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Some Remarks on Kant's Theory of ExperienceAuthor(s): Wilfrid SellarsSource: The Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 64, No. 20, Sixty-Fourth Annual Meeting of theAmerican Philosophical Association, Eastern Division (Oct. 26, 1967), pp. 633-647Published by: Journal of Philosophy, Inc.Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2024460Accessed: 27/09/2010 23:12

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SYMPOSIUM: KANT 633

SYMPOSIUM: KANT

SOME REMARKS ON KANT'S THEORY OF EXPERIENCE *

I

K A NT never tires of telling us that Nature and the Space and Time which are its forms exist as a system of "representa- tions." Now a representation is either a representing or a

something represented. Does Kant mean that nature is a system of representings? Or that it is a system of representeds? And, in any case, what would the claim amount to?

Representings are "mental acts." Does Kant think of nature as a system of mental acts? At one level the answer is clearly No. For, although nature does include representings-thus, at least, the sensory representings that are states of the empirical self-its primary constitu- ents are material things and events, and Kant would agree with the Cartesians that the idea that a material event could be a representing, or, equivalently, that a mental act could have shape and size, is absurd.

In the second-edition Refutation of Idealism Kant clearly con- trasts material objects and events with the sense impressions cor- related with them in the history of the empirical self. The former are extended and located in space; the latter are neither extended nor in space,' though they do have temporal location. He argues that spatial structures are as directly or intuitively represented as are the non- spatial states of the empirical self, thus attacking the view, lurking in the Cartesian tradition, that the intuitive awareness involved in per- ceptual experience is an awareness of nonspatial sense impressions. This thesis is by no means new to the Second Edition, though the distinction between physical events and sense impressions is drawn in a clearer and less misleading way.

Shall we then say that nature is a system, not of representings, but of representeds? What would this mean? One's first reaction is to point out that not everything in nature is represented, and that not every- thing which is represented as being in nature is in nature. To the first of these objections the natural reply is to distinguish between "actually represented" and "representable," and define nature as a

* To be presented in an APA symposium on Kant, December 28, 1967. 1 Kant's treatment of sensation is notoriously inadequate and inept. From the

premise that sense impressions as mental states are neither literally extended nor in physical space, he infers that they are in no sense spatial, i.e., that they in no way have a structure which conforms to a geometrical axiomatics. The idea that sensa- tions are "purely intensive magnitudes" has always made it difficult to understand how sense impressions could have a meaningful connection with physical states of affairs.

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system of representables. T'o the second the natural reply is that while not everything which is represented as being in nature is in nature, everything which is represented by a true representing as being in nature is in nature. These considerations merge; for not every system of empirical representables constitutes nature, but only that system of empirical representables, the representings of which would be true.

The conception thus arises of nature as the system of those repre- sentable spatial and/or temporal states of affairs which did, do, or will obtain, whether or not they were, are, or will be actually represented. An actual representing is true if the state of affairs it represents be- longs to this privileged set of representable states of affairs.

The trouble with this picture, as Kant saw, is not that it is false but that it is so thin that it scarcely begins to illuminate the concept of nature as the object of empirical knowledge. Yet unilluminating though the idea may be that an empirical judging is true if the state of affairs it represents is one which did, does, or will obtain, i.e., was, is, or will be actual, it is the initial datum for analysis. Kant saw that this truism must be submitted to the closest scrutiny if the specter of skepticism is to be laid to rest. This scrutiny must aim at clarifying the concepts of an empirical judging, of truth, of a state of affairs, and of what it is for a state of affairs to obtain or be actual. This Kant pro- ceeds to do with important, indeed, dramatic results.

The central theme of the Analytic is that unless one is clear about what it is to judge, one is doomed to remain in the labyrinth of traditional metaphysics. On the other hand, to be clear about what it is to judge is to have Ariadne's thread is one's hand.

Now from the Kantian point of view, the above concepts pair up in an interesting way: judging with state of affairs, and truth with actual- ity. Indeed to say that they pair up is to understate the closeness of their relationships. For, Kant argues, in effect, that the pairs turn out, on close examination, to be identities.

