themselves and the other beloved men of their towns respectively—to wit—Of the Upper Creeks The Chiefs the Oakfuskees, Tuckabatchees,

and the present Talissee King of the half-way houseOf the lower Creeks The Chiefs of the Cusitahs and CowetasOf The Semanolees The Chief of Micasukee.”

Article three gives McGillivray a much larger bribe:

“In order to effect a consolidation of the interests of the United States and the Creek nation. It is hereby stipulated that Alexander McGillivray the beloved Chief of the said nation shall also be constituted the Agent of the United States in the said nation with the rank of Brigadier General and the pay of one thousand two hundred dollars per annum, on his taking the usual oaths required by law.”

The secret agreement essentially encourages slave catching.

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On September 2, the members of New York City’s Common Council respond to a request by the Society of St. Tammany for use of a room in the City Hall for the American Museum: “Resolved that they [the Tammany Society] may have the use of the upper room in the City Hall in front of the Library Room whenever the same shall be cleared by the officers of Congress.” 28

Up to this time the Society of St. Tammany has held regular meetings at various city taverns. On September 10, the Society petitions the Common Council for use of a room in the Exchange, a public meeting-house built on Broad Street in 1752. 29 The Common Council agrees: “A petition, from the Society of St. Tammany for the use of the room in the Exchange was read and the prayer thereof granted: except when the room shall be wanted for public use.” Thereby establishing a permanent “Wigwam.”

The Exchange, Foot of Broad Street, from the collection of the New York Public Library.

On October 11, John Pintard writes to Jeremy Belknap: “I am exceedingly indebted to you for your present of the Indian Bible, which came safe to hand. I shall deposit it with your permission and in your name in the American Museum, lately instituted by the St. Tammany’s Society in this city for the express purpose of collecting and preserving everything relating to the natural or political history of America. A small fund is appropriated to that purpose, and should the Society exist, this branch of it may arrive to something useful. I have not time to explain the principles of this Society, of which I am a member, further than that it is a political institution founded on a strong republican basis, whose democratic principles will serve in some measure to correct the aristocracy of our city.” 30 The last sentence is worth noting. It speaks of the impending conflict between middle class merchants and tradesmen and the moneyed aristocracy. The result, to Washington and Adams chagrin, will be the formation of the First Party System as defined by the Democratic-Republican Party to be created by Thomas Jefferson and the Federalist Party to be created by Alexander Hamilton.

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In December, Secretary of the Treasury Hamilton tries to obtain further revenue to pay off bondholders of the now nationalized debt by proposing an excise tax on domestically distilled spirits—a “whiskey tax.”

On February 21, the First Bank of the United States is chartered. In a report to George Washington, Hamilton describes the need: “The tendency of a national bank is to increase public and private credit. The former gives power to the state for the protection of its rights and interests, and the latter facilitates and extends the operations of commerce amongst individuals.” 31

In response to this Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson, states: “Hamilton’s financial system had then passed. It had two objects; 1st, as a puzzle, to exclude popular understanding and inquiry; 2nd, as a machine for the corruption of the legislature; for he avowed the opinion, that man could be governed by one of two motives only, force or interest; force, he observed, in this country was out of the question, and the interests, therefore, of the members must be laid hold of, to keep the legislative in unison with the executive. And with grief and shame it must be acknowledged that his machine was not without effect; that even in this, the birth of our government, some members were found sordid enough to bend their duty to their interests, and to look after personal rather than public good.” 32

And so the gauntlet is thrown down. In or around 1791 Jefferson and fellow Virginian James Madison form the Democratic-Republican Party.

In March, Congress enacts the Whiskey Excise Act. Hamilton promotes it as a “luxury tax” or a “sin tax.” The uproar against it is immediate. It essentially pits the small distillers who are farmers west of the Appalachian Mountains distilling their excess grain, against the large distillers in the east. The large distillers produce year round and can afford to pay a flat tax for the year. The small distiller’s only produce for part of the year, thereby having to pay a higher tax rate. Additionally the small distillers often use whiskey in lieu of currency, so the tax is viewed as an income tax. In the coming years it will sorely test the new nation. On March 4, Aaron Burr is elected U.S. senator from New York defeating Philip Schuyler, whose daughter Elizabeth is married to Alexander Hamilton.

