spurs toward observation? trade inventions: telescope microscope printing mathematics = secrets of...

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Spurs toward observation? Trade Inventions: Telescope Microscope Printing Mathematics = Secrets of nature written in mathematics

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Spurs toward observation?

TradeInventions:

TelescopeMicroscope

PrintingMathematics = Secrets of nature written in mathematics

The Scientific Revolution

Science: called “natural philosophy”; “new science”

Scientist: term not coined until 1830sChallenged Scholasticism, Aristotelianism

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543)

Polish priest & astronomerOn the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres

(1543)Heliocentric versus geocentric view of the

solar systemChallenged Ptolemaic/Aristotelian models in

use since antiquityCopernican system no more accurate than

Ptolemaic—important as a new paradigm—slow to gain ground

Tyco Brahe (1546–1601)

Danish astronomer (with a false nose)Rejected Copernican view

Five planets orbit sun while sun orbits earth Sees an exploding star

Recorded vast body of astronomical data drawn on by Kepler

Johannes Kepler (1571–1630)

German astronomer, Brahe’s assistantAdvocated Copernican viewFigured out planets move in elliptical, not

circular, orbits

Galileo Galilei (1564–1642)

Italian mathematician & natural philosopher

Broke ground using telescope—found heavens much more complex than previously understood Craters on moon Moons of Jupiter

Became high-profile Copernican advocateArticulated concept of a universe governed

by mathematical laws

Development of empirical science

Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler use inductive methods Collect facts, gather observations of nature From facts, devise theories Translate theories into mathematics, suggest nature is rational

and predictable Theories should be modified as new observations made

Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626): Considered father of empiricism, scientific experimentation, testing the theory Real accomplishment was setting an intellectual tone

conducive to scientific inquiryRené Descartes (1596–1650): Inventor of analytic

geometry. Deductive method deriving facts from principles rather than empiricism Cogito, ergo sum: “I think, therefore I am.” Concluded (God-given) human reason was sufficient to

comprehend the world

Isaac Newton

Big Q: What explains motion in the universe?

Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy

Three laws of motionUniversal law of gravitationUniverse as a machineInvents calculus True father of scientific method

The Three Laws of Motion

Briefly stated, the three laws are:A physical body will remain at rest, or

continue to move at a constant velocity, unless an external net force acts upon it.

The net force on a body is equal to its mass multiplied by its acceleration.

For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

17th Century Scientific Revolution

Anatomy & physiology Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564): First textbook on anatomy

based on dissection William Harvey (1578-1657): Discovers function of heart and

circulation

Chemistry Robert Boyle (1627-1691): Law of pressure & volume Priestly (1733-1804) and Lavoisier (1743-1794): Isolates

oxygen/demonstrates water oxygen and hydrogen

Biology Linnaeus (1707-1778): Develops system for classification of

plants and animals by genus and species

Impact on Philosophy

Scientific revolution major reexamination of Western philosophy

Nature as mechanism—clock metaphor; God as clockmaker

Purpose of studying nature changes: Search for symbolic/sacramental meaning

search for usefulness/utility Path to salvation path to human physical

improvement

Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679)Considers himself a scientist, rejects other

explanations for the universeLeviathan (1651): rigorous philosophical

justification for absolutist governmentHobbes’ conclusions of human observation:

Humans dominated by passions, physical needs Will satisfy these at expense of others State of nature=Friction and war Solution=Social contract, giving control to a

powerful ruler Problems:

Ruler may become a tyrant State of nature far worse

Power originates with people, not God

John Locke (1632–1704)Locke also claims to be scientistDisbelieved in initial depravity of manHumans naturally rational and that reason would lead

to decencyTreatises of Government: Government as responsible

for and responsive to the governed, rejects Biblical basis

Authority comes from people and social contractEscape state of nature requires two contracts:

Form civil society Form government

Form government to protect life, liberty, property If government fails, people have right to rescind

contract Chaos will not ensue

Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690): Human mind at birth a “blank slate”—reformist view, rejects Christian concept of original sin

The Rise of Academic Societies

The New Science threatened vested academic interests and was slow to gain ground in universities

Establishment of “institutions of sharing”: Royal Society of London (1660) Academy of Experiments (Florence, 1657) French Academy of Science (1666) Berlin Academy of Science (1700)

Women in the Scientific Revolution

Generally excluded from institutions of European intellectual life

Queen Christina of Sweden (r. 1623–1654): had Descartes design regulations for a new science academy

Margaret Cavendish (1623–1673) Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy

(1666) Grounds of Natural Philosophy (1668)

Maria Winkelmann—accomplished German astronomer, excluded from Berlin Academy

New Science and Religion

Three major issues: Certain scientific theories and discoveries conflicted with

Scripture Who resolves such disputes: religious authorities or natural

philosophers? New science’s apparent replacement of spiritually significant

universe with purely material oneRepresentative incident: Roman Catholic authorities

condemn Galileo, 1633—under house arrest for last nine years of his life Roman Catholic Church formally admits errors of biblical

interpretation in Galileo’s case, 1992Catholic Inquisition places Copernicus’s On the

Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres on Index of Prohibited Books, 1616

Kepler escapes to Jesuits from Lutheran persecution

Attempts to Reconcile Reason and Faith

Blaise Pascal (1623–1662), French mathematician Opposed both dogmatism and skepticism Erroneous belief in God is a safer bet than

erroneous unbeliefFrancis Bacon

Two books of divine revelation: the Bible and nature Since both books share the same author, they must

be compatibleEconomics: technological and economic

innovation seen as part of a divine plan—man is to understand world and then put it into productive rational use

Three Witches Burned Alive in Baden, Germany

Continuing Superstition

Belief in magic and the occult persisted through the end of the 17th c. Witch hunts: 70,000–100,000 put to death, 1400–

1700; 80% women Village society: magic helped cope with natural

disasters and disabilities Christian clergy: practiced “high magic” (Eucharist,

Penance, Confession, Exorcism)