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SRIMAAN COACHING CENTRE-TNUSRB-EXAM STUDY MATERIAL/
PG-TRB-COMPUTER INSTRUCTOR GRADE-I / TET: P1/P2 /RRB
AEEO/STUDY MATERIALS AVAILABLE-CONTACT -8072230063.
SRIMAAN COACHING CENTRE-PG-TRB-COMPUTER
INSTRUCTOR GRADE-I-(NEW SYLLABUS-2019-20)-
STUDY MATERIAL-CONTACT: 8072230063.
2019-20
SRIMAAN
SSRRIIMMAAAANN
PG-TRB COMPUTER
INSTRUCTOR RELATIONAL DATABASE
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
2019-2020
PDF processed with CutePDF evaluation edition www.CutePDF.comEDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY STUDY MATERIAL + GK STUDY MATERIAL AVAILABLE.
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SRIMAAN 8072230063
SRIMAAN COACHING CENTRE-TRICHY
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NEW SYLLABUS-2019-20
UNIT-VI
RELATIONAL DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION As the name suggests, the database management system consists of two parts. They are:
1. Database and
2. Management System
What is a Database? To find out what database is, we have to start from data, which is the basic building block of
any DBMS.
Data: Facts, figures, statistics etc. having no particular meaning (E.g. 1, ABC, 19 etc).
Record: Collection of related data items, e.g. in the above example the three data items had no
meaning. But if we organize them in the following way, then they collectively represent meaningful
information.
Table or Relation: Collection of related records.
Roll Name Age
1 ABC 19
2 DEF 22
3 XYZ 28
The columns of this relation are called Fields, Attributes or Domains. The rows are
called Tuples or Records.
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What is Management System?
A database-management system (DBMS) is a collection of interrelated data and a set of
programs to access those data.
This is a collection of related data with an implicit meaning and hence is a database.
The collection of data, usually referred to as the database, contains information relevant to an
enterprise.
The primary goal of a DBMS is to provide a way to store and retrieve database information
that is both convenient and efficient. By data, we mean known facts that can be recorded and
that have implicit meaning.
Database systems are designed to manage large bodies of information.
Management of data involves both defining structures for storage of information and providing
mechanisms for the manipulation of information.
In addition, the database system must ensure the safety of the information stored, despite
system crashes or attempts at unauthorized access.
If data are to be shared among several users, the system must avoid possible anomalous results.
Database Management System (DBMS) and Its Applications:
A Database management system is a computerized record-keeping system.
It is a repository or a container for collection of computerized data files.
The overall purpose of DBMS is to allow he users to define, store, retrieve and update the
information contained in the database on demand. Information can be anything that is of
significance to an individual or organization.
Databases touch all aspects of our lives. Some of the major areas of
application are as follows:
1. Banking
2. Airlines
3. Universities
4. Manufacturing and selling
5. Human resources
Enterprise Information Sales:
For customer, product, and purchase information.
Accounting: For payments, receipts, account balances, assets and other accounting information.
Human resources: For information about employees, salaries, payroll taxes, and benefits, and for
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generation of paychecks.
Manufacturing: For management of the supply chain and for tracking production of items in factories,
inventories of items inwarehouses and stores, and orders for items.
Online retailers: For sales data noted above plus online order tracking,generation of recommendation
lists, and maintenance of online product evaluations.
Banking: For customer information, accounts, loans, and banking transactions.
Credit card transactions: For purchases on credit cards and generation of monthly statements.
Finance: For storing information about holdings, sales, and purchases of financial instruments
such as stocks and bonds; also for storing real-time market data to enable online trading by
customers and automated trading by the firm.
Universities: For student information, course registrations, and grades (in addition to standard
enterprise information such as human resources and accounting).
Airlines: For reservations and schedule information. Airlines were among the first to use
databases in a geographically distributed manner.
Telecommunication: For keeping records of calls made, generating monthly bills,
maintaining balances on prepaid calling cards, and storing information about the
communication networks.
Purpose of Database Systems:
Database systems arose in response to early methods of computerized management of
commercial data.
As an example of such methods, typical of the 1960s, consider part of a university
organization that, among other data, keeps information about all instructors, students,
departments, and course offerings.
One way to keep the information on a computer is to store it in operating system files.
To allow users to manipulate the information, the system has a number of application programs
that manipulate the files, including programs to:
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Padasalai
SRIMAAN COACHING CENTRE-TRICHY-PG-TRB-
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Add new students, instructors, and courses
Register students for courses and generate class rosters
Assign grades to students, compute grade point averages (GPA), and generate transcripts.
This typical file-processing system is supported by a conventional operating system. The
system stores permanent records in various files, and it needs different application programs to extract
records from, and add records to, the appropriate files.
Relation model
Relational data model presented by Coded in 1970. It is based on set theory and order predicate
logic. Relation is derived from set theory of mathematics. In this model, data is stored in relations.