On April 6, Pintard writes again to Dr. Belknap, who by then is the president of the newly formed Massachusetts Historical Society: “I wish to hear whether, our Antiquarian Society is commencing, or its prospects. An account will be given in some future magazine of our Tammany Society. (We have lately un-canonized him.) This being a strong national society, I engrafted an antiquarian scheme of a museum upon it. It makes a small progress, with a small fund, and may possibly succeed. We have got a tolerable collection of Pamphlets, mostly modern, with some History, of which I will also send you some day an abstract. If your society succeeds, we will open a regular correspondence and interchange communications, duplicates, etc. If my plan once strikes root, it will thrive. Our society proposes celebrating the completion of the third century of the discovery of America, on the 12th of October, 1792, with some peculiar mark of respect to the memory of Columbus, who is our patron. We think besides a procession and oration-for we have annual orations-of erecting a column to his memory. I wish to know, if possible, the dimensions and cast of your monument on Beacon Hill, to guide our calculations.” 33

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Pintard’s un-canonizing of Tamanend is actually a canonization of the tutelar saint Christopher Columbus, further blurring the lines between the social and political aspects of the society that is called alternately: the Sons of St. Tammany and the Society of St. Tammany or the Columbian Order.

On May 16, Dunlap’s American Daily Register reports on the May 12 celebration of St. Tammany:

“The day was ushered in by a Federal salute from the battery and welcomed by a discharge of 13 guns from the brig Grand Sachem, lying in the stream. The society assembled at the great Wigwam, in Broad street, five hours after the rising of the sun, and was conducted from there in an elegant procession to the brick meeting house in Beekman street. Before them was borne the cap of liberty; after following seven hunters in Tammanial dress, then the great standard of the society, in the rear of which was the Grand Sachem and other officers. On either side of these were formed the members in tribes, each headed by its standard bearers and Sachem in full dress. At the brick meeting house an oration was delivered by their brother, Josiah Ogden Hoffman, to the society and to a most respectable and crowded audience. In the most brilliant and pathetic language he traced the origin of the Columbian Order and the Society of the Cincinnati. From the meetinghouse the procession proceeded (as before) to Campbell’s grounds, where upwards of two hundred people partook of a handsome and plentiful repast. The dinner was honored by his Excellency (George Clinton) and many of the most respectable citizens.”

The writer of this press release is John Pintard. 34

Following the arduous ratification of the Constitution, promoted by Alexander Hamilton, the anti-Federalists still appose it, seeing it as the work of aristocrats protecting the wealthy, that it discriminates against the southern states, and that it promotes the loss of state sovereignty. They call for a “bill of rights” that will define the rights of the individual citizen. James Madison steps in as the great compromiser and defuses the anti-Federalist’s opposition by working to persuade the House of Representatives to enact amendments to the Constitution. On December 15, Virginia is the 11th State to ratify the original 10 amendments known as the Bill of Rights, and it goes into effect. Massachusetts, Georgia and Connecticut will wait 150 years, in 1939, to finally ratify it.

Although they had secured a room at the Exchange to meet, the Society of St. Tammany wishes for their own building. To raise funds to do this the Society forms a tontine—an investment plan for raising capital—where participants buy shares in a common fund and receive an annuity that increases every time a participant dies, with the entire fund going those who survive after a specified time. On January 18, the New York Journal and Patriotic Register reports:

“The Tontine was opened by the Tammany Society a few days ago for the purpose of erecting a great wigwam or Tammany Hall for the convenience of the meetings and to accommodate the great museum of that respectable and patriotic society. This Tontine filled rapidly and it is rumored that a spacious lot is already purchased for the purpose intended.”

The plan is to issue 4000 shares at $16.00 a share and a prospectus is published. The surplus after the building is built, would be paid off to the living stockholders in 1820. The person who organizes the plan is John Pintard and it is doomed to fail. Little mention of it is made afterward and the Society has to wait until 1811 to finally build their “Tammany Hall.” 35

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Pintard is ruined by his involvement with William Duer. In January, having resigned his position in the United States Treasury, Duer starts a speculative company to drive down the price of the stock of the Bank New York which was formed in 1784 by Alexander Hamilton. The scheme involves an attempt to form a new bank in New York City. 36 One of New York City’s leading merchants, Alexander Macomb funds the scheme and John Pintard personally signs notes for over one million dollars. 37 The result is a bubble in securities prices in February. In March Duer cannot not repay the large amounts of money he has borrowed to implement the plan. The market crashes and the Panic of 1792 ensues. Alexander Hamilton orders the Treasury to purchase several hundred thousand dollars in federal securities, thereby restoring calm. Duer, Macomb and Pintard go to debtors’ prison where Duer dies. Macomb never recovers. Pintard eventually does recover, taking advantage of the Bankruptcy Act of 1800. He goes on to form, among other things, the New-York Historical Society.

