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Dr.Y.Kalyan Kumar, Lecturer in Physical Education, SJGC,Kurnool, India | 278

SPORTS PSYCHOLOGY

Psychological Aspects of Physical Education

1. PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Definitions:

Sports Psychology takes the help of Psychology at every step while giving training to the

players to show them right type of behaviour. – Campbell

Psychology is the study of science of mind – William James

Psychology is the study of human behaviour, its causes and conditions – Mc Dougall

Psychology is the scientific study of the activities of the individual in relation to his

environment – Woodworth and Marquis

Psychology is the study of Human behaviour and Human relationship – Crow and Crow

In 1996, the European Federation of Sport Psychology

(FEPSAC) produced such a broad definition, which, slightly simplified, reads, ‘Sport

psychology is the study of the psychological basis, processes and effects of sport.’

According to K.M. Burns, "Sports psychology for physical education is that branch of

psychology which deals with the physically fitness of an individual through his participation

in games and sports." According to Singer, "Sports psychology explores one's behavior in

athletics."

According to Singer, "Sports psychology explores one's behavior in athletics." ... Sports

psychology is the study of how psychology influences sports, athletic performance, exercise

and physical activity. Some sports psychologists work with professional athletes and

coaches to improve performance and increase motivation.

According to John Luther, "Sports psychology is an area which attempts to apply

psychological facts and principles to learning performance and associated human behavior in

whole field of sports." ... Sports psychology is the study of how psychology influences

sports, athletic performance, exercise and physical activity.

Early history

In its formation, sport psychology was primarily the domain of physical educators, not

researchers, which can explain the lack of a consistent history. Nonetheless, many

instructors sought to explain the various phenomena associated physical activity and

developed sport psychology laboratories.


The birth of sports psychology in Europe happened largely in Germany. The first sports

psychology laboratory was founded by Dr. Carl Diem in Berlin, in the early 1920s.

The early years of sport psychology were also highlighted by the formation of the Deutsche

Hochschule für Leibesübungen (College of Physical Education) in Berlin Germany by

Robert Werner Schulte in 1920. The lab measured physical abilities and aptitude in sport,

and in 1921, Schulte published Body and Mind in Sport.

In Russia, sport psychology experiments began as early as 1925 at institutes of physical

culture in Moscow and Leningrad, and formal sport psychology departments were formed

around 1930. However, it was a bit later during the Cold War period (1946–1989) that

numerous sport science programs were formed, due to the military competitiveness between

the Soviet Union and the United States, and as a result of attempts to increase the Olympic

medal numbers The Americans felt that their sport performances were inadequate and very

disappointing compared to the ones of the Soviets, so this led them to invest more in the

methods that could ameliorate their athletes performance, and made them have a greater

interest on the subject. The advancement of sports psychology was more deliberate in the

Soviet Union and the Eastern countries, due to the creation of sports institutes where sports

psychologists played an important role.

In North America, early years of sport psychology included isolated studies of motor

behavior, social facilitation, and habit formation. During the 1890s, E. W. Scripture

conducted a range of behavioural experiments, including measuring the reaction time of

runners, thought time in school children, and the accuracy of an orchestra conductor’s baton.

Despite Scripture’s previous experiments, the first recognized sports psychology study was

carried out by an American psychologist Norman Triplett, in 1898.

The work of Norman Triplett demonstrated that bicyclists were more likely to cycle faster

with a pacemaker or a competitor, which has been foundational in the literature of social

psychology and social facilitation. He wrote about his findings in what was regarded as the

first scientific paper on sports psychology, titled “The Dynamogenic Factors in Pacemaking

and Competition”, which was published in 1898, in the American Journal of Psychology.

Research by ornithologists Lashley and Watson on the learning curve for novice archers

provided a robust template for future habit formation research, as they argued that humans

would have higher levels of motivation to achieve in a task like archery compared to a

mundane task. Researchers Albert Johanson and Joseph Holmes tested baseball player Babe

Ruth in 1921, as reported by sportswriter Hugh S. Fullerton. Ruth’s swing speed, his

breathing right before hitting a baseball, his coordination and rapidity of wrist movement,

and his reaction time were all measured, with the researchers concluding that Ruth’s talent


could be attributed in part to motor skills and reflexes that were well above those of the

average person.

Coleman Griffith: “America’s first sport psychologist”

Coleman Griffith is considered to be the ‘‘father” of sport psychology. He created and

developed the first sport psychology laboratory based at the University of Illinois in 1925.

He was also hired by the Chicago Cubs baseball team and acted as their consulting sport

psychologist in 1938.

Coleman Griffith worked as an American professor of educational psychology at the

University of Illinois where he first performed comprehensive research and applied sport

psychology. He performed causal studies on vision and attention of basketball and soccer

players, and was interested in their reaction times, muscular tension and relaxation, and

mental awareness. Griffith began his work in 1925 studying the psychology of sport at the

University of Illinois funded by the Research in Athletics Laboratory. Until the laboratory's

closing in 1932, he conducted research and practiced sport psychology in the field. The

laboratory was used for the study of sports psychology; where different factors that influence

athletic performance and the physiological and psychological requirements of sport

competitions were investigated. He then transmitted his findings to coaches, and helped

advance the knowledge of psychology and physiology on sports performance. Griffith also

published two major works during this time: The Psychology of Coaching (1926) and The

Psychology of Athletics (1928).

Coleman Griffith was also the first person to describe the job of sports psychologists and

talk about the main tasks that they should be capable of carrying out. He mentioned this in

his work "Psychology and its relation to athletic competition", which was published in

1925.One of the tasks was to teach the younger and unskilled coaches the psychological

principles that were used by the more successful and experienced coaches. The other task

was to adapt psychological knowledge to sport, and the last task was to use the scientific

method and the laboratory for the purpose of discovering new facts and principles that can

aid other professionals in the domain.

Importance of sports psychology in physical education and sports

Role of Sports Psychology The specialized field of sports psychology has developed rapidly

in recent years. The importance of a sports psychologist as an integral member of the

coaching and health care teams is widely recognized. Sports psychologists can teach skills to

help athletes enhance their learning process and motor skills, cope with competitive

pressures, fine-tune the level of awareness needed for optimal performance, and stay focused

amid the many distractions of team travel and in the competitive environment. Psychological


training should be an integral part of an athlete’s holistic training process, carried out in

conjunction with other training elements. This is best accomplished by a collaborative effort

among the coach, the sport psychologist, and the athlete; however, a knowledgeable and

interested coach can learn basic psychological skills and impart them to the athlete,

especially during actual practice.to help the parties’ air and resolve differences.

Preparing for Competition

Simple psychological skills to help the athlete manage the competitive performance

environment include:

1. Learning relaxation skills (e.g. Progressive relaxation, slow, controlled, deep abdominal

breathing or autogenic training.

2. Mastering all of the attentional styles (types of concentration)

3. Imagery (both visualization and kinesthetic)

4. Self-talk

5. Developing a precomputations mental routine to be employed immediately prior to

competition on game day.

The Injured Athlete

Injured athletes commonly experience at least three emotional responses: isolation,

frustration and disturbances of mood. The Sports Psychologist in consultation with the

medical team must make ready the injured athlete to participate in sports and games.

The following points the importance of sports psychology

1. Enhancement of Physiological Capacities Sports psychology plays a very unique role in

the enhancement of physiological capacities such as strength, speed and flexibility etc.,

Motivation plays a major role in the enhancement of physical capacity of sport persons. It is

well known as well as an established fact that psychological capacities or powers can

increase physiological capacities of individuals.

