Glenn L. Alpaugh

1045662

“Armor For Icarus”(Space Suit Technology and its Application to a Manned Mission to Mars)

October 30, 2005

Professor: Dr. Jerry Gideon

IR476, History of Space

1G. Alpaugh – IR476

Armor for Icarus

In the relatively short history of man’s journeys into the vacuum of space, he has carried

his environment with him – a necessity brought about by an inability to exist unaided in the

hostile ethereal void he traverses. Beyond that safety provided by the portable atmosphere of a

metallic spacecraft, additional protection is required for those who would venture beyond the

shores of Earth.

Just as many of the early explorers of the New World journeyed into the unknown

protected by breast plates and helmets forged in their homelands, so now do voyagers to the

heavens don armor for a new age of discovery. Known as the space suit, this new-age armor is

designed to shield those who wear it from the harsh realities of an unforgiving celestial ocean

fraught with peril.

Beyond the perilous vacuum of space lies Mars - the target for the first manned expedition

to another planet – expected to proceed sometime in the early twenty-first century.1 Development

of the space suit required for this voyage poses an important challenge to the scientists and

engineers tasked with the assignment.

Can suits created to protect the crews of earlier space missions suffice for the expedition to

the red planet? A review of the features and attributes incorporated through the evolution of the

early space suits illustrates that, although each successive generation of space suit fulfilled the

mission requirements of its time, designs from the past will prove ineffective in providing

adequate protection for those future explorers of the Martian surface.

1. Lee, Wayne. To Rise From Earth, 7: 267.

2G. Alpaugh – IR476

New space suit designs are in development for possible use on a Mars expedition, but no

suit has yet been chosen - neither has an official Mars mission been announced.2 A comparison

of these experimental suits should yield a frontrunner for endorsement recommendation.

Forged by scientists and engineers passionately devoted to a belief that the destiny of man

lies beyond the Earth - the space suit has grown to become a marvel of technology. From its

original design as a safety feature to guard against inadvertent loss of atmosphere within a

spacecraft, the space suit continues its evolution to meet the demands of missions of ever

increasing complexity and duration.3

The first suit worn into space by a human was the Soviet designed SK-1 (Figure 1), an

adaptation of the high altitude pressure suits worn by aircraft pilots.4 Designed and tailored for

Soviet Cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin by a team of engineers led by Boris Mikhailov at the top secret

Zvezda space suit factory outside of Moscow, the Russian intra-vehicular (IV) suit proved its

worth by providing Gagarin with protection against the possibility of spacecraft loss of

atmosphere during the historic space flight of Vostok-1 on April 12, 1961.5

The SK-1 space suit was quite an innovation for its time. It was equipped with such

features as a non-detachable visored helmet, an inflatable rubber collar in case of water landing,

an orange nylon oversuit with a mirror sewn onto one sleeve to aid in viewing controls in the

cramped space capsule, and a pressure liner with connectors for life support and communication

2. Ibid., 7: 283.

3. Space Race, [report on-line]; Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum Web site; available from http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/gal114/SpaceRace/sec300/sec350.htm; Internet; Accessed 28 October 2005.

4. Ibid., Accessed 29 October 2005.

5. Burrows, William. This New Ocean, 9: 311.

3G. Alpaugh – IR476

hoses.6 Overall, it was well designed for the historical 108-minute flight of Vostok-1, but would

be of no survival value against the harsh environment of the Martian atmosphere.7

Following closely on the heels of the Soviet SK-1, was the American Mercury space suit

(Figure 2) – a product of B.F. Goodrich engineering. Like its Soviet counterpart, the Mercury

suit was designed to serve only as backup in the event of pressure loss in the space craft.8 The

suit was worn un-pressurized by the Mercury astronauts during missions, but could have been

pressurized if the atmosphere within the space craft had been lost or contaminated.9 Its

capabilities did not extend to service outside of the space craft during flight, nor could its design

tolerate conditions on such hostile places as the Moon or Mars. 10

Innovations on the Mercury space suit not seen on its Soviet predecessor included a

detachable helmet and, more importantly, an external cooling fan unit connected by tubing to the

space suit and carried by its wearer.11 Such luxuries were quite a step up in ergonomics and

comfort for space travelers sealed into the cramped confines of the diminutive Mercury space

capsule.