II

Before following through with this claim, we must take into account another concept which ties them together and gives them point, that of empirical knowledge. On any view there is the closest of connec- tions between the concepts of knowledge and truth. The above re- marks suggest that for Kant the connection between the concept of empirical knowledge and the "category" of actuality is at least as close. Indeed, as we shall see, the core of Kant's "epistemological turn" is the claim that the distinction between epistemic and ontological categories is an illusion. All so-called ontological categories are in fact epistemic. They are "unified" by the concept of empirical

SYMPOSIUM: KANT 635

knowledge because they are simply constituent moments of this one complex concept, the articulation of which is the major task of the constructive part of the Critique.

It is obvious to the beginning student that the truths of "transcen- dental logic" cannot themselves be "synthetic a priori." If they were, then any transcendental demonstration that objects of empirical knowledge conform to synthetic universal principles in the modality of necessity would be question-begging. It must in a tough sense be an analytic truth that objects of empirical knowledge conform to logi- cally synthetic universal principles. It must, however, also be an illuminating analytic truth, far removed from the trivialities estab- lished by the unpacking of 'body' into 'extended substance' and 'brother' into 'male sibling'.2

It is also obvious, on reflection, that Kant is not seeking to prove that there is empirical knowledge, but only to show that the concept is a coherent one and that it is such as to rule out the possibility that there could be empirical knowledge not implicitly of the form 'such and such a state of affairs belongs to a coherent system of states of affairs of which my perceptual experiences are a part'. By showing this, he undercuts both the skeptic and the "problematic idealist" who, after taking as paradigms of empirical knowledge items that seem to involve no intrinsic commitment to such a larger context, raise the illegitimate question of how one can justifiably move from these items to the larger context to which we believe them to belong.

Before developing these themes, we must take into account the familiar fact that truth is a necessary but not sufficient condition for knowledge. A judgment, to be a case of knowledge, not only must be true; we must, in some sense, be justified in making it. The problem posed is as old as the hills and as new as tomorrow. It is not my pur- pose to claim that Kant found all the essentials of the solution. He did, however, show convincingly that certain traditional lines of thought are blind alleys, and in so doing discovered the general lines of a successful strategy.

The task of "transcendental logic" is to explicate the concept of a mind that gains knowledge of the world of which it is a part. The acquisition of knowledge by such a mind involves its being acted on or "affected" by the objects it knows.3 There are, of course, any num-

2 Kant's discussion of philosophical method in the concluding chapters of the Critique shows that he was fully aware of these facts, and realized as well that "transcendental logic" as knowledge about knowledge could consist of analytic knowledge about synthetic knowledge.

3 That it also involves action in relation to these objects-if only by changing one's relative position-is a point to which he pays less attention than it deserves.

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ber of stages at which one can go wrong with respect to the structure of Kant's thought-and Kant himself is not always a reliable guide -but the sooner one makes a wrong choice of roads, the more diffi- cult it is to get back on the right track. And the first major "choice- point" concerns the concept of "receptivity." What is it, exactly, that is brought about when our "receptivity" (inner or outer) is "affected"? It has always been easy to answer, "impressions of sense," and to con- tinue by construing these as nonconceptual states, states that belong to the same family as tickles and aches, but differ in that unlike the latter they are constituents of the perceptual experience of physical things.

Even though there is an element of truth in this interpretation, its total effect is to distort Kant's thought in a way that obscures its most distinctive features. In the first place, it makes nonsense of the idea that space is the form of outer receptivity. For sense impressions, being mental states, are, for Kant, no more capable of being extended than they were for Descartes. In the second place, it makes nonsense of the idea of inner sense. For when Kant tells us that the contents of "inner sense" come from "outer sense," this would mean, on the above inter- pretation, that certain extended (but not temporal) sensations "cause" a further set of nonconceptual states (sensations) which are unex- tended though temporally related.