2. Learning the Motor Skills

Sports psychology plays its major role in the learning of motor skills. Motor skills learning

depends on the individual's level of readiness, i.e., physiological readiness and psychological

readiness. Physiological readiness in children is development of the necessary strength,

flexibility and endurance as well as the development of various organ systems so that they

may perform motor skills required in the activity. Psychological readiness is related to the

learner's state of mind. It means the desire and willingness to learn the particular skill. In

psychological readiness, sports psychology plays an important role. Sports psychology is


also helpful in the cognitive stage, the social-active stage and the autonomous stage of motor

skill learning.

3. Understanding the behavior

Sports psychology helps in understanding the behavior of athletes or sportspersons engaged

in competitive sports. Coaches also come to know the interest, attitude towards physical

activity, instincts, drives and personality of sportspersons. It does not play its role only in

understanding of behavior but it also plays its role in medication of behavior in various

sports situations.

4. Controlling the emotions

Sports psychology plays a very important role in controlling the emotions of sportspersons

during practice as well as competition. Generally, these emotions may bring spontaneous

changes in the behavior of sportspersons. These are anger, disgust, gear, negative self-

thinking and feeling of ownership, etc. If these emotions are not controlled well in time, the

performance may be decreased. Sports psychology plays a vital role at such juncture. It

helps in balancing the arousal of emotions which further improves the performance.

5. Preparation of athlete’s psycho-logically for competitions Sports psychology also plays its

role in preparation of athletes psychologically for competitions. Intact, it has become a trend

to give psychological tips to athletes or team players before and after the competitions. That

is why, sports psychologists' services are required with a national level and international

level terms. They create the will 'to win' in the players.

6. Role in the emotional problems of sports persons Stress, tension and anxiety are natural

during practice period and competitions or tournaments. There may be some other emotional

problems such as depression, frustration. Anorexia and panic etc. The knowledge of sports

psychology may be helpful in such situations. Techniques of relaxation and concentration

for stress management can be applied on sportspersons who are under such problems.

Conclusively, it can be said that sports psychology plays a very vital role in enhancing the

performance of sportspersons. It deals with the various mental qualities such as

concentration, confidence, emotional control and commitment etc., which are important for

successful performance in sports and games.


Motivational techniques for coaches and athletes

1. Goal setting

Goal setting is the process of systematically planning ways to achieve specific

accomplishments within a certain amount of time. Research suggests that goals should be

specific, measurable, difficult but attainable, time-based, written down, and a combination of

short-term and long-term goals. A metaanalysis of goal setting in sport suggests that when

compared to setting no goals or "do your best" goals, setting the above types of goals is an

effective method for improving performance.

According to Dr. Eva V. Monsma, short-term goals should be used to help achieve long-

term goals. Dr.Monsma also states that it is important to "set goals in positive terms by

focusing on behaviors that should be present rather than those that should be absent." Each

long-term goal should also have a series of short-term goals that progress in difficulty. For

instance, short-term goals should progress from those that are easy to achieve to those that

are more challenging. Having challenging short-term goals will remove the repetitiveness of

easy goals and will give one an edge when striving for their long-term goals.

2. Imagery

Imagery (or motor imagery) can be defined as using multiple senses to create or recreate

experiences in one's mind.

Additionally, the more vivid images are, the more likely they are to be interpreted by the

brain as identical to the actual event, which increases the effectiveness of mental practice

with imagery. Good imagery, therefore, attempts to create as lifelike an image as possible

through the use of multiple senses (e.g., sight, smell), proper timing, perspective, and

accurate portrayal of the task. Both anecdotal evidence from

athletes and research findings suggest imagery is an effective tool to enhance performance

and psychological states relevant to performance (e.g., confidence). This is a concept

commonly used by coaches and athletes the day before an event.

3. Pre-performance routines

Pre-performance routines refer to the actions and behaviours athletes use to prepare for a

game or performance. This includes pregame routines, warm up routines, and actions an

athlete will regularly do, mentally and physically, before they execute the performance.

Frequently, these will incorporate other commonly used techniques, such as imagery or self-

talk. Examples would be visualizations done by skiers, dribbling by basketball players at the

foul line, and pre shot routines golfers or baseball players use prior to a shot or pitch. These

routines help to develop consistency and predictability for the player. This allows the

muscles and mind to develop better motor control.


4. Self-talk

Self-talk refers to the thoughts and words athletes and performers say to themselves, usually

in their minds. Self-talk phrases are used to direct attention towards a particular thing in

order to improve focus or are used alongside other techniques to facilitate their

effectiveness. For example, a softball player may think "release point" when at bat to direct

her attention to the point where the pitcher releases the ball, while a golfer may say "smooth

stroke" before putting to stay relaxed. Research suggests either positive or negative self-talk

may improve performance, suggesting the effectiveness of self-talk phrases depends on how

the phrase is interpreted by the individual. However, the use of positive self-talk is

considered to be more efficacious and is consistent with the associative network theory of

Gordon Bower and the selfefficacy tenet within the broader Social Cognitive Theory of

Albert Bandura. The use of words in sport has been widely utilized. The ability to bombard

the unconscious mind with one single positive phrase, is one of the most effective and easy

to use psychological skills available to any athlete.

5. Using extrinsic rewards

The key aspect in using extrinsic rewards effectively is that they reinforce an athlete’s sense

of competence and self-worth. Thus, a reward should be informational in nature rather than

controlling. If a reward comes to be controlling, it can significantly undermine intrinsic

motivation. For a reward to be informational, it is advisable that it has relatively little

monetary worth (i.e. it is a token reward), such as a ‘woman of the match’ or ‘athlete of the

tour’ title. Also, the reward should be presented to an athlete in front of all potential

recipients with some emphasis placed on the prestige associated with it. Other popular ways

of using token rewards include etching athletes’ names on annual honors boards for their

contributions, or awarding a special item of clothing.

6. Motivational music

A particularly good way to motivate athletes in training and prior to competition is through

the use of music they perceive to be inspirational. Let’s take a look at the field of sport

psychology and discover how it can help you as an athlete, parent of an athlete, or as a

coach.

1. Sport Psychology Helps You Understand Yourself As An Athlete You need to have

mental strategies for learning, practice and performance factors. Sport psychology gives you


the methods and approaches to become aware of what you need so you and your coach can

craft custom interventions.

2. Sport Psychology Helps You Work Better With Your Parents Your parents should be part

of your success team, at least at some level. It does not necessarily mean they should coach

you, but it would be nice to have a solid relationship with them, and excellent

communication skills so they can assist you in your career.

3. Sport Psychology Helps You Work Better With Your Coaches Your coach is perhaps the

most important person on your team. You need a great working relationship with this

person. Sport psychology can help you create this relationship, and nurture it.

4. Sport Psychology Helps You Navigate Your Sport Career

There are many blind alleys, pitfalls and false paths in a sport career. Sport psychology helps

you create a vision for success, and goals and objectives, so you can execute that master

plan.

5. Sport Psychology Helps You Prepare Your Mind It is critical that you know how to

prepare mentally and emotionally for lessons, practices and performances. Sport psychology

helps you devise a customized mental readiness process that helps you transition from your

normal work, school or social worlds into the special world of competition.

6. Sport Psychology Helps You Concentrate So You Can Enter the Zone Attentional control

is psychologist-speak for concentration or focus. Sport psychology helps you create strong

control over where and how you place your attention so you can

concentrate on the proper attentional cues, and you are able to block out unwanted,

distracting cues.

7. Sport Psychology Helps You Bounce Back From SetBacks It is critical that you become

resilient to the inevitable problems and set-backs that competitive sport brings. You need

solid mental toughness that helps you refocus, reset and re-energize for what is to come.

8. Sport Psychology Helps You Increase Motivation and Drive Successful athletes who have

long careers fuel them with exciting goals, a vision for the legacy they want to leave, and

dreams of how they want to play. Sport psychology helps you craft engaging goals that

create positive energy within you, so you have huge amounts of drive and determination to

achieve your potential.