6. Space Race, [report on-line]; Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum; available from http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/gal114/SpaceRace/sec300/sec350.htm; Internet; Accessed 28 October 2005.

7. Mars Science, [report online]; California Space Institute; available fromhttp://calspace.ucsd.edu/marsnow/library/science/climate_history/general_circulation_of_the_atmosphere1.html; Internet; Accessed 26 October 2005.

8. Space Race, [report on-line]; Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum Web site; available from http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/gal114/SpaceRace/sec300/sec350.htm; Internet; Accessed 28 October 2005.

9. The Space Suit, [report online]; Pieces of Science; available from http://fi.edu/pieces/hiley/history.htm; Accessed 28 October 2005.

10. Ibid., Accessed 28 October 2005.

11. Ibid., Accessed 28 October 2005.

4G. Alpaugh – IR476

The Gemini Space Program brought a new philosophy to the requirements of the space suit.

American engineers and scientists sought a suit that would be comfortable enough to be worn

within the space craft for extended periods of time. Once more, mission-driven innovation

presented itself in the form of the G3C space suit (Figure 3) – a design from the Massachusetts-

based David Clark Company. The garment’s detachable components allowed its wearers to

easily discard much of the suit while in the spacecraft, providing a level of comfort heretofore

unknown by travelers in space.12

The G3C design, although providing comfort and ease of movement for its wearer, would

not have been capable of withstanding the rigors of space nor the hostile Martian surface, had its

12. G3C, [report on-line]; Encyclopedia Astronautica; available fromhttp://www.astronautix.com/craft/g3c.htm; Internet; Accessed 02 November 2005.

Figure 1. Soviet SK-1 Space Suit. Figure 2, Mercury Space Suit. Figure 3, G3C Gemini Space Suit.Source: Space Race. [on-line]. Source: Space Race. [on-line]. Source: Space Suits [on-line].Smithsonian National Air and Smithsonian National Air and Encyclopedia Astronautica.Space Museum. Space Museum. Photos courtesy of Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum.

5G. Alpaugh – IR476

use been required for extra-vehicular operations in these environments. It was designed, as its

predecessors, for use strictly within the confines of the spacecraft.13

The Soviet designers had also moved ahead with improvements to the suits worn by their

Cosmonauts. The fully pressurized Berkut suit from the secret Zvezda factory was an

evolutionary step above the earlier SK-1 model, incorporating such modifications as an open-

cycle environmental control system for cooling and heating, and a venting relief valve for

purging the suit of accumulated impurities and excess oxygen while worn.14

Designed to provide extra-vehicular activity, the Berkut suit (Figure 4) allowed Cosmonaut

Alexei Leonov to become the first human to walk in space during the Voskhod-2 mission in

1965.15 Man’s first walk in space came close to disaster when Leonov encountered difficulty re-

entering the Voskhod-2 space craft because the suit’s designers had not foreseen the effect that

the vacuum of space would have on the pressurized suit – causing it to grow larger than the

access opening of the Voskhod spacecraft – an obvious lack of foresight on the part of its

developers.16

The Berkut suit succeeded in freeing a space explorer from the protective shell of a

spacecraft - allowing a semblance of freedom. The umbilical tether connecting Leonov to his

capsule however, belied the illusion of freedom, for without this life-sustaining link the

Cosmonaut would have perished in moments. Ultimately, the Berkut suit was a bold yet

13. Ibid., Accessed 02 November 2005.

14. Berkut, [report on-line]; Encyclopedia Astronautica; available fromhttp://www.astronautix.com/craft/berkut.htm; Internet; Accessed 02 November 2005.