It is often taken for granted that Kant was clear about the distinc- tion between conceptual and nonconceptual mental states or repre- sentings. "Empirical intuitions" are interpreted as nonconceptual and construed, on the above lines, as the epistemically more important members of the sensation family. Actually the pattern of Kant's thought stands out far more clearly if we interpret him as clear about the difference between general conceptual representings (sortal and attributive), on the one hand, and, on the other, intuition as a special class of nongeneral conceptual representings, but add to this interpre- tation the idea that he was not clear about the difference between intuitions in this sense and sensations. "Intuitive" representings would consist of those conceptual representings of individuals (roughly, individual concepts) which have the form illustrated by

this-line as contrasted with

the line I drew yesterday which is an individual concept having the form of a definite descrip- tion.

Compare C. I. Lewis's treatment of this topic in the first chapter of An Analysis of Knowledge and Valuation.

SYMPOSIUM: KANT 637

Notice that the above line of interpretation enables us to make sense of Kant's claim that "intuitions of a manifold" 4 have categorial form; for there is an obvious sense in which

this-line has the subject-predicate form, even though it is not a subject-predi- cate judgment. It is familiar fact that in the judgment

This book is red the subject-predicate form enters twice, a fact which can be made explicit by the paraphrase.

This is a book and it is red. According to the above interpretation, the representings that are

brought about by the "affection" of "receptivity" would, as intuitions, already be, in a broad sense, conceptual. To make this move, however, is to give a radical reinterpretation to the concept of "receptivity" and to the contrast between "receptivity" and "spontaneity." This can be brought out by comparing Kant's conception of the affection of receptivity by things in themselves with what I have elsewhere called "language entry transitions." A language entry transition is an evok- ing, for example, of the response 'this is red' by a red object in sun- light from a person who knows the language to which this sentence belongs. As an element in a rule-governed linguistic system the utter- ance is no mere conditioned response to the environment. Its occur- rence is a function not only of the environment but of the conceptual set of the perceiver. To know the language of perception is to be in a position to let one's thoughts be guided by the world in a way that contrasts with free association, with day-dreaming, and, more interest- ingly, with the coherent imaginings of the storyteller.

It is Kant's contention that the conceptual structures we develop in perceptual experience under the influence of independent reality, are of a piece with the conceptual structures we freely or spontaneously develop in imagination. A useful parallel is provided by the difference between counting objects and "counting" in that unconstrained way (repeating the numbers) which is a rehearsing in imagination of actual counting procedures. Another parallel is the difference between per- ceiving a triangle and imagining a particular triangle (which must not be confused with "having a triangular image," whatever that is). In receptivity we do the same sort of thing we do in the "spontaneity" of imagination, but we do it as receptive to guidance by the objects we come to represent.

4"Intuitions of a manifold" are to be contrasted with "manifolds of intuition" (see, for example, B135). The lumping of manifolds of sense with the latter, though a confusion, would at least keep them distinct from the intuitive representings synthesized by the productive imagination.

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Kant claims, in other words, that the very same rule-governed con- ceptual activity that occurs in the free play of imagination constitutes perceptual experience, when it is guided by independent reality. Ac- cording to this interpretation, the "productive imagination" (which is Kant's term for the faculty that generates intuitive representings of the form 'this cube') provides the subject-terms of perceptual judg- ments; thus, for example

This cube is a piece of ice. III

According to the above interpretation Kant thinks of the products of that peculiar blend of the passivity of sense and the spontaneity of the understanding which is "receptivity" in the sense defined above as consisting of representings of the form

this-,o rather than full-fledged judgments. But, since it is clear that he thinks of these representings as involving the categorial forms that occur in full-fledged judgment, it will simplify matters if, for our present purposes, we abstract from this special feature of his theory and sup- pose that, as in our linguistic model, it is perceptual judgments them- selves which are evoked by the action of objects in our perceptual capacities. We are thus enabled to focus our attention on Kant's theory of what judgings are.

I shall begin by summarizing this theory as four closely related theses:

1. Judgings are complex representings in a very special sense of 'com- plex', which distinguishes them from the mere co-occurrence of repre- sentings in the same mind at the same time, as when an association is aroused. Kant believed, not without justification, that this distinction was not clearly drawn by his predecessors-particularly David Hume.