9. Sport Psychology Helps You Handle Stress and Pressure One of the major ways sport

psychology helps you is through stress reduction in learning and performance. While some

stress is inevitable and natural, levels of stress that are excessive damage performance. Sport

psychology helps you manage stress and turn it into success.

10. Sport Psychology Helps You Handle the Paradox of Success An issue that every athlete

faces at some time is the paradox of success. As you become more successful, there are


more pressures and more distractions pulling at you. Sport psychology helps you address

these, stay focused, and helps you continue to sustain your best performances.

WHAT IS LEARNING?

Learning implies a change in a person - a change in his method of performing a skill,

practicing a habit, gaining ability in performance, or changing an attitude toward a particular

thing. • Learning implies a progressive change in the behavior of an individual. • Learn to

move and move to learn is given much emphasis in the teaching of physical education.

Elements needed to have a learning situation: • motivated human being • the absence of a

skill, knowledge, or other ingredient that has not as yet been learned but which is desired by

the human being • an effort on the part of the human being to achieve the particular goal

Motivation a Basic Factor to Effective Learning

The desire within a human being prompts him to seek a solution to his recognized need

through an appropriate line of action. This line of action may require practice, effort,

mastery of knowledge or other behavior in order to be successful in achieving the goal. The

speed with which the goal is achieved will depend upon the degree to which the individual is

motivated, his capacity, and the nature of the task to be performed. It is a truism that

motivation is the heart of the learning process.

Motor Learning

Motor learning is usually defined as learning in which bodily movements plays a major part.

These movements are patterns of responses to recognized stimuli. The stimuli (perceived)

may be visual, kinesthetic, auditory or other sense stimuli, or a combination of the stimuli of

several senses. The movement patterns used by a performer are not exact repetitions of the

same act. What must be learned is a general pattern, not specific responses to exact

repetitious stimuli.

Motor learning is generalized. It is a change in general form of behavior. The forming of a

motor pattern is of a generalized nature but not the exact repetition of an original or specific

response.

PREREQUISITES FOR LEARNING

Prerequisites • maturation • intelligence • level of aspiration • reaction time

Maturation • is the acquisition od physical, mental, and social characteristics through the

fulfillment of the innate nature of the individual. • implies the readiness for the experiences

normally expected at a given age. • early mental development is associated with motor

development. • social maturity is reached at the age of 20 years. • maturity of growth and

intelligence tended to be reached by 17 years of age.


Intelligence • the ability to reason or to understand. • intelligence is more than knowledge -

the awareness of facts - but it requires knowledge as a foundation. • it involves insight, the

recognition of meanings and relationships between the facts or elements in a situation. •

Judgment is a more complex ability to evaluate the worth, utillity, or relevance of the

elements in a problematical situation; thus one can form opinion or make an intelligent

decision.

Understanding is a still higher intellectual ability to generalize and organize from the

awareness of facts, their relationships, meanings, and importance for adapting to one's

situation.

Level of Aspiration

• One's achievement is partly dependent on one's aspiration or expectations for himself. His

estimations of success are chiefly in light of this self-set goal and his past experiences.

• What one says he expects to attain and what he in reality expects are not always the same.

Even what one would like to attain differ from his achievement. One's aspiration vary with

the activity or the job. It can be said, however, that one's aspiration can be a strong motive

for achievement.

Reaction Time

• refers to the interval of time between the signal to respond (stimulus) and the beginning of

the response, not including the time it takes to accomplish the task.

• reflects the lag in the functions of an individual's nervous system.

when a response is new to an individual, the reaction time is usually slow, allowing great

potential for improving reaction time. As the response is repeated many times, it should be

remembered that a small change in reaction time may often have significant influence on

performance. Reaction time is highly specific to a particular movement.

THEORIES OF LEARNING

The function of any theory is to provide a framework to explain under what conditions

learning occurs, how knowledges and skills are retained, and in the case of performing

motor skills, how one achieves the best performance possible.

Stimulus - Response Theory (Associative Theory)

• developed by Edward Thorndike.

• learning takes place by conditioning a response to a stimulus.


• emphasizes that when an individual is stimulated to perform an act or response and this act

of response is accompanied by pleasure or satisfaction, he will remember and also repeat the

act. practice drill or habbit

Cognitive Theory of Learning (Field Theory)

• developed by Gestalt

• focuses on the individual

• an individual learns a task as a meaningful whole rather than asa series of related parts

• response is not the stimulus but to the learner's inner perception of the reconstruction of the

stimulus in terms of the whole situation.

• Jerome Bruner - discovery approach - teacher places the students in situations in which

insight determines solution to the problem

Some ways to facilitate learning recommended by Gagne:

1. It is generally recognized that each learner has different prerequisites skills he attempts to

learn a new activity. A complete diagnostic survey should be made of what the child can and

cannot do.

2. The teacher should have available the prerequisites the child has not yet mastered. 3.

Students do not need additional practice to ensure retention but should be subjected to

periodic and spaced reviews.

Recent Views on Learning

• Robert Gagne - questioned the older concept of learning advanced by Thorndike

• He maintains that the older concept of establishing and strengthening connections in

learning does not take into account events that transpire inside and outside the learner. He

further states that in teaching the school subjects, repetition is not necessary in order to learn,

and he suggests that prior learning of prerequisite skills or capabilities is the most important

factor to insure learning.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING

Some basic principles of learning that have implications in the teaching of physical

education:

1. The learner learns as a whole individual.

2. Learning is an active process.

3. The child learns in terms of his maturity, his experience background, and his own

purposes.

Psychology is the study and science of mind- William James

Psychology is the Study of human behavior, its causes & conditions – Mc. Dougall

Psychology is the study of human behavior & human relationship-Crow & Crow


CROW & CROW: “ Learning is acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitude.”

A. Davis : “ Learning is not merely acquisition of facts and skills through mechanized

procedures such as repetitive practice, but the learner evaluates learning material and

organizes it properly.”

Psychology is derived from Greek word

Psycho + Logos

Psycho means Soul or Mind

Logos means Study

Father of Psychology W.H.woundt

LEARNING

" Learning takes place when there is a change in a student's behavior. It may not be directly

observable. Learning is based on observation of behavior changes that result from a person's

interaction with their environment. An individual's learning may involve changes in any of

three areas:

Manner of perceiving and thinking.

Physical behavior (motor skills).

Methods of Learning based upon the Theories of Learning

1. Imitation Learning

2. Observation Learning

3. Insight Learning

4. Conditioning Learning

5.Trail and Error

1. Imitation Learning: This method of learning is quite peculiar to small Children and animals,

especially monkeys.

Every kind of social learning and behavior is the product of Imitation.

In sports also children learn various skills of games by imitating other players who are playing

with them.

2. Observation Method

It refers to perception accompanied by attention.

This is possible only when the individual is able to focus his attention on some object for

preserving it in brain.

In sports a player can play well by observing another good player attentively.

INSIGHT LEARNING

Kohlar - Geerman – 1914

Book - The Mentality of Apes

7 apes –

Chego – Grenade – Sulthan, Konsar, Terr, Siriyaa and Ranachikaa

Kohlar ( Germany)

Insight means : ‘Seeing into’ an object or situation.

In sports , if a player or a sports man faces a critical situation in the play- field and cannot

overcome his difficulty at spur of moment, he tries to ‘see into’ it as a whole. He brings into his

memory many previous situation and compares them to the situation at hand.

Experiment on Chimpanzees (Sulthans), Stics, Bananas.

Kohlar, Khofka, Vertimar known as Gestaults Psychology scientists

CONDITIONING METHOD - Pavlov


Conditioning means establishing a reaction of artificial stimulus associated with natural

stimulus. This method of learning is also called “ Associative Learning”.