Relation is a formal term for table. A table in a database has unique table name that identifies
its contents. Each table called an intersection of rows and columns. This is based on 3 principle parts
Data structure
Data integrity
Data manipulation
Relation is a formal term of table.
Row- tuples, Column-attribute, Number of tuples- cardinality, Number of attributes- degree.
A domain is pool of values from which the values of specific attributes of specific relations are
taken.
The catalog: Every DBMS provide a catalog or dictionary function. The catalog is the place where all of the
various schemas and all of the corresponding mappings are kept.
The catalog contains detailed information (Meta data) regarding the various objects that are of
interest to the system itself. Types: A type is set of values.
Define own types: TYPE<type name><possible representation>
Delete types:
DROP TYPE<type name>;
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Padasalai
SRIMAAN COACHING CENTRE-TRICHY-PG-TRB-
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SRIMAAN 8072230063
Keys: There is no duplicate tuples within a relation. So we need to be able to identify one or more
attributes called relation keys.
1. Super key:
An attribute or set of attributes that uniquely identifies a tuple within a relation is called super
key.
2. Candidate key:
A super key has no proper subset is a super key within a relation is called candidate key.
It having 2 properties i.e., Uniqueness, Irreducibility.
3. Composite key:
If a key consists of more than one attributes then it is called as composite key
4. Primary key:
The candidate key that is selected to identify tuples uniquely within the relation is called as
primary key.
5. Alternate keys:
The candidate key that are not selected to be the primary key.
6. Foreign key:
An attribute or set of attributes, within one relation that matches the candidate key of some
relation is called foreign key.
Relational algebra:
RA operations is a theoretical language with operations that work on one or more relations
to define another relation without changing the original relation.
Unary operations- select, project and rename
Binary operation- union, cross product, and set difference
1. Selection( or restriction) operation:
It works on a single relation R. it defines a relation that contains only those tuples of R that
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Padasalai
SRIMAAN COACHING CENTRE-TRICHY-PG-TRB-
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SRIMAAN 8072230063
satisfy the specified condition.
Syntax: σθ (r) ,σ: select operator ( read as sigma), θ: selection condition, r: relation name
Example: σ (name) = “geetha” (professor).
2. Projection(π):
It works on a single relation R and defines a relation that contains a vertical subset of R,
extracting the values of specified attributes and eliminating duplicates.
Syntax:
π a1, a2… ak(R), Where a1, a2… ak is a list L of desired attributes in the scheme of r.
Example: π rollno, name(student).
3. Rename(ρ):
It can rename either the relation name or the attribute names or both.
Syntax: ρs(B1, B2,…. Bn)(R) .
4. Union(U):
The union of two relations R and S defines a relation that contains all the tuples of R or S or
both R and S, duplicate tuples being eliminated. Union is possible only if the schema of the two
relations match.
Syntax:R U S
5. Set difference(-):
It defines a relation consisting of the tuples that are in relation R, but not in S.
Syntax: R-S
6. Intersection(∩):
It defines a relation consisting of the set of all tuples that are in both R and S.
Syntax: R ∩ S
7. Cross product(×): It defines a relation that is the concatenation of every tuple of relation R with every tuple of
relation S.
Syntax: R × S
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Padasalai
SRIMAAN COACHING CENTRE-TRICHY-PG-TRB-
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SRIMAAN 8072230063
Additional operations: The fundamental operations of the relational algebra are sufficient to express any relational
algebra query. So we are adding additional operations in the algebra.
a. Join operations: It combines two relations to form a new relation. There are various join operations,
1. Theta join
2. Equijoin
3. Natural join
4. Outer join
b. Division:
It defines a relation over the attributes C that consists of the set of tuples from R that match the
combination of every tuple in S. Syntax: R ÷ S
c. Assignment:
It is convenient at times to write a relational algebra expression by assigning parts of it to
temporary relation variables. It is denoted by ←
Extended relational algebra operations: 1. Generalized projection
2. Aggregate function
1. Generalized projection:
It extends the projection operation by allowing arithmetic functions to be used in the projection
list.
2. Aggregate function:
It takes a collection of values and return single value as a result.
Domain relational calculus:
It uses the variable that takes their values from domain of attributes.
General form: {d1, d2 ….dn/F (d1, d2 ….dm)} m≥n
Where d1,d2,…dm- domain variable
F(d1, d2 ….dm)- a formulae composed of atom
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Padasalai
SRIMAAN COACHING CENTRE-TRICHY-PG-TRB-
COMPUTER INSTRUCTOR GRADE-I– NEW SYLLABUS
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Each atom has following forms,
R (d1, d2 ….dn), where R is relation & d is domain variable.
di θ dj, where di& dj are domain variable & θ is one of the comparison operations.
di θ C, where di& dj are domain variable & θ is one of the comparison operations & C
is constant.
Tuple relational calculus: In relational calculus, write one declarative expression to specify
retrieval request, and hence, there is no description of how to evaluate query.
A calculus expression specifies what is to be retrieved rather than how to retrieve it. Therefore
the relation calculus is considered to be a nonprocedural language.