2. Judgings have a variety of forms which Kant clearly conceives by analogy with the logical forms of the statements that express them.

3. Not only do judgings have these forms; anything (with the exception of intuitive representings) that has these forms is a judging.

4. To judge, for example, that snow is white is not just to represent snow and represent white; it is to be committed to the idea that the representable snow and the representable white belong together regard- less of what anyone happens to think. It is, in other words, to be com- mitted to the idea that representings that snow is white are (epistemi- cally) correct and representings that snow is not white (epistemically) incorrect. This thesis finds its clearest expression in section 19 of the Second Edition Deduction, entitled "The Logical Form of All Judg-

SYMPOSIUM: KANT 639

ments Consists in the Objective Unity of the Apperception of the Concepts which They Contain" (B141-142).

The first two theses need little if any elaboration. The third and fourth, however, are of crucial importance to Kant's argument and require a closer look. At first sight the statement that only judgings have the forms that judgings have, may have the appearance of tautology. But it is not a triviality, and, indeed, is the very heart of the Critique.

It will be illuminating, I believe, to compare this thesis with its counterpart in a linguistic version of the Kantian position, i.e., one that speaks in terms of (meaningful) expressions rather than (con- ceptual) representations:

Statings have certain logical forms and everything which has these forms is a stating.

The logical form of a stating is clearly not the empirical configuration of the sentence it illustrates, though having an appropriate empirical configuration is a necessary condition of the stating's having the logi- cal form it does, in the language to which it belongs. For a stating to have a certain logical form is for it to have certain logical powers, and, if so, the idea that anything having this form must be a stating has the ring of truth rather than paradox.

Kantian "categories" are concepts of logical form, where 'logical' is to be taken in a broad sense, roughly equivalent to 'epistemic'. To say of a judging that it has a certain logical form is to classify it and its constituents with respect to their epistemic powers.

If judgings qua conceptual acts have "form," they also have "con- tent." Of all the metaphors that philosophers have employed, this is one of the most dangerous, and few have used it without to some extent being taken in by it. The temptation is to think of the "con- tent" of an act as an entity that is "contained" by it. But if the "form" of a judging is the structure by virtue of which it is possessed of certain generic logical or epistemic powers, surely the content must be the character by virtue of which the act has specific modes of these generic logical or epistemic powers.

Thus, a judging that Tom is tall would, in its generic character, be a judging of the subject-predicate form. It is a judging that a certain substance has a certain attribute. (These two ways of putting it are equivalent.) If we focus our attention on the predicate we can charac- terize the judging more specifically as a judging that a certain sub- stance has the attribute tall. Thus, just as to say that a judging is a judging that a certain substance has a certain attribute is to say

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that the judging is of a certain generic kind (i.e., has certain generic logical powers); so to say that a judging is a judging that a certain substance is tall is to classify the judging as one of the such and such is tall kind, i.e., to classify it in a way that ascribes to it the more specific conceptual powers distinctive of the concept of being tall. Indeed, for the judging to "contain the concept of being tall" is nothing more nor less than for it to have these specific powers.5

Kant correctly concludes from the above that there is no such thing as comparing a judging with an actual state of affairs and finding the judging to be "correct" or "justified." For, according to the above analysis, an "actual state of affairs," since it has judgmental form, is simply a true species of judging, i.e., to use Peircean terminology, a judging-type that it would be (epistemically) correct to token.6 Thus "comparing a judging with a state of affairs" could only be compar- ing a judging with another judging of the same specific kind, and this would no more be a verification than would checking one copy of today's Times by reading another.