This theory was proposed by Ivan Pavlov (Russia)

Dog - food (with out bell) - saliva (Unconditioned Response)

Dog – food (with bell)- saliva ( Unconditioned Response

Dog – Bell – saliva ( Conditional Response)

Food is an Un Conditioned stimulus

Saliva is an Un conditional Response

The saliva come out after rang the bell With out food ( saliva is Conditioned Response)

TRAIL & ERROR METHOD

This method refers to the process of approximation and correction. This method was tried

successfully by E.L.Thorndike (America) on cats and rats. (Puzzle Box , Cat & Button)

In sports , if a player or a sports man faces a difficult situation in the play-field, he can try

various possibilities to overcome that situation. After many trails he can come to know the exact

method of facing any such difficult situation.

Thorndike Learning theory is related with connection. So that this theory was known as

Connectionism.

PRIMARY LAWS OF LEARNING

LAW OF READINESS


The term readiness refers to mental set or mood.

In the words of “Wilson” when a bond is ready to act. To act gives satisfaction and not to act

give annoyance(irritation).

In sports the Law of Readiness can be used with great profit. A player or an athlete should be

first prepared and motivated to take part in games competition or athletic competition before he

is asked to participate in it.

He will surely give good performance in the field of sports, if he is first prepared to take part in

it.

LAW OF EXERCISE (LAW OF USE & DISUSE)

This is also known as Law of Frequency. There are two aspects of this law i.e

A) Law of Use : When a modificable connection is made frequently between a situation and a

response the strength of that connection is increased.

B) Law of Disuse : When a modificable connection is not made between a situation and

response over a length of time, the strength of that connection is decreased.

In sports physical exercise or skill in game is repeated again and again, its exact form fixed in

the mind of athletes or players. Lack of practices, on the other hand, weakness the learnt

material.

LAW OF EFFECT

Thorndike has described the Law of Effect.

When a modifiable connection between a situation and a response is made and accompanied or

followed by a satisfying state of affairs.

It means that the whole learning depends upon the type of relationship between stimulus &

response.

In sports the coaches should use the law of effect with great care while giving training to

players and athletes. There may be some players or athletes who learn better through praise and

reward, but there can also be some players and athletes who learn better through reproof and

punishment.

Law of effect is directly related to success and failure. Success satisfies and enforces learning,

failure dissatisfies and hampers learning.

Hence sports coaches are to judge carefully the nature of the player or athlete before using the

law of effect in giving him training.

SECONDARY LAWS OF LEARNING

In addition to primary laws of learning, Thornadike has also given a few secondary Law of

Learning.

1. MULTIPLE RESPONSE TO THE SAME EXTERNAL SITUATION:

in order to get reward for correct response to a particular stimulus, the individual makes

multiple or varied responses to the same situation. If the individual had not possessed this

ability, he could not have given correct response.

2. SET ATTITUDE

It determines whether the response of the individual will be satisfying or annoying. According

to the findings of Thorndike a well – fed cat to sleep in the cage, while a hungry one tries to get

out.

3. LAW OF PARTIAL ACTIVITY: The learner is able to react selectively to pre potent

elements in the situation. An individual picks up certain elements in a situation and bases his

responses upon it, neglecting other features which may confuse him in similar situations.

Therefore this law refers to the ability to deal with relevant parts of situations.

4. LAW OF ASSIMILATION


An individual respond to a novel situation with the help of previous experience. Old

experiences and solutions are applied by him in new situations.

5.ASSOCIATIVE SHIFTING: This law points towards conditioned response. A response

may be shifted from one situation to another, which is presented at the same time.

MOTIVATION

Motivation can be Internal as well as External.

INTERNAL MOTIVATION:

By internal motivation we mean those motives which rest with in the organism. All inner

motives such as instincts, emotions, appetites, urges, desires and wants have control over

external behavior.

In short all the internal motives help in the process of learning. Internal motives are also known

as natural motives which are universal among all human beings.

EXTERNAL MOTIVATION

This motive also required for process of learning. This motive does not lie with in the individual

but are acquired in different ways.

The technique for achieving this motive refer to external techniques for students as well as

players and athletes as external motives.

IMPROVEMENT IN LEARNING

Improvement in Learning can be shown by means of curves.

In curve, practice may be expressed in number of trails, day and units of time along the base of

the curve is in X axis

The amount and rate of improvement or progress in terms of scores can be represented along Y

axis.

Most frequently found learning curves are of the following types

1.Convex curve

2. Concave curve

3. Plateaus

A concave lens is a lens that possesses at least one surface that curves inwards. It is a diverging

lens, meaning that it spreads out light rays that have been refracted through it. A concave lens is

thinner at its centre than at its edges, and is used to correct short-sightedness (myopia)


A convex lens is a converging lens. When parallel rays of light pass through a convex lens the

refracted rays converge at one point called the principal focus. The distance between the

principal focus and the centre of the lens is called the focal length and is used to correct long

sightedness Hypermetropia

Convex curve

In this curve initial progress is Rapid.

Improvement in learning is rapid from the very beginning. It continues for a time after which

progress slow down and reaches a level where there is no further improvement as shown in the

figure.

This type of curves are very common in learning of sensory motor skills and easier tasks which

do not involve much of intellect.

The convexity occurs due to

Physical fatigue or boredom

towards the end of the task.

Diminishing-returns Learning Curve: In this type of learning, the "rate of increase" in the

degree of skill is higher in the beginning but decreases with time until it reaches zero and the

person has obtained the maximum skill. It indicates that initially there is a spurt in learning,

usually the graph levels at some stage indicating the maximum performance has been achieved.

This is because at the beginning of the learning process, the learner is highly motivated to

exhibit a significant surge of effort.

CONCAVE CURVE

Little is gained in the beginning, but afterward, there is rapid progress.

Such curves are common in learning skills. These curves are found generally with young

children or with subjects of inferior intelligence.


Increasing Returns Learning Curve: Another type of learning curve is the "increasing-return

curve " which is just the opposite of "diminishing-return curve" in the sense that there are

certain learning skills where the rate of increased learning is slow in the beginning and then it

increases until the maximum potential for learning is reached. This usually occurs when a

person is learning a complex unfamiliar and new task.

PLATEAUS

Many curves have a level region long before the final level. These periods of no improvement

are known as plateaus.

Plateau can be regarded as the practice limit for one way of performing a task. During the

period of plateau there is no apparent growth or improvement in learning. In acquiring a skill or

performing some activity a person reaches a limit beyond which he cannot go, no matter how

hard he/she tries. This is known as Physiological limit.

These plateaus are again followed by rapid increase in the ability to perform skill/ activity.

Increasing-Decreasing-Return Learning Curve: It is a combination both the "diminishing-

returns curve" and the "increasing-returns curve". It is an "s-Shaped curve". If a person is totally

new to the skill that he is learning, then all learning will probably follow an S-shaped curve.

The lower portion of the curve represent the initial stages of acquiring a skill with very slow

learning initially followed by successively greater returns, eventually reaching the absolute

limit.


Slow Learning: The initial stage in the above curve is that of slow learning because of the

newness and difficulty of skill. Once the learner has acquired some basics of his operations, he

gains some confidence and this results in the second stage of increasing returns.

Increasing Returns: The learner gains confidence in this stage. He has acquired the required

skill. This results in the third stage.

THEORIES OF PLAY

Play is a recreational activity, with which joy is associated.

Ross : “Play is Joyful, spontaneous, creative activity, in which man finds fullest expression”

Valentine : “Play is joyful activity, carried on for its own sake.”

Lazarus : “Play is an activity which is in itself free. Aimless, amusing and diverting.”

Crow & Crow : the activity which a person engages when he is free to do what he wants to do.

SURPLUS ENERGY THEORY

This theory was first propounded by Schiller and later on developed by Herbert spencer.