On May 17, 24 stockbrokers meet under a buttonwood tree in front of 68 Wall Street, and sign the Buttonwood Agreement forming the New York Stock & Exchange Board. It stipulates that the brokers only trade among themselves. In 1863 the name will be shortened to the New York Stock Exchange.

View of the Old City Hall, Wall Street by Hatch & Smillie, showing the buttonwood tree, from the collection of the New York Public Library.

On July 14, Bastille Day, the Society of St. Tammany holds a celebration of the French Revolution, as reported in the New York Daily Advertiser of July 17:

“to celebrate that day on which the French nation wrested from the hands of tyranny their liberty and freedom. Every American must revere it and every friend to humanity must be filled with enthusiasm when he contemplates the event that happened on it.”

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On September 22, the French First Republic is founded. On October 10, the New York Journal and Patriotic Register publishes the following:

“Notice: The members of the Tammany Society or Columbian Order, are hereby notified that an extra meeting will be held in the wigwam the 12 inst. at seven o’clock, to celebrate the third century since the discovery of America by Columbus.

By Order of the Grand Sachem, Benjamin Strong, Secretary”

On October 12, the Society of St. Tammany or the Columbian Order celebrates the tercentenary of Christopher Columbus’s arrival in the New World. It is reported in the New York Journal and Patriotic Register of October 13: “

An elegant oration was delivered by Mr. I. B. Johnson, in which several of the principal events in the life of this remarkable man were pathetically described and the interesting consequences to which his great achievements had already, and must still conduct the affairs of mankind, were pointed out in a manner extremely satisfactory.”

A fourteen-foot high monument depicting the career of Columbus is unveiled. On the base is the following inscription: “This monument was erected by the Tammany Society, or Columbian Order Oct. 12, 1792 to commemorate 4th Columbian Century: an interesting and illustrious era.” 38 Following the celebration, the monument is housed in the Society’s American Museum and is illuminated on the anniversary of October 12. The following press release appears in the Columbian Gazetteer, Oct. 14, 1793,

“The Public are informed, that on Monday evening next being the 13th instant, a transparent monument dedicated to the memory of the great Columbus, the discoverer of this Western World, will be illuminated. This monument stands in the centre of the museum and its four sides show the most important events of this great navigator’s life from his being seated at the right hand of Ferdinand the then King of Spain, to his being enchained by order of this same king to satisfy some of his courtiers.”

Ticket to the American Museum from the collection of the New-York Historical Society.

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In the beginning of the year, a successful tontine is formed by the members of the New York Stock & Exchange Board to build a permanent meeting place. The result is the Tontine Coffee House, built on the northwest corner of Wall Street and Water Street. According to legend, members of the Society of St. Tammany and French Revolutionaries scale the building and place a red liberty cap on the roof.

The Tontine Coffee House, from the collection of the New York Public Library.

On January 21, Louis XVI, King of France, is executed by guillotine on the Place de la Révolution in Paris.

On February 1, France declares war with Great Britain. On April 8, the Ambassador of the new French First Republic, Edmond-Charles Genêt, arrives in America. Instead of presenting himself for accreditation to President Washington in Philadelphia, he lands in Charleston, South Carolina to promote France’s war directly to U.S. citizens.