In evaluating the significance of this point, it should be borne in mind that linguistic episodes have not only logical powers but also, and necessarily, matter-of-factual characteristics, e.g., shape, size, color, internal structure, and that they exhibit empirical uniformities both among themselves and in relation to the environment in which they occur. They can be compared as objects in nature with other objects in nature with respect to their matter-of-factual characteristics. I mention this, because the fact that we tend to think of conceptual acts as having only logical form, as lacking matter-of-factual character- istics, i.e., as, to use Moore's expression, diaphanous, makes it difficult to appreciate that the ultimate point of all the logical powers pertain- ing to conceptual activity in its epistemic orientation is to generate conceptual structures which as objects in nature stand in certain matter-of-factual relations to other objects in nature.7

5 The above remarks on categories and concepts can be construed as a com- mentary on the passage in the Paralogisms where Kant writes: "We now come to a concept which was not included in the general list of transcendental concepts but which must yet be counted as belonging to that list, without, however, in the least altering it or declaring it defective. This is the concept or, if the term be preferred, the judgment, 'I think.' As is easily seen, this is the vehicle of all con- cepts, and therefore also of transcendental concepts, and so is always included in the conceiving of these latter, and is itself transcendental" (A341; B399).

6 Put in linguistic terms, an "actual state of affairs" is a true species of stating, i.e., a stating-type that it would be epistemically correct to token.

7 The basic flaw in the Kantian system (as in that of Peirce) is in its inability to do justice to this fact. The insight that logical form belongs only to conceptual acts (i.e., belongs to "thoughts" rather than to "things") must be supplemented by the insight that "thoughts" as well as "things" must have empirical form if they are

SYMPOSIUM: KANT 641

IV

Aristotle seems to have thought of his categories as the most generic sortal concepts that can occur in statements about the objects around us. Thus

Tom is a substance would belong to the same family of statements as

Tom is an animal and would stand to the latter as

Tom is an animal stands to

Tom is a man. If one attempts to carry through this model with the other cate- gories, one is led to postulate such puzzling entities as quality-individ- uals and (horrible dictu) relation-individuals to be the subjects of statements of the form

. .. is a quality

. . . is a relation. Medieval logicians began the process of reinterpreting the cate-

gories that culminated in Kant's Critique, by recognizing that certain statements (thus 'Man is a species') which seem to be about queer entities in the world are actually statements that classify constituents of conceptual acts. The insights of terminist logicians were largely lost in the post-Cartesian period. Kant not only rediscovered these insights, but extended them in such a way as to connect categories not only with the logical forms in the narrowest sense (roughly, syntactical powers) studied by formal logicians, but, to an extent not always recognized, with the logical powers in a broader sense which are essen- tial to a conceptual framework the employment of which generates knowledge of matter of fact. Thus he thinks of the categories as together constituting the concept of an object of empirical knowledge. The extent to which this is so does not stand out in the Metaphysical Deduction. It isn't until the Analytic of Principles, as has often been pointed out, that one can grasp the full import of Kant's theory of the categories. The conception of the categories as the most general classifications of the logical powers that a conceptual system must have in order to generate empirical knowledge is the heart of the Kantian revolution.

It is, we have seen, in the literal sense a category mistake to construe 'substance', for example, as an object-language sortal word that differs

to mesh with each other in that way which is essential to empirical knowledge. I have developed this point in Chapter 6 of Science, Perception and Reality (New York: Humanities, 1963) and, more recently in Chapter 5 of Science and Meta- physics (New York, Humanities, 1967).

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from ordinary empirical predicates by being a summum genus. How- ever, once the Kantian turn is taken, and substance-attribute is seen to be a classification of judgings, it becomes possible to interpret at least some categories as meta-conceptual summa genera, and to look for the "differences" that generate their species. It is along these lines that the obscure doctrine of the Schematism is to be understood. Roughly, the schemata turn out to be specific differences, and the schematized categories a classification of the epistemic powers of judgings in so far as they pertain to events in time.

v

Once it is recognized that intuitive representings are, in a generic sense, conceptual, though not sortal or attributive, other parts of the Kantian system begin to fall into place. To intuit is to represent a this, i.e., if I may so put it, to have a representing of the "this" kind. But no representing is, so to speak, a sheer "this" representing. To sup- pose the contrary is to treat 'this' as a mere label devoid of any but the most meager logical powers. Space and time are "forms of intuition," not by virtue of being attributes of or relations between things or events in nature, but by virtue of the fact that the logical powers distinctive of "this" representings are specified in terms of concepts pertaining to relative location in space and time. The "transcen- dental" or epistemic function of spatiotemporal concepts as forms of representing, must be distinguished from their empirical function in matter-of-factual judgments about historical fact.