It defines play as an excess of energy in children because they are free from all kinds of

pressures like economic, social and domestic pressures. Hence they express their surplus energy

in play. According their views the child has not worried about earning his livelihood. He does

not have to search for food.

Hence the surplus energy overflows his nervous channel is expressed in purposeless

movements.

It is a healthy outlet for super abundant energy.

RECREATIONAL THEORY

LAZURUS has propounded this theory. He has regarded play as recreative. According to his

view play builds up and restores energy lost through work. It removes fatigue and boredom.


LOVELL has seconded this theory of play. According to his view “ while sleep and rest are

necessary for play, a change to an interesting and active play is more restful.

ANTICIPATORY THEORY

KARL GROOSE has propounded this theory. He claimed that the key to play lies in preparation

for future life.

The ‘make – believe’ world of the child is to be restored in future by the real world of adult

hood.

According to Ross their survival in the struggle for existence must depend.

This theory also called Practice theory.

RECAPITULATORY THEORY

This theory has been propounded by “Stanley hall”

He maintained that child revives the life of his ancestors. He also maintained that various games

of children are simply revival of the various stages of human history.

CATHARTIC THEORY- Freud 1908

According to this theory play is cathartic (energizing or Therapeutic) in its action. It provides

an outlet for certain pent up energies, instincts and emotions, which cannot find expression in

the childhood or adult life.

THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE

Various theories of intelligence can be categorized in the following ways

1. Monarchica Theory or Unitary theory

2. Anarchic Theory or Multifactor theory

3. Oligarchic Theory

4. Spearman’s Two factor theory

5. Thorndike multi factor theory

TERMAN FORMULA

I.Q = M.A. (Mental or Actual age) X 100

C.A (Chronological age)

Ex: M.A = 7

C.A = 5 CALCULATE THE IQ LEVEL

I.Q = 7/5 X 100 = 140

0-24 Idiot


25-49 Imbecile

50-69 Moron

70-79 A little defective

80-89 Low average

90-109 Normal

110-119 High average

120-139 Superior

140-160 Very superior

INSTINCTS సహజ గుణం లేదా

సవ భావగుణము

EMOTIONS (భావము)

Combats (పోరు ) Anger (కోపం)

Curiosity (ఇది ఏమి అని

తెలుసుకునే బుదిి)

Wonder (అద్బు తము)

Food seeking (తన మేలునే

విచారంచడం )

Gust మొహోద్రేకము లేదా

కోపోద్రేకము

Repulsion పడి లేచిన కెరటం వలె

లేవడం

Digest సమ ృతి, సంహిత, రాజ నీతి

సంద్రరహము

Escape (తపప డం, తప్ప ంచుకు

పారపోవడం)

Fear (భయం, బెద్బరు, శంక,

సంేహము

Gregariousness గుంపులు గా

ఉండటం

Feeling of loneliness (ఒంటర)

Self abasement(అవమానము) Negative self feeling సప రశ

Mating (సంయోరం) Love

Acquisition స్వవ రతిం Feeling of ownership యాజమానయ ము

Constructions నిరామ ణము Feeling of creativeness సృస్టంచే

Appeal మొర Distress ద్బ:ఖము

Laughter నవ్వవ , హాసయ ం Amusement వినోదము

TRAIT THEORY

In psychology, trait theory (also called dispositional theory) is an approach to the study of

human personality. Trait theorists are primarily interested in the measurement of traits, which

can be defined as habitual patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion.


Imp Theories

Gordon Allport

Raymond Cattell's 16PF Questionnaire

J. P. Guilford's Structure of Intellect

Henry Murray's System of Needs

Timothy Leary's Interpersonal circumplex

Myers–Briggs Type Indicator

Gray's Bio psychological theory of personality

Gordon Allport defined traits as "a generalized neuropsychic system (peculiar to an individual),

with the capacity to render many stimuli functionally equivalent, and to initiate and guide

consistent (equivalent) forms of adaptive and expressive behavior".

Gordon Allport then divided these traits into a three-level hierarchy. These were

"cardinal" (Basic)traits are those that dominate and shape a person's behavior; their ruling

passions/obsessions, such as a need for money, fame etc.

By contrast, "central “(Inner) traits such as honesty are characteristics found in some degree in

every person - and finally "secondary" traits are those seen only in certain circumstances (such

as particular likes or dislikes that a very close friend may know), which are included to provide

a complete picture of human complexity.


16 Personality Factors, Fluid and crystallized intelligence, Culture Fair Intelligence Test

Raymond Cattell was born on 20 March 1905 in Hill Top, West Bromwich, a small town in

England near Birmingham.


Descriptors of Low Range Primary Factor Descriptors of High Range

Impersonal, distant, cool, reserved,

detached, formal, aloof

Warmth

(A)

Warm, outgoing, attentive to

others, kindly, easy-going,

participating, likes people

Concrete thinking, lower general

mental capacity, less intelligent,

unable to handle abstract problems

Reasoning

(B)

Abstract-thinking, more

intelligent, bright, higher

general mental capacity, fast

learner

Reactive emotionally, changeable,

affected by feelings, emotionally less

stable, easily upset

Emotional Stability

(C)

Emotionally stable, adaptive,

mature, faces reality calmly

Deferential, cooperative, avoids

conflict, submissive, humble, obedient,

easily led, docile, accommodating

Dominanace

(E)

Dominant, forceful,

assertive, aggressive,

competitive, stubborn, bossy

Serious, restrained, prudent, taciturn,

introspective, silent

Liveliness

(F)

Lively, animated,

spontaneous, enthusiastic,

happy go lucky, cheerful,

expressive, impulsive

Expedient, nonconforming, disregards

rules, self-indulgent

Rule-

Consciousness

(G)

Rule-conscious, dutiful,

conscientious, conforming,

moralistic, staid, rule bound

Shy, threat-sensitive, timid, hesitant,

intimidated

Social Boldness

(H)

Socially bold, venturesome,

thick skinned, uninhibited

Utilitarian, objective, unsentimental,

tough minded, self-reliant, no-

nonsense, rough

Sensitivity

(I)

Sensitive, aesthetic,

sentimental, tender minded,

intuitive, refined

Trusting, unsuspecting, accepting,

unconditional, easy

Vigilance

(L)

Vigilant, suspicious,

skeptical, distrustful,

oppositional

Grounded, practical, prosaic, solution

oriented, steady, conventional

Abstractedness

(M)

Abstract, imaginative, absent

minded, impractical,

absorbed in ideas

Forthright, genuine, artless, open,

guileless, naive, unpretentious,

involved

Privateness

(N)

Private, discreet,

nondisclosing, shrewd,

polished, worldly, astute,

diplomatic


Self-Assured, unworried, complacent,

secure, free of guilt, confident, self-

satisfied

Apprehension

(O)

Apprehensive, self doubting,

worried, guilt prone,

insecure, worrying, self

blaming

Traditional, attached to familiar,

conservative, respecting traditional

ideas

Openness to

change

(Q1)

Open to change,

experimental, liberal,

analytical, critical, free

thinking, flexibility

Group-oriented, affiliative, a joiner

and follower dependent Self Reliance(Q2)

Self-reliant, solitary,

resourceful, individualistic,

self-sufficient

Tolerates disorder, unexacting,

flexible, undisciplined, lax, self-

conflict, impulsive, careless of social

rules, uncontrolled

Perfectionism

(Q3)

Perfectionistic, organized,

compulsive, self-disciplined,

socially precise, exacting

will power, control, self-

sentimental

Relaxed, placid, tranquil, torpid,

patient, composed low drive

Tension

(Q4)

Tense, high energy,

impatient, driven, frustrated,

over wrought, time driven.

Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, (EPQ) ("the three-factor model").

Using factor analysis Hans Eysenck suggested that personality is reducible to three major traits:

neuroticism, extraversion, and psychoticism

Neuroticism is one of the Big Five higher-order personality traits in the study of psychology.