On April 22, President Washington issues the Proclamation of Neutrality, declaring the U.S neutral in the war between France and Great Britain. “Citizen” Genêt travels to Philadelphia where Washington rebuffs him. Secretary of the Treasury Hamilton and Secretary of State Jefferson disagree on the proclamation, with Jefferson stating: “Why not stall and make countries bid for neutrality?” 39 with Hamilton, writing as Pacificus No. 1, in Philadelphia’s Gazette of the United States of June 29 states: “The objections which have been raised against the Proclamation of Neutrality lately issued by the President have been urged in a spirit of acrimony and invective, which demonstrates, that more was in view than merely a free discussion of an important public measure; that the discussion covers a design of weakening the confidence of the People in the author of the measure; in order to remove or lessen a powerful obstacle to the success of an opposition to the Government, which however it may change its form, according to circumstances, seems still to be adhered to and pursued with persevering Industry.” Hamilton goes on the reveal that “Genêt has been sending increasingly strident messages to the government, including offensive references to George Washington.” 40 On December 31, Jefferson resigns as Secretary of State.

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1793 On May 12, contrary to Washington’s proclamation of neutrality and Hamilton’s disapproval of Genêt, the Society of St. Tammany holds its annual celebration with 400 members parading in red liberty caps. On May 15 the New York Journal and Patriotic Register reports:

“At 10 o’clock in the morning the society had assembled at Tammanial Hall, in Broad street, and marched to St. Paul’s Church, where Brother Cadwallader D. Colden delivered to a crowded and brilliant audience an animated talk on the excellence of the Government and situation of the United States when contrasted with those of despotic countries. In the procession were about 400 members in civilian dress. From each hat flowed a bucktail the symbol of Liberty and the standard and cap of Liberty were carried in front of the line. From the church ‘the Tammanials’ went to their Hall, where some 150 of them partook of an elegant dinner.” A number of toasts are read. The sixth toast states: “Success to the Armies of France, and Wisdom, Concord and Firmness to the Convention.” The article goes on to say that “The first sentence was hardly articulated when as one the whole company arose and gave three cheers, continued by roars of applause for several minutes; the toast was then given in whole and the applauses reiterated.”

A red liberty cap, or phrygian, on the Park Avenue facade of the former Tammany Hall on 17th Street. Photograph by Jeffrey B. Evans.

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In August, Citizen Genêt arrives in New York City, proclaiming, “The whole city will fall before me.” 41 Miss Ann Julia Hatton, an actress and writer, accompanies him and he is fêted by the Society of St. Tammany. 42 However, his political machinations catch up with him and in December his diplomatic credentials are revoked. Rather than returning to France, where the Jacobins have replaced the Girondist faction who appointed him, he seeks and is eventually granted asylum by George Washington. (It is worth noting that during France’s Reign of Terror, from September 1793 to July 1794, at least 40,000 people will be summarily executed. It demonstrates the differences between the French and American Revolution’s dealing with political conflict.) He marries Cornelia Clinton, daughter of Governor George Clinton and retires to the life of a gentleman farmer in East Greenbush, New York overlooking the Hudson River. His legacy of crystallizing the conflict between the Democratic-Republicans and the Federalists remains.

Edmond-Charles Genêt, from the collection of the New York Public Library.

The American Museum, having outgrown its location in City Hall, moves to the Exchange. 43

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At this time both Democratic-Republicans and Federalists are members of the Society of St. Tammany with partisan wrangling still lying under the surface of day-to-day politics in New York City. Three families dominate: the Clintons, the Livingston’s and the Schuylers. George Clinton enjoys support from the Democratic-Republicans as Governor. The Schuylers support the Federalists, whose leader is Alexander Hamilton, son in law of General Philip Schuyler. The Livingston’s allegiances are fluid.

On March 3, the Society of St. Tammany produces the Songs of Tammany; or, the Indian Chief, A Serious Opera, by Miss Ann Julia Hatton. Its main characters are Tamanend and Columbus and it embraces the French Revolution. It is a hit among the Democratic-Republicans. 44 A letter from “A Citizen” in the New York Daily Advertiser of March 6 states: “I have waited in hopes that some more able pen would thank Mrs. Hatton for her elegant opera of Tammany, which has proved to this city a production of surprise and pleasure; and I can only attribute the silence of our literary friends, to astonishment from which they are not yet recovered.” A pro Federalist critic responds: “Why is that wretched thing Tammany again brought forward? Messrs. Hallam & Henry [managers of the theatre], we are told, used to excuse themselves for giving it, by saying that it was sent them by the Tammany Society and they were afraid of disobeying so respectable a body of critics who, having appointed a committee to report upon the merits of this piece, had determined it to be one of the finest things of its kind ever seen.” 45

18th Century Theater, from the collection of the New York Public Library.