In linguistic terms this means roughly that spatiotemporal predi- cates are essential not only to object-language statements, but to the metalinguistic statements that ascribe logical (epistemic) powers to linguistic forms. It is a familiar, but important, fact that the logical powers of demonstratives and tenses essentially involve the manner of their occurrence in space and time, and, hence, the conceptual struc- ture of space and time is built into their logical powers.

To be an intuitive representing is to represent something as located in space or time, as being here and now with me as contrasted with there and then. But, by the same token, it is to represent it as on the way to being there and then and no longer with me now. We must remember that, although time does not change in the sense that one temporal system is replaced by another (there is only one time), it does, moving image of eternity that it is, constantly change with re- spect to the A-characteristics of pastness, presentness, and futurity.

Now to be represented as having a location in space and time is to be represented as an object, as something with respect to which there is truth or falsity. It is sufficient to note that so to represent an item is

SYMPOSIUM: KANT 643

to commit oneself to the idea that it is so located. In the Analogies Kant argues, among other things, that such truth and falsity involves the concept of Nature as the object par excellence of empirical knowl- edge (A129).

VI

Since a "this" representing is an object-of-knowledge representing, intuitions have the form

this-object But just as nothing is represented as a mere "this," for the conceptual framework of space, time and of myself as confronted by this is in- volved, so nothing is represented in perception as merely

this (here now) object To make the obvious point, object is an epistemic concept, and we experience objects in terms of empirical concepts. Thus, in giving an example of an intuition, we should offer not

this object but, say,

this cube where the concept of a cube, unlike its pure geometrical counterpart, is the concept of an object in nature. Kant seems to have taken for granted that the intuitive representings must be absolutely determi- nate and that to represent an absolutely determinate cube, for ex- ample, is to "draw it in thought" (B138, B162, A102). This difficult doctrine requires that the logical powers of the concept cube involve not only the inferential powers characteristic of its role as the predi- cate of full-fledged judgment, but also the powers involved in "con- structing" or "drawing" determinate "this-cube" representings in accordance with a rule, and knowing that this is what one is doing.8

VII

To be able to have intuitive representings, then, is to have all the conceptual apparatus involved in representing oneself as acquiring empirical knowledge of a world one never made. We are a long way from the Humean notion that merely by virtue of having a sense impression one has as good a piece of knowledge as one can get; not to mention the Cartesian notion that the intuitive knowledge of one's present cogitationes is logically independent of any knowledge of the context in which they occur. Some familiar Kantian theses fol- low as corollary from the above considerations:

8 One is struck by Brouwer's parallel point that to have temporal concepts is to be able not only to make judgments involving temporal predicates but to "construct" determinate representings of the form

this-after-that. But I must leave the details of Kant's theory of intuitive conceptualization and how it fits in with his theory of concepts as rules to another occasion.

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1. Having particular intuitions involves having the conceptual framework of space and time. Hence the possession of the latter cannot be accounted for in terms of the former. Kant infers that the ability to represent items as in space and time is innate.

2. The fact that concepts have categorial form undercuts any abstractionism that derives them from nonconceptual representations. As for forming con- cepts and categories by abstraction from intuitive representings of manifolds, this makes sense because the latter already have a conceptual and categorial character. By confusing the synopsis of sense (A97) with the intuitive repre- senting of a manifold Locke mistakenly concluded that concepts and cate- gories could be abstracted from sheer sensibility. Kant infers that the frame- work of basic concept and categories is innate.

3. Induction, the process of forming generalizations about objects and events, presupposes the conceptual framework involved in thinking of objects and events as located in space and time. Since any present event will be a past event, it must, if it is to have truth and knowability, be inferen- tially as well as intuitively accessible. Since such inferential access involves laws of nature, the domain of objects of empirical knowledge must conform to knowable laws. The knowledge of these laws cannot be inductive, for, as was pointed out above, induction presupposes knowable objects. The knowledge of these laws must be innate in the sense in which geometry was innate in Meno's slave.