Individuals who score high on neuroticism are more likely than average to be moody and to

experience such feelings as anxiety, worry, fear, anger, frustration, envy, jealousy, guilt,

depressed mood, and loneliness.

They are often self-conscious and shy, and they may have trouble controlling urges and

delaying gratification.

Hans Eysenck

Extraversion and Introversion. Eysenck's theory of personality focused on two dimensions of

higher-order traits,

extraversion vs. introversion and

emotional stability vs. neuroticism, or emotional instability. ...

Extraverts have a lower base arousal and choose environments that provide more stimulation.


Psychoticism Extraversion Neuroticism

Aggressive Sociable Anxious

Assertive Irresponsible Depressed

Egocentric Dominant Guilt Feelings

Unsympathetic Lack of reflection Low self-esteem

Manipulative Sensation-seeking Tense

Achievement-oriented Impulsive Moody

Dogmatic Risk-taking Hypochondriac

Masculine Expressive Lack of autonomy

Tough-minded Active Obsessive

The Big Five personality traits, also known as the five factor model (FFM),

Ernest Tupes and Raymond Christal (1961) claimed to have found just five broad factors which

they labeled: "surgency", "agreeableness", "dependability", "emotional stability", and "culture".

Warren Norman subsequently relabeled "dependability" as "conscientiousness".


Openness to experience

(inventive/curious vs. consistent /cautious).

Conscientiousness

(efficient/organized vs. easy-going / careless)

Extraversion

(outgoing /energetic vs. solitary/reserved).

Agreeableness

(friendly /compassionate vs. challenging /detached).

Neuroticism

(sensitive/nervous vs. secure / confident).

Five Factor Trait Theory

Big Five personality traits, ("the five-factor model"). Many psychologists currently believe that

five factors are sufficient: neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness

(amicable, fiendlines) , and conscientiousness.(carefulness)

The five-factor model of personality (FFM) is a set of five broad trait dimensions or domains,

often referred to as the “Big Five”: Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness,

Neuroticism (sometimes named by its polar opposite, Emotional Stability), and Openness to

Experience (sometimes named Intellect)


Structure of Intellect theory

• Joy Paul Guilford (March 7, 1897 – November 26, 1987, was an American

psychologist best remembered for his psychometric study of human intelligence,

including the distinction between convergent and divergent production.

• According to Guilford's Structure of Intellect (SI) theory (1955), an individual's

performance on intelligence tests can be traced back to the underlying mental abilities

or factors of intelligence. SI theory comprises up to 180 different intellectual abilities

organized along three dimensions: operations, content, and products.

Five Factor Trait Theory

Big Five personality traits, ("the five-factor model"). Many psychologists currently

believe that five factors are sufficient: neuroticism, extraversion, openness to

experience, agreeableness (amicable, fiendlines) , and conscientiousness.(carefulness)

The five-factor model of personality (FFM) is a set of five broad trait dimensions or

domains, often referred to as the “Big Five”: Extraversion, Agreeableness,

Conscientiousness, Neuroticism (sometimes named by its polar opposite, Emotional

Stability), and Openness to Experience (sometimes named Intellect).

Operations dimension

Cognition - The ability to understand, comprehend, discover, and become aware of

information

Memory recording - The ability to encode information

Memory retention - The ability to recall information

Divergent production - The ability to generate multiple solutions to a problem;

creativity

Convergent production - The ability to deduce a single solution to a problem; rule-

following or problem-solving

Evaluation - The ability to judge whether or not information is accurate, consistent, or

valid

Content dimension

Figural - Concrete, real world information, tangible objects, things in the environment -

It includes A. visual: information perceived through sight, B. auditory: information

perceived through hearing, and C. kinesthetic: information perceived through one's own

physical actions


Symbolic - Information perceived as symbols or signs that stand for something else,

e.g., Arabic numerals, the letters of an alphabet, or musical and scientific notations

Semantic - Concerned with verbal meaning and ideas - Generally considered to be

abstract in nature.

Behavioral - Information perceived as acts of people (This dimension was not fully

researched in Guilford's project. It remains theoretical and is generally not included in

the final model that he proposed for describing human intelligence.)

Product dimension

Units - Single items of knowledge

Classes - Sets of units sharing common attributes

Relations - Units linked as opposites or in associations, sequences, or analogies

Systems - Multiple relations interrelated to comprise structures or networks

Transformations - Changes, perspectives, conversions, or mutations to knowledge

Implications - Predictions, inferences, consequences, or anticipations of knowledge

INTERPERSONAL CIRCUM

Originally coined Leary Circumplex or Leary Circle after Timothy Leary is defined as

"a two-dimensional representation of personality organized around two major axes"

Types of Interpersonal circumplex

There exist a variety of psychological tests designed to measure these eight

interpersonal circumplex octants.

For example, the Interpersonal Adjective Scales (IAS; Wiggins, 1995) is a measure of

interpersonal traits associated with each octant of the interpersonal circumplex.

The Inventory of Interpersonal Problems (IIP; Horowitz, Alden, Wiggins, & Pincus,

2000) is a measure of problems associated with each octant of the interpersonal

circumplex, whereas the Inventory of Interpersonal Strengths (IIS; Hatcher & Rogers,

2009) is a measure of strengths associated with each octant.

The Circumplex Scales of Interpersonal Values (CSIV; Locke, 2000) is a 64-item

measure of the value individuals place on interpersonal experiences associated with

each octant of the interpersonal circumplex.

The Person's Relating to Others Questionnaire (PROQ), the latest version being the

PROQ3 is a 48-item measure developed by the British doctor John Birtchnell.

Finally, the Impact Message Inventory-Circumplex (IMI; Kiesler, Schmidt, & Wagner,

1997) assesses the interpersonal dispositions of a target person, not by asking the target


person directly, but by assessing the feelings, thoughts, and behaviors that the target

evokes in another person.

Since interpersonal dispositions are key features of most personality disorders,

interpersonal circumplex measures can be useful tools for identifying or differentiating

personality disorders (Kiesler, 1996; Leary, 1957; Locke, 2006).

Myers–Briggs Type Indicator

Myers–Briggs

Subjective Objective

Deductive Intuition/Sensing Introversion/Extraversion

Inductive Feeling/Thinking Perception/Judging

CARL JUNG

Subjective Objective

Perception Intuition/Sensing Introversion/Extraversion 1

Gray's bio psychological theory of personality

One of the most widely accepted theories in terms of biological models in psychology is the bio

psychological theory of personality proposed by Jeffrey Alan Gray in 1970.

Gray hypothesized two systems controlling behavioral activity, the behavioral inhibition system

(BIS) and the behavioral activation system (BAS).

The BIS is thought to be related to sensitivity to punishment as well as avoidance motivation,

while the BAS is thought to be related to sensitivity to reward as well as approach motivation.

BEHAVIORAL INHIBITION SYSTEM (BIS)

According to Gray's Theory, the BIS is related to sensitivity to punishment as well as avoidance

motivation. It has also been proposed that the BIS is the causal basis of anxiety.

High activity of the BIS means a heightened sensitivity to non reward, punishment, and novel

experience.

This higher level of sensitivity to these cues results in a natural avoidance of such environments

in order to prevent negative experiences such as fear, anxiety, frustration, and sadness.


People who are highly sensitive to punishment perceive punishments as more aversive and are

more likely to be distracted by punishments.

BEHAVIORAL ACTIVATION SYSTEM (BAS)

According to Gray's theory, the BAS is sensitive to conditioned appealing stimuli, and is

associated with impulsivity. It is also thought to be related to sensitivity to reward as well as

approach motivation. The BAS is sensitive to non-punishment and reward.