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As part of France’s war with Great Britain, the British Navy are seizing neutral American merchant ships and impressing the American sailors. A new American war with Great Britain seems imminent; in reaction to this the call goes out to reinforce New York City’s harbor. An article in the Columbian Gazetteer of April 23 reports:

“We hear that the Tammany Society are determined to improve the present opportunity of adding to the incidents of their distinguished zeal for the safety and welfare of the Republic in general and of this port and city in particular, by turning out to work with their own hands upon the fortifications in the harbor. By actions of this kind, the dignity and honor of true Republicans is shown.”

An article in the New York Daily Advertiser of May 1 makes the call to work official:

“The Tammany Society or Columbian Order, having resolved to go on Governor’s Island on Friday next, the 2nd day of May, to work on the fortifications the members are requested to meet at Tammanial Hall precisely at eight o’clock a. m. on that day for the aforesaid purpose. As this is a voluntary act, it is presumed that none who are well wishers of the safety and security of this country will neglect to attend.

By order of the Grand Sachem Benjamin Strong, Secretary”

In July, the Whiskey Rebellion comes to a head. The government sends a U.S. Marshal to the area around Pittsburgh to serve writs to small distillers who refuse to pay the tax. They respond by arming 500 men and surrounding the home of tax inspector General John Neville, where the marshal is staying. Shots are fired and one protester is killed. The protesters then burn Neville’s home to the ground. Washington responds by sending peace commissioners while at the same time mustering a militia of 15,000 men which he leads to suppress the insurgency. The rebels melt away and there is no confrontation. The Democratic-Republicans and many members of the Society of St. Tammany strongly criticize what they see as excessive use of force. 46

Tarring & Feathering an Excise Officer, from the public domain.

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In his sixth address to congress on November 19, Washington lashes out at the rebels and their supporters: “The very forbearance to press prosecutions was misinterpreted into a fear of urging the execution of the laws, and associations of men began to devise threats against the officers employed. From a belief that by a more formal concert their operation might be defeated, certain self-created societies assumed the tone of condemnation. Hence, while the greater part of Pennsylvania itself were conforming themselves to the acts of the excise, a few counties were resolved to frustrate them.” 47

On December 30, a letter from “A Calm Observer” is published in the New York Daily Advertiser:

Gentlemen,I presume that it is high time for you to arouse from your lethargy and convince the world that you are free from the charges alleged against you by a certain great man, calling you self-created society. You have the example before you of a very eminent society of learned men, and men whose talents and truly patriotic virtue it would be a shame for any one to doubt—They by their late vindication of themselves, have set an example to you and all other societies of freemen.

It goes on to say:

It is their duty in times of public necessity to sound the alarm and rouse them into a contemplation and sense of their danger; and even if the alarm should sometimes be false, this is no reason that it should never be true. And although the good man should suffer in his popularity and reputation, this is not to say but they by their vigilance and dexterity may at some time or other find out and detect the evil man (may be that they mean Hamilton for what I know). But considering the situation these persecuted men are in, I promise myself that after they have thoroughly sifted the government of the United States of Aristocrats, they will turn their attention more particularly to their own State governments, and by this means we shall come to a more thorough knowledge of the proceedings of our own.

This letter is significant. It refutes Washington’s criticism of the Society. It publicly calls out Hamilton for the first time, alluding that he is evil and an Aristocrat. It goes on to define the age-old conflict between States rights’ versus the Federal Government.

On January 21, New York Daily Advertiser prints a resolution by the pro-Federalist faction of the Society of St. Tammany which in part reads:

“Resolved, That it is the opinion of this Society that the President of the United States in using his best endeavors to support on all occasions the laws and constitution of these states, entitles him to the warmest thanks and fullest approbation of every lover of their prosperity and happiness.”

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Having been caught off guard, the Democratic-Republican majority of the Society responds with an official proclamation at the next Society meeting. Published in the New York Daily Advertiser of February 4, it says that the former address was:

“conceived in a hurry so mysterious and ushered in the world with a precipitation so unprecedented cannot in reason and does not in fact express the candid opinion and deliberate sentiments of this society, and is therefore condemned as officious, inconsiderate, impolitic and unconstitutional and does not express the candid opinion and deliberate sentiments of the Columbian Order.”