15. Lee, To Rise From Earth, 4: 117.

16. Burrows, This New Ocean, 10: 353.

6G. Alpaugh – IR476

incomplete step in liberation that would be of no value for use as armor against the Martian

landscape.

With the Soviets setting the mark in extra-vehicular activity, American engineering

responded with a next-generation design. The new Gemini G4C space suit (Figure 5) was a new

approach to pressurized suits. Its multi-layer insulated design incorporated a rubberized nylon

bladder system for holding air during compression, and a portable life support system that

allowed some freedom of movement outside of the spacecraft.

Astronaut Ed White wore the G4C suit while performing the first American space walk on

the Gemini-4 mission.17 Although a veritable quantum leap in the right direction for providing

freedom of movement for its wearer in the vacuum outside an orbiting spacecraft, the G4C space

suit design falls short of answering the call for a garment capable of long-term separation from

an environmental sanctuary in order to allow its wearer to trek across the surface of Mars.

The success of the Gemini missions prodded the United States toward President John

Kennedy’s stated goal of landing humans on the Moon.18 With this objective in mind, the

American space program proceeded with the Apollo missions, and with developing a space suit

that would address the specific demands of those missions - culminating in landing humans on

the lunar surface. This need was fulfilled by creation of the Apollo space suit.

The Apollo suit (Figure 6) existed in multiple variations, being tailored for mission-specific

requirements. Space suits worn by astronauts within the Apollo spacecraft consisted of five

layers of protection.

17. G4C, [report on-line]; Encyclopedia Astronautica; available fromhttp://www.astronautix.com/craft/g4c.htm; Internet; Accessed 02 November 2005.

18. Lee, To Rise from Earth, 4: 114.

7G. Alpaugh – IR476

Apollo EVA suits – such as those used for the lunar landings – consisted of twenty-one

layers, including such innovations as a water-cooled undergarment, multi-layered pressure suit,

aluminized Mylar-Dacron and Kapton heat shielding, and Teflon coating.19

According to Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin of Apollo 11, the lunar suits performed very

well during their walks on the lunar surface.20 Designed for the low-gravity and zero atmosphere

of the Moon, the low life-limits and cumbersome design of the Apollo suits would prove

ineffective for use on a demanding and unforgiving Martian surface.21

19. The Space Suit, [report online]; Pieces of Science; available from http://fi.edu/pieces/hiley/history.htm; Accessed 28 October 2005.

20. Space Suits, [report online]; Astronomy Study Guide; available from http://www.bookrags.com/sciences/astronomy/space-suits-spsc-03.html; Accessed 01 November 2005.

21. SpaceRef News, [report on-line]; SpaceRef.com; available from http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewnews.html?id=201

Figure 4. Soviet Berkut Figure 5, G4C Space Suit. Figure 6, Apollo SpaceSpace Suit Source: Space Source: Space Race. [on-line]. Suit. Source: Space SuitsRace. [on-line] Smithsonian Smithsonian National Air and [on-line].Encyclopedia National Air and Space Museum. Space Museum. Astronautica.

Photos courtesy of National Air and Space Museum and Encyclopedia Astronautica.

8G. Alpaugh – IR476

Advances in space suit requirements continued for American and Soviet/Russian space

missions – particularly in the domain of space station construction and reusable spacecraft. The

Soviet Orlan suit configuration (Figure 7) was an excellent design of the time. According to the

Encyclopedia Astronautica, the suit was manufactured at Zvezda, and “was used for Russian

EVA's on Salyut, Mir, and the International Space Station (ISS).”22

The American counterpart to the Orlan suit was the Shuttle Extravehicular Mobility Unit

(EMU). It was a completely modular design with interchangeable sections, allowing for reusable

customization by several astronauts over its projected twenty-five year lifespan.23

22. Orlan, [report on-line]; Encyclopedia Astronautica; available fromhttp://www.astronautix.com/craft/orlan.htm; Internet; Accessed 03 November 2005.