Individuals with a highly active BAS show higher levels of positive emotions such as elation,

happiness, and hope in response to environmental cues consistent with non-punishment and

reward, along with goal-achievement.

In terms of personality, these individuals are also more likely to engage in goal-directed efforts

and experience these positive emotions when exposed to impending reward.

PERSONALITY

Personality derived from Latin word “Persona”

Persona Means “Mask”

The Masks were used in Indian Traditional Dance named “Kathakali”

ALLPORT: It is a dynamic organization with in the individual of those physical systems that

determines his unique adjustment to his environment.

In psychology, a psychodynamic theory is a view that explains personality in terms of

conscious and unconscious forces, such as unconscious desires and beliefs. ... Psychodynamic

theories commonly hold that childhood experiences shape personality.

FREUD’S CONCEPT OF PERSONALTY

Sigmand Freud was born in Morevis (Chekoslovakia) on may 6th 1856 and died in London on

September 23rd 1939.

Freud’s anatomy of personality built around the concepts of personality is related with the other

two.

According to Freud theory Personality is categorized in to Three types.

1. Id

2. Ego

3. Super ego


Id

It is the savage and immoral basic stuff of a man’s personality. It consists of such ambitions,

desires, tendencies and appetites of an individual as are guided by pleasure seeking principle. It

knows no laws, no rules and considers only the satisfactions of its needs and appetites.

EGO

If the raw Id were left to its own devices, it would bring disastrous effects.

Super Ego: The super Ego is the ethical moral arm of the personality. Perfection is its goal

rather than pleasure. It is a decision-making body which decides what is bad or good.

Id, Ego and Super ego were inter related. Although each has its own function yet it can never

exist alone.

JUNG’S CONCEPT OF PERSONALITY

Carl Gustav Jung was born in Kessuyl, Switzerland on 26th July 1875.

Jung divided all the human beings basically in to two types.

INTROVERT & EXTROVERT

More theoretical Realistic & Practical

Afraid of external realities Support theory of facts

Absorbing in his own Optimistic intellectual

Cool & aloof Risk taker & Change seeker

Better in writing than Good in speaking & writing.

speeking


ADLERS CONCEPT OF PERSONALITY

Alfred Adler was born in Vienna in 1870, died in Aberdeen, Scotland in 1937.

Adler made consciousness the centre of personality which makes him a pioneer in the

development of an ego oriented psychology. Man is a conscious being, he is ordinarily aware of

the reasons for his behavior.

He is conscious of his ingenuities and conscious of the goal for which he strives. He is a self

conscious individual who is capable of planning and guiding his actions with full awareness of

other meaning for his own self realisation.

FRUEDS PSYCHO SEXUAL STAGES


Oedipal complex, also known as the Oedipus complex.

The Oedipus complex is a concept of psychoanalytic theory. Sigmund Freud introduced the

concept in his Interpretation of Dreams (1899).

Freud proposed that the Oedipus complex, which originally refers to the sexual desire of a son

for his mother.

The Electra Complex

The analogous stage for girls is known as the Electra complex in which girls feel desire for their

fathers and jealousy of their mothers. The term Electra complex was introduced by Carl Jung to

describe how this complex manifests in girls.

Behavioral Psychology

Behaviorism, also known as behavioral psychology, is a theory of learning based on the idea

that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction

with the environment. Behaviorists believe that our responses to environmental stimuli shape

our actions.

There are two major types of conditioning:

Classical conditioning (Ivan Pavlov) is a technique frequently used in behavioral training in

which a neutral stimulus is paired with a naturally occurring stimulus.

Eventually, the neutral stimulus comes to evoke the same response as the naturally occurring

stimulus, even without the naturally occurring stimulus presenting itself.


The associated stimulus is now known as the conditioned stimulus and the learned behavior is

known as the conditioned response.

Operant conditioning (SKINNER) 1938

Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of

learning that occurs through reinforcements and punishments. Through operant conditioning, an

association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior.

When a desirable result follows an action, the behavior becomes more likely to occur again in

the future. Responses followed by adverse outcomes, on the other hand, become less likely to

happen again in the future.

Operant conditioning was coined by behaviourist B.F. Skinner, which is why you may

occasionally hear it referred to as Skinnerian conditioning.

Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of

learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behaviour. Through operant

conditioning, an association is made between a behaviour and a consequence for that behaviour.

For example, when a lab rat presses a blue button, he receives a food pellet as a reward, but

when he presses the red button he receives a mild electric shock.

As a result, he learns to press the blue button but avoid the red button.

Reinforcement (strengthening/support) is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it

follows. There are two kinds of reinforcers:

Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. In

situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by the


addition of something, such as praise or a direct reward. For example, if you do a good job at

work and your manager gives you a bonus.

Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the

display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of

something considered unpleasant.

For example, if your child starts to scream in the middle of the grocery store, but stops once you

hand him a treat, you will be more likely to hand him a treat the next time he starts to scream.

Your action led to the removal of the unpleasant condition (the child screaming), negatively

reinforcing your behavior.

Neo-Freudian

These other theorists became known as Neo-Freudians. Neo-Freudians, such as Adler, Horney,

Jung, and Erikson, agreed with Freud that childhood experiences matter; however, they

expanded on Freud's ideas by focusing on the importance of sociological and cultural influences

in addition to biological influences.


JUNGIAN ARCHE TYPES


Humanistic Psychology Theories

Abraham Maslow (1908 -1970)

Carl Rogers – (1902- 1987)


Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) started as the Social Learning Theory (SLT) in the 1960s by

Albert Bandura. It developed into the SCT in 1986 and posits that learning occurs in

asocial context with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment, and

behavior.

Albert Bandura


Anxiety Performance Theory

Drive theory (Zajonc 1965) is based on the principle that organisms are born with certain

psychological needs and that a negative state of tension is created when these needs are not

satisfied. When a need is satisfied, drive is reduced and the organism returns to a state of

homeostasis and relaxation.

Drive theory is the relationship between arousal and performance. Increase in arousal is

proportional to increase the performance of the player. The quality of the player depends on

how well they are good at the sport and their skill.

Drive Reduction Theory was developed by the psychologist Clark Hull in 1943, as the

first theory for motivation. It was not only as a theory to explain motivation, but also learning

and behavior.

He based his theory on the concept of homeostasis, the idea that the body actively works to

maintain a certain state of balance or equilibrium. For example, your body regulates its

temperature in order to ensure that you don't become too hot or too cold.

The term homeostasis was first coined by a psychologist named Walter Cannon in 1926.

The term refers to an organism's ability to regulate various physiological processes to keep

internal states steady and balanced.

Inverted U Hypothesis

The Inverted U Hypothesis suggests that optimal performance occurs at an intermediate level of

arousal while both low and high levels of arousal will result in impaired performance. This

proposal is made based on the Yerkes-Dodson law (named after the researchers who discovered

it) which predicts an inverted U-shaped function between arousal and performance (Yerkes,

Dodson, 1908)


At low levels of arousal, performance will be below par, the athlete is not psyched up. As

arousal increases so does performance, up to an optimal point. After this point, further increases

in arousal lead to declines in performance.

Multi Dimential Anxiety Theory

Theory that predicts that an increase in cognitive state anxiety (worry) has a negative effect on

performance. The theory is based on the premise that state anxiety is multidimensional with its

two components (cognitive anxiety and somatic anxiety) influencing performance differently.


In the context of psychology, arousal is the state of being physiologically alert, awake, and

attentive.

Arousal is primarily controlled by the reticular activating system (RAS) in the brain. The RAS

is located in the brain stem and projects to many other brain areas, including the cortex.

Physiological Arousal

Book Definition: Neural, hormonal, visceral, and muscular changes that happen in the body

when it is emotionally stimulated.