To this the Federalist faction quit en masse, thereby committing the Society of St. Tammany, ostensibly a social and fraternal organization, to the Democratic-Republican Party.

On January 31, Alexander Hamilton retires as Secretary of the Treasury.

In the spring, having allied themselves with the Democratic-Republicans, the Society of St. Tammany begin to meet at the “Long Room” in the tavern of Abraham “Brom” Martling on the corner of Nassau and Spruce Street. 48

Martling’s Tavern, from Tammany Hall by M.R. Werner.

On May 12, the Society of St. Tammany holds the annual celebration with a march from their “wigwam” to the Presbyterian Church on Wall Street. They then repair to Hunter’s Hotel where an oration is delivered by Columbia College professor Samuel Latham Mitchill, M.D. The address is later published as a brochure entitled: The Life, Exploits, and Precepts of Tammany; the famous Indian Chief. 49

With John Pintard cooling his heels in Debtors’ prison, the American Museum had been overseen by the Society of St. Tammany’s wiskinkie, or door-keeper, Gardiner Baker. On June 25, the Society decides to relinquish its management of the museum and turns the collection over to Baker. 50

During the annual celebrations on May 12, the Society of St Tammany toasts “Citizen” Thomas Jefferson and “Citizen” Edward Livingston. Nine cheers are given. Additionally, a toast is given to: “The people, may they ever at the risk of life and liberty support their equal rights in opposition to Ambition, Tyranny, to Sophistry and Deception, to Bribery and Corruption and to an enthusiastic fondness and implicit confidence in their fellow-fallible mortals.” 51

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1796 On September 19, the American Daily Advertiser publishes The Address of General Washington To The People of The United States on his declining of the Presidency of the United States, known as Washington’s Farewell Address. It is a 6,000 word document. Reputedly written in part by Alexander Hamilton, it is considered to be the foundation of Federalist Party doctrine. In part, it defines the danger of States rights over the Federal Government:

“I have already intimated to you the danger of parties in the State, with particular reference to the founding of them on geographical discriminations. Let me now take a more comprehensive view, and warn you in the most solemn manner against the baneful effects of the spirit of party generally.

This spirit, unfortunately, is inseparable from our nature, having its root in the strongest passions of the human mind. It exists under different shapes in all governments, more or less stifled, controlled, or repressed; but, in those of the popular form, it is seen in its greatest rankness, and is truly their worst enemy.

The alternate domination of one faction over another, sharpened by the spirit of revenge, natural to party dissension, which in different ages and countries has perpetrated the most horrid enormities, is itself a frightful despotism. But this leads at length to a more formal and permanent despotism. The disorders and miseries which result gradually incline the minds of men to seek security and repose in the absolute power of an individual; and sooner or later the chief of some prevailing faction, more able or more fortunate than his competitors, turns this disposition to the purposes of his own elevation, on the ruins of public liberty.”

A detail of the original manuscript of Washington’s Farewell Address, showing heavy edits, from the collection of the New York Public Library.

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America Through the Eyes of St. TammanyNOTES ON CHAPTER 2