4. To conceive of an event as occurring at a time is to commit oneself to the idea that the concept of that event and the concept of that time belong to- gether regardless of what one happens to think. But there is nothing about the sheer concept of a particular time which requires that it be occupied by a certain event. The belonging must, Kant concludes, be a matter of the temporal location of the event relative to other events; and, as belonging, be the inferability (in principle) of its occurrence at that location from the occurrence of the events to which it is thus related.

5. Association of ideas is association of concepts (not images), and hence pre- supposes and cannot account for the framework features of a conceptual structure.

6. Even our consciousness of what is going on in our own mind is a con- ceptual response which must be distinguished from that which evokes the response. Not even in this context does it make sense to speak of verifying judgments by comparing them with the actual state of affairs to which we are responding. Kant tends to limit this point to the introspection of sense impressions and other sensory states of the empirical self. Thus he tells us in A456 that we have knowledge "by pure apperception" of our conceptual acts. Indeed, he repeatedly implies that we have (or can have) an unproblematic awareness of all acts of spontaneity or synthesis9 (e.g., A108, B 130, B153).

9 It has often been noted that Kant's references to successive acts of synthesis is in prima facie conflict with his dictum that everything in time is appearance. This

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And in B430 he even seems to suggest that in pure apperception the mental activity known and the knowing of it are somehow one and the same, a thesis which is surely inconsistent with critical principles.10

7. The application of the fourth Corollary above to the special case of sensory states of the empirical self gives the coup de grdce to the problematic ideal- ism of Descartes. For since the only inferability there is pertaining to the occurrence of sense impressions concerns their law-like relation to the stimu- lation of our sense organs by material things, the belonging together of the individual concept of a particular sense impression and the individual con- cept of a certain moment involves the distinction between material things and the sense impressions that represent them in the empirical self (B274ff).

VIII

Nature, we have said, is the system of actual basic empirical states of affairs. There are two themes in Kant's account of what it is to be an actual basic state of affairs:

(a) It is one the intuiting of which would be a correct intuiting. In terms of our linguistic model, this amounts to saying that a true basic statement is one which, in here-now form, as contrasted with the there-then counterparts which make the same statement, would be a correct "language entry transition" by a person appropriately located with respect to the object.

(b) An actual basic state of affairs is one that is correctly inferable from correct present intuitive representings. In terms of our linguistic model, this amounts to saying that a true basic empirical statement is one that is correctly derivable by means of true law-like statements from true basic here-now statements.

Once again, it must be borne in mind that Kant's aim has not been to prove that there is knowledge of the there-then, but to show, by articulating the concept of empirical knowledge, that knowing the here-now involves knowing it as an element in a system that includes there-thens.

conflict, however, merely points up the extent to which Kant's system calls for a distinction between Newtonian time as a form of nature and the successiveness in- volved in the activity by which the mind represents nature. The reference to motion as a transcendental concept (as contrasted with the motion of objects in space) in B155 and the accompanying note is particularly important in this connection.

10 Kant could insist that the knowledge gained by pure apperception is not knowl- edge of an object by arguing that the mind qua rational, i.e. qua capable of spontaneous conceptual activity, is not a part of nature. In the terminology of the third Antinomy, its causality is not caused. A rational being qua rational does not have a nature in the sense in which, for example, gold and aqua regia have natures. Such natures as rational beings have is a matter of abilities (and the "second nature" of habit) rather than causal properties.

646 THE JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY

Ix

It is often said today that Kant's Critique consists of important in- sights into the logical geography of our conceptual structure which are obscured almost to the point of invisibility by a tedious and ficti- tious "transcendental psychology." Kant is said to postulate a mecha- nism consisting of empirically inaccessable mental processes which "constructs" the world of experience out of sense impressions. If my argument is correct, this criticism is misdirected. The true situation can be seen by assessing the validity of a corresponding criticism di- rected against a linguistic version of Kant's position.