Catastrophe theory

Catastrophe theory shows a much more dramatic decline in performance. Physiological arousal

is related to performance in an inverted 'U' fashion when the athlete is not worried or has low

cognitive anxiety state anxiety. ... Cognitive anxiety – psychological, e.g. worry about failing.

The Catastrophe Model of Anxiety proposes four specific relationships between cognitive

anxiety, physiological arousal and performance (Hardy, 1990, 1996):

Cognitive anxiety (worry) has a positive linear relationship with performance when

physiological arousal is low

2. Cognitive anxiety will have a negative relationship with performance when physiological

arousal is high;

3. When cognitive anxiety is low, physiological arousal has an inverted U-shaped relationship

with performance;


4. When cognitive anxiety is high, increased levels of physiological arousal lead to a

catastrophic drop in athletic performance. Furthermore, once this catastrophic drop in

performance has occurred, a large reduction in physiological arousal is required to bring

performance back on to a higher level.

Examples

Part 1: Student worries they will fail an exam.

Part 2: Student jumps to the conclusion that failing an exam would be a catastrophe. They

imagine that if they were to fail an exam, it would mean they would never be a success in their

life.

Counter evidence is that many people who are eventually successful have failed an exam

before. And, many types of important exams even offer multiple opportunities to sit them.

Optimum Arousal Theory

Optimum Arousal Theory. Rather than seeking some biologically based balance, the

optimum arousal theory says that people are motivated to reach an optimal state of alertness or

activation. Consistent with this perspective, the Yerkes-Dodson theory predicts that people

perform better at a moderate level of arousal.

Arousal and performance

Arousal theory of motivation’s one major assertion is that the level of arousal of an individual

directly influences his/her performance. This phenomenon is also referred to as the Yerkes-

Dodson Law. The law states that

increased levels of arousal will improve performance, but only up until the optimum arousal

level is reached. At that point, performance begins to suffer as arousal levels increase.

MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES

Mainly divided in to three types

Need Approach

Cognitive Approach

Reinforcement Approach

Need Approach Theories

Maslow Hierarchy of needs

Alderfer ERG Theory

Herozborgs Two factor Theory


Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology proposed by Abraham Maslow in his

1943 paper “A Theory of Human Motivation” in Psychological Review. Maslow subsequently

extended the idea to include his observations of humans' innate curiosity.

Alderfer Theory

ERG theory is a theory in psychology proposed by Clayton Alderfer. Alderfer further developed

Maslow's hierarchy of needs by categorizing the hierarchy into his ERG theory (Existence,

Relatedness and Growth).

The existence group is concerned with providing the basic material existence requirements of

humans.

Two-factor theory. The two-factor theory (also known as Herzberg's motivation hygiene

theory and dual-factor theory) states that there are certain factors in the workplace that cause

job satisfaction, while a separate set of factors cause dissatisfaction.


According to the Two-Factor Theory there are four possible combinations

High Hygiene + High Motivation: The ideal situation where employees are highly motivated

and have few complaints.

High Hygiene + Low Motivation: Employees have few complaints but are not highly

motivated. The job is viewed as a paycheck.

Low Hygiene + High Motivation: Employees are motivated but have a lot of complaints. A

situation where the job is exciting and challenging but salaries and work conditions are not up

to par.

Low Hygiene + Low Motivation: This is the worst situation where employees are not motivated

and have many complaints.

McClelland's Theory of Needs.

McClelland's Theory of Needs. In his acquired-needs theory, David McClelland proposed that

an individual's specific needs are acquired over time and are shaped by one's life experiences.

Most of these needs can be classed as either achievement, affiliation, or power.


COGNITIVE APPROACHES / PROCESS THEORY

Expectancy theory is about the mental processes regarding choice, or choosing. It explains the

processes that an individual undergoes to make choices. In the study of organizational

behavior, expectancy theory is a motivation theory first proposed by Victor Vroom of the Yale

School of Management.

Expectancy: effort → performance (E→P)

Expectancy is the belief that one's effort (E) will result in attainment of desired performance (P)

goals. Usually based on an individual's past experience, self-confidence (self efficacy), and the

perceived difficulty of the performance standard or goal.

Self efficacy – the person's belief about their ability to successfully perform a particular

behavior. The individual will assess whether they have the required skills or knowledge desired

to achieve their goals.

Goal difficulty – when goals are set too high or performance expectations that are made too

difficult. This will most likely lead to low expectancy. This occurs when the individual believes

that their desired results are unattainable.

Perceived control – Individuals must believe that they have some degree of control over the

expected outcome. When individuals perceive that the outcome is beyond their ability to

influence, expectancy, and thus motivation, is low.


Instrumentality: Performance → Outcome (P→O)

Instrumentality is the belief that a person will receive a reward if the performance expectation is

met. This reward may present itself in the form of a pay increase, promotion, recognition or

sense of accomplishment. Instrumentality is low when the reward is the same for all

performances given.

Valence V(R)

Valence: the value an individual places on the rewards of an outcome, which is based on their

needs, goals, values and Sources of Motivation. Influential factors include one's values, needs,

goals, preferences and sources that strengthen their motivation for a particular outcome.

The valence refers to the value the individual personally places on the rewards. -1 →0→ +1

-1= avoiding the outcome

0 = indifferent to the outcome

+1 = welcomes the outcome

Equity Theory / Social compare

Equity Theory Defined. ... Equity theory is based in the idea that individuals are motivated by

fairness, and if they identify inequities in the input or output ratios of themselves and their

referent group, they will seek to adjust their input to reach their perceived equity.

IN PUTS OUT PUTS

Time, education

experience, Effort

Loyalty, Hard Work

Commitment

Ability

Adaptability

Flexibility

Tolerance

Determination

Enthusiasm

Personal sacrifice

Trust in superiors

Support from co-workers and colleagues, Skill

Job security

Salary

Employee benefit

Expenses

Recognition

Reputation

Responsibility

Sense of achievement

Praise

Thanks

Stimuli


Reinforcement / operant condition theory (Thorndike's law of effect)

Operant conditioning, sometimes called instrumental learning, was first extensively studied by

Edward L. Thorndike (1874–1949), who observed the behavior of cats trying to escape from

home-made puzzle boxes.

A cat could escape from the box by a simple response such as pulling a cord or pushing a pole,

but when first constrained, the cats took a long time to get out. With repeated trials ineffective

responses occurred less frequently and successful responses occurred more frequently, so the

cats escaped more and more quickly. Thorndike generalized this finding in his law of effect,

which states that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences tend to be repeated and those

that produce unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated. In short, some

consequences strengthen behavior and some consequences weaken behavior. By plotting escape

time against trial number Thorndike produced the first known animal learning curves through

this procedure.


Edwin Locke


Leadership theories

Great Man Theory.

The great man theory is a 19th-century idea according to which history can be largely explained

by the impact of great men, or heroes; highly influential individuals who, due to either their

personal charisma, intelligence, wisdom, or political skill used their power in a way that had a

decisive historical impact.

TRAIT THEORY OF LEADERSHIP KATZ -1974

The trait theory of leadership is an early assumption that leaders are born and due to this belief,

those that possess the correct qualities and traits are better suited to leadership.

This theory often identifies behavioral characteristics that are common in leaders.


Managerial Grid Model - Also known as Leadership Grid (1964 Robert R Blake &

Mouton)

At conception, the managerial grid model was composed of five different leadership styles.

These styles were a relation between a manager's concern for people, concern for production

and his motivation.

The motivation dimension really provides the underlying motive of the leader behind a

successful leadership style. Thus the managerial grid model categorizes leaders into one of 81

possible categories. Later, two additional leadership styles were added as well as the element of

resilience.

Role theory – (1920 Margaret mead T.Parsons

Role theory refers to the explanation of what happens when people are acting out social

processes and the consequences of their doing so.

Each person is an actor representing a typical individual in a real-life scenario performing

within a specific context and a set of functions with wh

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