SOSC 103DSocial Inequality in HK

Lecture 10: Gender inequality

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Gender inequality in Hong Kong

• Differences in income– In 2003, estimated earned income

For female: US$ 19,593; For male: US$ 35,037 – Ratio: 0.56

• Political power, 2004

– Members of the Executive Council (4/21)– Members of the Legislative Council (11/60)– Members of the District Councils (18%)– Civil servants (33.6%)

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Proportion of females in total employment by major occupation category (2002)

Male Female total% %

Managers and Administrators 74 26 100

Professionals 65 35 100

Associate professionals 58 42 100

Clerks 26 74 100

Service workers and shop sales workers 52 48 100

Craft and related workers 96 4 100

Plant and machine operators 87 13 100

Elementary occupations 55 45 100

Others 69 31 100

Total 59 41 100

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• Vertical segregations– Males are clustered in higher ranking jobs (i.e.

managerial & administrative staff of the company)– While females are occupying those lower ranking and

lower paid jobs (i.e. clerical workers)

• Horizontal segregations – Boys and girls are working in different economic

sectors (manufacturing vs construction)– Boys in professional sectors (i.e. engineers) while

girls as service providers (i.e. nurse, teachers)

Job/ Employment Segregations

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Reasons for the segregation • Gender inequality in educational attainment:

– Less females than males have a qualification of secondary or higher education (age 15 and above)

– A large proportion of females have no education

1986 1996 2002M F M F M F

No Schooling/ 7.0 21.6 5.1 13.8 3.4 10.2Kindergarten

Primary 30.8 27.7 22.7 22.6 20.7 21.3

Secondaryand above 62.2 50.7 72.2 63.6 75.9 68.5

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

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• How about the younger generation?!– Boys’ and girls’ enrollment in different level of study

1997/ 1998 1999/ 2000 2001/ 2002M F M F M F

Sub-degree 36.4% 63.6% 34.2% 65.8% 34.0% 66.0%

Undergraduate 49.7% 50.3% 47.5% 52.5% 46.7% 53.3%

Postgraduate 63.8% 36.2% 57.8% 42.2% 54.0% 46.0%

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Better future for females?• Increase in girls’ educational attainment.

– Human capital approach– Free market

• Changes in economic structure will lead to greater opportunities for women (expansion of service sector)– Feminization of job

• After women enter labour forces, social changes might result (from professional to political)

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Some observations in HK

• Class effect in gender inequality: – Women at the top vs women in low-income families

– In 2001, the median income for total working population: female is HK$8,500; male is HK$12,000 (differences: 29%)

– For unskillful workers: female is HK$3,900; male is HK$7,500 (differences: 48%)

Who are the unskillful labour in HK?

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Occupations of the working population by sex, 1991 (%)

Occupations Male Female Differences Mean incomeratio (F:M)

Manager/ Administration 11.8 4.9 6.9 0.79

Professional 4.1 3.0 1.1 0.79

Associate professional 9.7 11.3 -1.6 0.82

Clerk 8.0 28.8 -20.8 0.89

Service/ Sales 13.7 12.5 1.2 0.66

Craft & related workers 21.0 4.4 16.6

Plant & machine operators 13.9 12.7 1.2

Elementary 16.6 21.7 -5.1 0.58

Others 1.2 0.7 0.5 0.64

Total (%) 100 100

source: HK 1991 Population Census: Main report, p.93

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• When capitalism meets patriarchy…(Marxist)– Women provide the reserve labour – The effect of marriage on women’s labour force

participation

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

15-19 20-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+Age

women, married women, never married all men

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• Women’s role in society– Traditional homemaker vs employed outside– Motherhood

Persons responsible for four types of family task (%)

Making Important Supervision ofHousehold chores decisions children Daily budgeting

Wife 72.1 13.7 38.3 50.5

Husband 3.6 32.3 6.4 15.3

Shared 13.6 47.0 49.7 26.7

Others 10.8 6.9 5.5 7.6

Total (N) (390) (387) (326) (386)

source: from C.H. Ng (1995: 94)

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Suggested Readings:

Chan, Kam Wah and C.H. Ng (1994) "Gender, Class and Employment Segregation in Hong Kong," in S.K. Lau, et al. (ed.) Inequalities and Development: social stratification in Chinese societies, HK: CU Press