23. Shuttle EMU, [report on-line]; Encyclopedia Astronautica; available from http://www.astronautix.com/craft/shuleemu.htm; Accessed 05 November 2005.

Figure 7. Soviet Orlon Space Figure 8, Shuttle Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU). Suit Source: Space Suits. Source: Space Suits. [on-line]. Encyclopedia Astronautica. [on-line] Encyclopedia Astronautica

Photos courtesy of Encyclopedia Astronautica

9G. Alpaugh – IR476

Despite their advanced designs and multifaceted mission capabilities, neither the Orlon nor

the EMU would be capable of succeeding in

protecting wearers on a journey across the face

of Mars. Designed specifically for operations

within a zero-gravity environment, the weight

and atmospheric susceptibility of these suits

make them inadequate for wearer survival on

Mars.

An upgraded version of the Shuttle EMU

was designated for use on the ISS. Known as the

ISS EMU (Figure 9), this suit incorporates such

advanced modifications as improved sizing and

mobility.24 It is capable of allowing its wearer to

accomplish any external task required during

ISS construction and maintenance. Currently the most sophisticated space suit in use, the ISS

EMU represents the apex of space suit production technology.

For all of its integrated systems and innovative technology, the ISS EMU is not capable of

providing its wearer with a chance of surviving prolonged exposure to the Martian environment.

Built for optimum operation in the zero-atmosphere, zero-gravity of space, its sophisticated

systems would prove extremely vulnerable to the dust and other atmospheric contaminants to be

24. ISS EMU, [report on-line]; Encyclopedia Astronautica; available from http://www.astronautix.com/craft/issemu.htm; Accessed 05 November 2005.

Figure 9. ISS EMU Suit. Source: Space Suits. [on-line]. Courtesy of Encyclopedia Astronautica.

10G. Alpaugh – IR476

found on Mars. The excessive weight of the suit and its associated components would also prove

daunting – even in the reduced Martian gravity.25

To meet the need of keeping its wearer alive on an alien world, the next space suit design

must fulfill several criteria. It must be light, flexible, and capable of withstanding the rigors of

extended exposure to the Martian atmosphere.

Two development paths are being followed in the search for the ultimate Mars suit. The

first path seeks to develop a suit by marrying conventional technology with improved

components. The second path seeks new technologies and unconventional design ideas to meet

the challenge of exploring a new world.

On the path of conventional technology, two companies contracted by the National

Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) are developing space suit prototypes in

competition with each other. Each company has proceeded with its suit development by merging

elements from previous successful suit designs with advanced technology developed specifically

for a Mars mission.

The first company in competition, ILC Dover, Inc., was tasked with development of an all

soft, multi-bearing suit incorporating pre-existing sub-components such as the shuttle EMU

helmet, hard waist entry design, and walking boots.26 ILC Dover responded to the challenge by

25. Space Suits, [report online]; Astronomy Study Guide; available from http://www.bookrags.com/sciences/astronomy/space-suits-spsc-03.html; Accessed 06 November 2005.

26. I-Suit Advanced Spacesuit Design Improvements and Performance Testing, [report on-line]; ILC Dover, Inc.; available from http://www.ilcdover.com/products/aerospace_defense/pdfs/2003_I-Suit_ICES.pdf; Accessed 09 November 2005.

11G. Alpaugh – IR476

creating a garment called the I-Suit (Figure 10). According to ILC Dover, this all-fabric

spacesuit is less costly than other suits, packs smaller, and weighs only 65 pounds.27 Its use of

bearings in all of its main joints provides

substantial freedom of movement for its

wearer.

The competing company, David

Clark, has created its own version of a

spacesuit based on the NASA requirements.