To construe the concepts of meaning, truth, and knowledge as metalinguistic concepts pertaining to linguistic behavior (and disposi- tions to behave) involves construing the latter as governed by ought- to-be's which are actualized as uniformities by the training that trans- mits language from generation to generation. Thus, if logical and (more broadly) epistemic categories -express general features of the ought-to-be's (and corresponding uniformities) which are necessary to the functioning of language as a cognitive instrument, epistemol- ogy, in this context, becomes the theory of this functioning-in short transcendental linguistics.

Transcendental linguistics differs from empirical linguistics in two ways: (1) it is concerned with language as conforming to epistemic norms which are themselves formulated in the language; (2) it is gen- eral in the sense in which what Carnap describes as "general syntax" is general; i.e., it is not limited to the epistemic functioning of histori- cal languages in the actual world. It attempts to delineate the general features that would be common to the epistemic functioning of any language in any possible world. As I once put it, epistemology, in the "new way of words" is the theory of what it is to be a language that is about a world in which it is used." Far from being an accidental excrescence, Kant's transcendental psychology is the heart of his sys- tem. He, too, seeks the general features any conceptual system must have in order to generate knowledge of a world to which it belongs.

An essential requirement of the transmission of a language from generation to generation is that its mature users be able to identify both extra-linguistic items and the utterances that are correct re- sponses to them. This mobilizes the familiar fact, stressed in the last paragraph of sec. III above, that, in addition to their logical powers, linguistic expressions have an empirical character as items in the

"1"Realism and the New Way of Words," Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, viii, 4 (June 1948); reprinted, with alterations, in Readings and Philo- sophical Analysis, edited by Herbert Feigl and Wilfrid Sellars (New York: Apple- ton-Century-Crofts, 1949).

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world. We can ascertain, for example, that a person does in point of fact respond as he ought to red objects in sunlight by uttering or being disposed to utter 'this is red'. Again, we can ascertain that, other things being equal, he is not disposed to enlarge, as he ought not, utterances of 'it is raining' into 'it is raining and it is not raining'.

Kant's agnosticism, however, if taken seriously-i.e., construed as the view that we have no determinate concepts of how things are in themselves-means that no conceptual response can be evaluated, in the above manner, as correct or incorrect. Rules of the form

(Ceteris paribus) one ought to respond to (p items with conceptual acts of kind C.

could never be rules in accordance with which people criticize concep- tual responses; for, on his official view, the esse of any item to which any empirical predicate applies is already to be a conceptual response, not something that is responded to. To put it bluntly, only God could envisage the ought-to-be's in terms of which our conceptual responses are to be criticized.

But, although any contemporary Kantian must take seriously the critique of agnosticism implicit in the preceding remarks, its force would have been obscured by the innatist features of Kant's trans- cendental "inner-linguistics." For him there is no problem concerning the cultural transmission of basic conceptual abilities. There is, in his system, no place for this role of the ought-to-be's of language entry transitions. Thus Kant is in a position to grant that empirical knowl- edge involves a uniformity of conceptual response to extra-conceptual items and even that extra-conceptual items conform to general laws,12 without granting that the character of the items to which we concep- tually respond, or the laws to which God knows them to conform, are accessible to finite minds.

We could expect Kant to say that, if there is empirical knowledge, there must be such uniformities (once again, he is not attempting to prove that there is empirical knowledge, but to articulate its structure) and that, in the absence of particular reasons for thinking that some- thing has gone wrong, we are entitled to suppose that our conceptual machinery is functioning properly.

WILFRID SELLARS

University of Pittsburgh 12 This idea is implicit in the transcendental principle of the affinity of the

manifold of sense and finds its explicit formulation in B164, where Kant in a little noted passage wrote that "things in themselves would necessarily" [i.e. as a neces- sary truth of transcendental logic (WS)]" apart from any understanding that knows them, conform to laws of their own." We are led to think of the Newtonian framework of the world as we experience it as a projection of a system of laws to which things in themselves conform and which are known only to God.