Fundamentals operations: Simple tuple relational calculus query is of the form,
{t/COND (t)}
Where t is a tuple variable
COND (t) is a conditional expression involving t
Example:
Find all staffs whose salary is above 15000.
Advantages of DBMS: Controlling of Redundancy:
Data redundancy refers to the duplication of data (i.e storing same data
multiple times).
In a database system, by having a centralized database and centralized control of data
by the DBA the unnecessary duplication of data is avoided.
It also eliminates the extra time for processing the large volume of data.
It results in saving the storage space.
9
Improved Data Sharing :
DBMS allows a user to share the data in any number of application programs.
Data Integrity :
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Padasalai
SRIMAAN COACHING CENTRE-TRICHY-PG-TRB-
COMPUTER INSTRUCTOR GRADE-I– NEW SYLLABUS
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Integrity means that the data in the database is accurate.
Centralized control of the data helps in permitting the administrator to define integrity
constraints to the data in the database.
For example: in customer database we can can enforce an integrity that it must accept the
customer only from Noida and Meerut city.
Security :
Having complete authority over the operational data, enables the DBA in ensuring that the
only mean of access to the database is through proper channels.
The DBA can define authorization checks to be carried out whenever access to sensitive data is
attempted.
Data Consistency :
By eliminating data redundancy, we greatly reduce the opportunities for
inconsistency.
For example: is a customer address is stored only once, we cannot have disagreement
on the stored values.
Also updating data values is greatly simplified when each value is stored in one
place only.
Finally, we avoid the wasted storage that results from redundant data storage.
Efficient Data Access :
In a database system, the data is managed by the DBMS and all access to the data is through
the DBMS providing a key to effective data processing.
Enforcements of Standards :
With the centralized of data, DBA can establish and enforce the data standards which may
include the naming conventions, data quality standards etc.
Data Independence :
In a database system, the database management system provides the interface between the
application programs and the data.
When changes are made to the data representation, the meta data obtained by the DBMS is
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Padasalai
SRIMAAN COACHING CENTRE-TRICHY-PG-TRB-
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SRIMAAN 8072230063
changed but the DBMS is continues to provide the data to application program in the
previously used way.
The DBMs handles the task of transformation of data wherever necessary.
Reduced Application Development and Maintenance Time :
DBMS supports many important functions that are common to many applications, accessing
data stored in the DBMS, which facilitates the quick development of application.
Disadvantages of DBMS:
It is bit complex. Since it supports multiple functionality to give the user the best, the
underlying software has become complex.
The designers and developers should have thorough knowledge about the software to get the
most out of it.
Because of its complexity and functionality, it uses large amount of memory.
It also needs large memory to run efficiently.
DBMS system works on the centralized system, i.e.; all the users from all over the world
access this database.
Hence any failure of the DBMS, will impact all the users.
DBMS is generalized software, i.e.; it is written work on the entire systems rather specific one.
Hence some of the application will run slow.
DATA NORMALIZATION
Normalization: The base of the relational database management system is the normalization –meaning a
method which gives the optimum way of the data’s placement. In case of an inefficiently
designed database there will be contradictions and anomalies in the data structure.
Normalization allows you to structure data appropriately, and it helps you to eliminate the
anomalies and lower data redundancy.
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Padasalai
SRIMAAN COACHING CENTRE-TRICHY-PG-TRB-
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Anomalies:
Insertion anomaly:
Adding a record wishes another record’s enrolment which is not logically related to the
record.
Deletion anomaly:
During deleting the item some instance of data is removed as well.
Update anomaly: Because of a change of a data we have to update it at its every place of occurrence.
Normal Forms First Normal Form:
There are no repeating elements or groups of elements.
In every row of the relations one and only one value takes place in a column, the order of the
values is the same in every row, and every row is different.
There is always at least one or more feature(s) which make(s) the rows individually
distinguishable.
Second Normal Form:
The relation is in first normal form, and none of its secondary attributes depend on any of the
genuine subset of its keys. (Primary attributes are the ones which belong to a key; in case of
secondary attributes this is not true.)
Third Normal Form:
The relation is in second normal form and there is no functional dependence among the
secondary attributes.
If the value of “B” attribute depends on the value of “A” attribute, and the value of “C”
attribute transitively depends on the value of “A” attribute.
Elimination of these transitively dependences is an essential requirement of the third normal
form.
If the table of the database is not in third normal form we have to divide it into two tables,
each of them in third normal form.
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Dependences
Functional dependency:
When any values of a feature of the system can be assigned to only one value of another
feature.
E.g.: one personal identity number can be connected to one person but a person is able to have
more personal identity numbers.
One-to-many relationship:
Mutual Functional Dependency:
When the above-mentioned requirements come true in both directions. e.g.: registration
number- number of the engine. One-to-one relationship.
Functionally Independents:
When the above-mentioned requirements don’t come true.
e.g.: The colour of the student’s eyes – the place of their school.
Transitive Functional Dependency:
When some concrete values of a describing feature of an element determine other values of a
describing feature.
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