Named the D-Suit (Figure 10), this

prototype takes its basic design from the

soft, intra-vehicular shuttle escape suit

previously manufactured by David Clark for

NASA.

Weighing in at only 26 pounds, the D-

suit is lighter than the I-Suit, but is less

maneuverable due to its lack of joint

bearings - containing only one at the waist

to allow movement of the wearer’s torso.28

Both the I-Suit and D-Suit seem capable of successfully carrying out the mission

requirements of a Mars expedition, but neither suit is truly a perfect fit for the role. One would

27. Clark, Greg. NASA Plans Future Spacesuit for Planetary Missions, [article on-line]; Space.com; available from http://www.space.com/businesstechnology/technology/isuit_991110.html; Accessed 08 November 2005.

28. Ibid., Accessed 09 November 2005.

Figure 10. David Clark Company D-Suit and ILS Dover I-Suit. Source: NASA Plans Future Spacesuit for Planetary Missions. [on-line]. Space.com.

Photo courtesy of Space.com.

12G. Alpaugh – IR476

tend to agree with Mike Demasie, head of the advanced EVA group at Johnson Space Center,

who stated “The spacesuit of the future will combine the light weight of the D-Suit with the high

mobility of the I-Suit.”29

The unconventional second path of spacesuit development looks to completely

experimental technology for an answer to the question of surviving on Martian terrain. This shift

in paradigm seeks to create an interactive bio-shell that works with the wearer – anticipating and

reacting to survival needs based on bio-signals transmitted during use. According to Leonard

David, Senior Space Writer for Space.com, the unconventional bio-suit research that could yield

such a suit is based at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).30

If successful, the new suit design could render a system capable of acting as a second skin

for the wearer, transitioning away from the bulk, weight, and clumsiness associated with

conventional spacesuits (Figure 11).31 Enhanced strength for the wearer is being designed into

this second skin to provide increased stamina during extended periods exploring the Martian

surface.32

NASA seems to be covering all of its bases in the pursuit of the perfect spacesuit for Mars

exploration. It is sponsoring the development of the Bio-suit concurrently with its sponsorship of

the conventional suits in development at ILC Dover and David Clark. It would seem that,

29. Ibid., Accessed 09 November 2005.

30. David, High-Tech Spacesuits Eyed for Extreme Exploration, [article on-line]; Space.com; Available from http://www.space.com/businesstechnology/technology/spacesuit_innovations_050126.html. Accessed 09 November 2005.

31. Ibid., Accessed 09 November 2005.

32. Ibid., Accessed 09 November 2005.

13G. Alpaugh – IR476

regardless of the outcome of the developmental spacesuit projects, NASA is poised to present its

explorers with the best of past, present, and future.

As one can see through the mission accomplishments of the past, the protective armor of

the explorers belonging to the First Space Age of Earth fulfilled the requirements for which they

were designed in that earlier time of discovery. Bold travelers seeking escape from the ethereal

bonds of a world grown small and familiar reached out to space for answers – only to find more

questions and an enhanced desire to venture farther into the void.

Figure 11. Evolution of the Spacesuit, Artwork: Cam Brensiger. Source: David, High-Tech Spacesuits Eyed for Extreme Exploration, [article on-line]; Space.com.

Illustration courtesy of Space.com.

14G. Alpaugh – IR476

Now come new challenges that cannot be successfully overcome by the old technologies –

no matter how firmly propped up and repainted to look new. The challenges of a new age of

discovery cannot be met by messengers of Earth garbed in the age-old armor of past

accomplishments. New challenges require new technology if the most is to be made of the

opportunities now presented to humanity. The commitment to provide the best potential for

survival and success does not consist of rehashing old technology with band-aid fixes and

twentieth-century development.

The exploration of Mars is for a new age and should be pursued with new ideas equal to the

magnificent concept of interplanetary exploration in the twenty first-century of Earth.

