spurs toward observation? trade inventions: telescope microscope printing mathematics = secrets of...
TRANSCRIPT
Spurs toward observation?
TradeInventions:
TelescopeMicroscope
PrintingMathematics = Secrets of nature written in mathematics
The Scientific Revolution
Science: called “natural philosophy”; “new science”
Scientist: term not coined until 1830sChallenged Scholasticism, Aristotelianism
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543)
Polish priest & astronomerOn the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres
(1543)Heliocentric versus geocentric view of the
solar systemChallenged Ptolemaic/Aristotelian models in
use since antiquityCopernican system no more accurate than
Ptolemaic—important as a new paradigm—slow to gain ground
Tyco Brahe (1546–1601)
Danish astronomer (with a false nose)Rejected Copernican view
Five planets orbit sun while sun orbits earth Sees an exploding star
Recorded vast body of astronomical data drawn on by Kepler
Johannes Kepler (1571–1630)
German astronomer, Brahe’s assistantAdvocated Copernican viewFigured out planets move in elliptical, not
circular, orbits
Galileo Galilei (1564–1642)
Italian mathematician & natural philosopher
Broke ground using telescope—found heavens much more complex than previously understood Craters on moon Moons of Jupiter
Became high-profile Copernican advocateArticulated concept of a universe governed
by mathematical laws
Development of empirical science
Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler use inductive methods Collect facts, gather observations of nature From facts, devise theories Translate theories into mathematics, suggest nature is rational
and predictable Theories should be modified as new observations made
Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626): Considered father of empiricism, scientific experimentation, testing the theory Real accomplishment was setting an intellectual tone
conducive to scientific inquiryRené Descartes (1596–1650): Inventor of analytic
geometry. Deductive method deriving facts from principles rather than empiricism Cogito, ergo sum: “I think, therefore I am.” Concluded (God-given) human reason was sufficient to
comprehend the world
Isaac Newton
Big Q: What explains motion in the universe?
Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy
Three laws of motionUniversal law of gravitationUniverse as a machineInvents calculus True father of scientific method
The Three Laws of Motion
Briefly stated, the three laws are:A physical body will remain at rest, or
continue to move at a constant velocity, unless an external net force acts upon it.
The net force on a body is equal to its mass multiplied by its acceleration.
For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
17th Century Scientific Revolution
Anatomy & physiology Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564): First textbook on anatomy
based on dissection William Harvey (1578-1657): Discovers function of heart and
circulation
Chemistry Robert Boyle (1627-1691): Law of pressure & volume Priestly (1733-1804) and Lavoisier (1743-1794): Isolates
oxygen/demonstrates water oxygen and hydrogen
Biology Linnaeus (1707-1778): Develops system for classification of
plants and animals by genus and species
Impact on Philosophy
Scientific revolution major reexamination of Western philosophy
Nature as mechanism—clock metaphor; God as clockmaker
Purpose of studying nature changes: Search for symbolic/sacramental meaning
search for usefulness/utility Path to salvation path to human physical
improvement
Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679)Considers himself a scientist, rejects other
explanations for the universeLeviathan (1651): rigorous philosophical
justification for absolutist governmentHobbes’ conclusions of human observation:
Humans dominated by passions, physical needs Will satisfy these at expense of others State of nature=Friction and war Solution=Social contract, giving control to a
powerful ruler Problems:
Ruler may become a tyrant State of nature far worse
Power originates with people, not God
John Locke (1632–1704)Locke also claims to be scientistDisbelieved in initial depravity of manHumans naturally rational and that reason would lead
to decencyTreatises of Government: Government as responsible
for and responsive to the governed, rejects Biblical basis
Authority comes from people and social contractEscape state of nature requires two contracts:
Form civil society Form government
Form government to protect life, liberty, property If government fails, people have right to rescind
contract Chaos will not ensue
Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690): Human mind at birth a “blank slate”—reformist view, rejects Christian concept of original sin
The Rise of Academic Societies
The New Science threatened vested academic interests and was slow to gain ground in universities
Establishment of “institutions of sharing”: Royal Society of London (1660) Academy of Experiments (Florence, 1657) French Academy of Science (1666) Berlin Academy of Science (1700)
Women in the Scientific Revolution
Generally excluded from institutions of European intellectual life
Queen Christina of Sweden (r. 1623–1654): had Descartes design regulations for a new science academy
Margaret Cavendish (1623–1673) Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy
(1666) Grounds of Natural Philosophy (1668)
Maria Winkelmann—accomplished German astronomer, excluded from Berlin Academy
New Science and Religion
Three major issues: Certain scientific theories and discoveries conflicted with
Scripture Who resolves such disputes: religious authorities or natural
philosophers? New science’s apparent replacement of spiritually significant
universe with purely material oneRepresentative incident: Roman Catholic authorities
condemn Galileo, 1633—under house arrest for last nine years of his life Roman Catholic Church formally admits errors of biblical
interpretation in Galileo’s case, 1992Catholic Inquisition places Copernicus’s On the
Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres on Index of Prohibited Books, 1616
Kepler escapes to Jesuits from Lutheran persecution
Attempts to Reconcile Reason and Faith
Blaise Pascal (1623–1662), French mathematician Opposed both dogmatism and skepticism Erroneous belief in God is a safer bet than
erroneous unbeliefFrancis Bacon
Two books of divine revelation: the Bible and nature Since both books share the same author, they must
be compatibleEconomics: technological and economic
innovation seen as part of a divine plan—man is to understand world and then put it into productive rational use
Continuing Superstition
Belief in magic and the occult persisted through the end of the 17th c. Witch hunts: 70,000–100,000 put to death, 1400–
1700; 80% women Village society: magic helped cope with natural
disasters and disabilities Christian clergy: practiced “high magic” (Eucharist,
Penance, Confession, Exorcism)