1 Eighteenth-Century American Newspapers in the Library of Congress, New York (http://www.loc.gov/rr/news/18th/newyork.html)2 Pauline Maier, Ratification: The People Debate the Constitution, 1787-1788. (Simon & Schuster, 2010) pp. 11-133 Ibid4 Richard Brookhiser, Founding Father: Rediscovering George Washington. (Free Press, 1996) p.1035 Albert Furtwangler, The Authority of Publius: A Reading of the Federalist Papers. (Cornell University Press, 1984) p. 516 The Miller Center of The University of Virginia, American President: A Reference Resource: George Washington. (millercenter.org)7 Edwin P. Kilroe, Saint Tammany and the Origins of the Society of Tammany or Columbian Order in the City of New York (Columbia University, 1913) p. 1898 Edwin P. Kilroe, Saint Tammany and the Origins of the Society of Tammany or Columbian Order in the City of New York (Columbia University, 1913) p. 1319 Minutes of the Common Council of the City of New York, Vol. XX pp. 376-39210 Oliver E. Allen, The Tiger: The Rise and Fall of Tammany Hall (Addison-Wesley 1993) p. 2211 Edwin P. Kilroe, Saint Tammany and the Origins of the Society of Tammany or Columbian Order in the City of New York (Columbia University, 1913) p. 13212 Letters from John Pintard to his Daughter, Volume 1 (New-York Historical Society 1940) p. 10213 Kerry J. Davidson, Sr., John Pintard, Witness to the Revolution (revolutionarywararchives.org)14 Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, XXVI :21015 Walter Barrett, The Old Merchants of New York, Second Series (Carlton, Publisher 1863) Chapter 2216 Edwin P. Kilroe, Saint Tammany and the Origins of the Society of Tammany or Columbian Order in the City of New York (Columbia University, 1913) p. 13417 Belknap Papers, Part 2, Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society p.15718 Ibid. p.23119 New York Journal and Patriotic Register, February 18, 1790.20 New York Magazine or Literary Repository, 1:290-295.21 Edwin P. Kilroe, Saint Tammany and the Origins of the Society of Tammany or Columbian Order in the City of New York (Columbia University, 1913) p. 20122 New York Directory and Register for 1794, p. 27123 Jack D. L. Holmes, Spanish Treaties with West Florida Indians, 1784-1802 (The Florida Historical Quarterly Vol. 48, No. 2 Oct., 1969), pp. 140-15424 John Walton Caughey, Mcgillivray Of The Creeks (University Of Oklahoma Press 1938) p.13025 Ibid., pp. 187-18826 Ibid., pp. 40-4127 The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration 28 Minutes of the Common Council of the City of New York, Sept. 2, 179029 Ibid., October 4, 175230 Belknap Papers, Part 3, Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society p. 49031 Harold C. Syrette & Jacob E. Cooke editors, The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, Volume VII (Columbia University Press 1963) p. 25632 Franklin B. Sawvel, Ph.D. editor, The Complete Anas of Thomas Jefferson (The Round Table Press 1903) p. 3033 Belknap Papers, Part 2, Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society p. 24534 Gustavus Myers, The History of Tammany Hall (Boni & Liveright, Inc. 1917) p. 735 Edwin P. Kilroe, Saint Tammany and the Origins of the Society of Tammany or Columbian Order in the City of New York (Columbia University, 1913) pp. 190-191

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A Fragile New Nation36 David J. Cowen, Richard Sylla, Robert E. Wright, The U.S. Panic of 1792: Financial Crisis Management and the Lender of Last Resort (National Bureau of Economic Research 2006) p.1237 Edwin P. Kilroe, Saint Tammany and the Origins of the Society of Tammany or Columbian Order in the City of New York (Columbia University, 1913) p.15038 Ibid. p.18639 Ron Chernow, Alexander Hamilton (Penguin 2004) p. 43540 Richard Brookhiser, Alexander Hamilton, American (The Free Press 1999) p. 11641 Edwin G. Burrows & Mike Wallace, Gotham, A History of New York City to 1898 (Oxford University Press 1999) p. 31842 Oliver E. Allen, The Tiger, The Rise and Fall of Tammany Hall (Addison- Wesley Publishing Company 1993) p. 1043 Winifred E. Howe, A History of The Metropolitan Museum of Art, With a Chapter on the Early Institutions in New York (The Metropolitan Museum of Art 1913) p. 444 Edwin P. Kilroe, Saint Tammany and the Origins of the Society of Tammany or Columbian Order in the City of New York (Columbia University, 1913) p. 19445 New York Magazine or Literary Repository, Vol. 6, No. 5 March 1795, pp. 130-13146 Oliver E. Allen, The Tiger, The Rise and Fall of Tammany Hall (Addison- Wesley Publishing Company 1993) p. 1147 James D. Richardson, A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents Vol. 1 (Published by au-thority of Congress, 1899) p. 163.48 Edwin G. Burrows & Mike Wallace, Gotham, A History of New York City to 1898 (Oxford University Press 1999) p. 32249 Isaac Newton Phelps Stokes, The Iconography of Manhattan Island, 1498-1909 (Robert H. Dodd 1926) p. 132050 Edwin P. Kilroe, Saint Tammany and the Origins of the Society of Tammany or Columbian Order in the City of New York (Columbia University, 1913) p. 17551 Gustavus Myers, The History of Tammany Hall (Boni & Liveright, Inc. 1917) p. 10

st. tammany chapter 2

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