Figure 12. Artist’s Rendition of the First Humans to Explore the Surface of Mars, Artwork: Pat Rawlings. Source: Future Spacesuits, [article on-line]; NASA Quest.

Illustration courtesy of NASA Quest.

15G. Alpaugh – IR476

List of Illustrations

Figure Title Page

1……..Soviet SK-1 Space Suit…………………………………………………… 42……..Mercury Space Suit……………………………………………………….. 43……..G3C Gemini Space Suit…………………………………………………… 44……..Soviet Berkut Space Suit………………………………………………….. 75……..G4C Space Suit……………………………………………………………. 76……..Apollo Space Suit…………………………………………………………. 77……..Soviet Orlon Space Suit…………………………………………………… 88……..Shuttle Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU)……………………………... 89……..ISS EMU Suit……………………………………………………………… 910….…David Clark Company D-Suit and ILS Dover I-Suit………………………1111….…Evolution of the Spacesuit………………………………………………… 1312……Artist’s Rendition of the First Humans to Explore the Surface of Mars…... 14

16G. Alpaugh – IR476

Bibliography

“Berkut.” Encyclopedia Astronautica; Home page on-line; Available from http://www.astronautix.com/craft/berkut.htm; Internet; Accessed 02 November 2005.

Burrows, William E. This New Ocean. New York: The Modern Library, 1999.

Clark, Greg. “NASA Plans Future Spacesuit for Planetary Missions.” Space.com; Available from http://www.space.com/businesstechnology/technology/isuit_991110.html; Accessed 08 November 2005.

David, Leonard. “High-Tech Spacesuits Eyed for Extreme Exploration.” Space.com; Available from http://www.space.com/businesstechnology/technology/spacesuit_innovations_050126.html. Accessed 09 November 2005.

“G3C.” Encyclopedia Astronautica; Home page on-line; Available fromhttp://www.astronautix.com/craft/g3c.htm; Internet; Accessed 02 November 2005.

“G4C.” Encyclopedia Astronautica; Home page on-line; Available from http://www.astronautix.com/craft/g4c.htm; Internet; Accessed 02 November 2005

I-Suit: Advanced Spacesuit Design Improvements and Performance Testing. ILC Dover, Inc.; Home page on-line; Available from http://www.ilcdover.com/products/aerospace_defense/pdfs/2003_I-Suit_ICES.pdf; Accessed 09 November 2005.

“ISS EMU.” Encyclopedia Astronautica; Home page on-line; Available from http://www.astronautix.com/craft/issemu.htm; Accessed 05 November 2005.

Lee, Wayne. To Rise From Earth: An Easy –to-Understand Guide to Spaceflight. (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000.)

“Mars Science.” California Space Institute. Home page on-line; Available from http://calspace.ucsd.edu/marsnow/library/science/climate_history/general_circulation_of_the_atmosphere1.html; Internet; Accessed 26 October 2005.

“Orlan.” Encyclopedia Astronautica; Home page on-line; Available from http://www.astronautix.com/craft/orlan.htm; Internet; Accessed 03 November 2005.

“Shuttle EMU.” Encyclopedia Astronautica; Home page on-line; Available from http://www.astronautix.com/craft/shuleemu.htm; Accessed 05 November 2005.

“Space Race.” Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum. Home page on-line; Available from http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/gal114/SpaceRace/sec300/sec350.htm; Internet; Accessed 28 October 2005.

17G. Alpaugh – IR476

Bibliography (Continued)

“Space Suits.” Astronomy Study Guide; Home page on-line; Available from http://www.bookrags.com/sciences/astronomy/space-suits-spsc-03.html; Accessed 01 November 2005.

“SpaceRef News.” SpaceRef.com; Home page on-line; Available from http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewnews.html?id=201

“The Space Suit.” Pieces of Science. Home page on-line, Available from http://fi.edu/pieces/hiley/history.htm; Internet; Accessed 28 October 2005.