solar encyclopedia

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Solar energyFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation,searchThis article is about all uses of solar energy. For generation of electricity using solar energy,see Solar power.

A parabolic dish and stirling engine system, which concentrates sunlight to produce useful solarpower.

Solar energy

Solar powerSolar thermalPhotovoltaicsSolar vehicle

Renewable energy

BiofuelBiomass

GeothermalHydroelectricity

Solar energyTidal powerWave powerWind power

vde
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Solar energy, radiant lightand heat from the sun, has been harnessed by humans since ancienttimes using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solarradiation, along with secondary solar-powered resources such aswind and wave power,hydroelectricityandbiomass, account for mostof the available renewable energy on earth. Only a minuscule fraction of the available solarenergy is used.

Solar powered electrical generation relies on heat engines and photovoltaics. Solar energy's usesare limited only by human ingenuity. A partial list of solar applications includes space heatingand cooling through solar architecture,potable watervia distillation and disinfection,daylighting, solar hot water, solar cooking, and high temperature process heat for industrialpurposes.To harvest the solar energy, the most common way is to usesolar panels.

Solar technologies are broadly characterized as eitherpassive solaroractive solardepending onthe way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active solar techniques include the useof photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors to harness the energy. Passive solartechniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermalmass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces thatnaturally circulate air.

Contents[hide]

1 Energy from the Sun

2 Applications of solar technology

2.1 Architecture and urban planning

2.2 Agriculture and horticulture

2.3 Solar lighting

2.4 Solar thermal

2.4.1 Water heating 2.4.2 Heating, cooling and ventilation

2.4.3 Water treatment

2.4.4 Cooking

2.4.5 Process heat

2.5 Electrical generation

2.5.1 Experimental solar power

2.6 Solar chemical

2.7 Solar vehicles

3 Energy storage methods

4 Development, deployment and economics

5 ISO Standards

6 See also

7 Notes
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8 References

9 External links

Energy from the Sun

Main articles: Insolation andSolar radiation

About half the incoming solar energy reaches the Earth's surface.

The Earth receives 174 petawatts(PW) of incoming solar radiation (insolation) at the upperatmosphere.[1] Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the rest is absorbed by clouds,oceans and land masses. The spectrumof solar light at the Earth's surface is mostly spread acrossthe visible and near-infrared ranges with a small part in the near-ultraviolet.[2]

Earth's land surface, oceans and atmosphere absorb solar radiation, and this raises theirtemperature. Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises, causing atmosphericcirculationorconvection. When the air reaches a high altitude, where the temperature is low,water vapor condenses into clouds, which rain onto the Earth's surface, completing thewater

cycle. The latent heat of water condensation amplifies convection, producing atmosphericphenomena such as wind,cyclonesand anti-cyclones.[3] Sunlight absorbed by the oceans andland masses keeps the surface at an average temperature of 14 C.[4] By photosynthesis greenplants convert solar energy into chemical energy, which produces food, wood and thebiomassfrom which fossil fuels are derived.[5]

Yearly Solar fluxes & Human EnergyConsumption

Solar 3,850,000 EJ [6]

Wind 2,250 EJ[7]

Biomass 3,000 EJ[8]

Primary energy use (2005) 487 EJ[9]

Electricity (2005) 56.7 EJ[10]

The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans and land masses is approximately3,850,000 exajoules(EJ) per year.[11] In 2002, this was more energy in one hour than the worldused in one year.[12][13] Photosynthesis captures approximately 3,000 EJ per year in biomass.[14]

The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the planet is so vast that in one year it is
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about twice as much as will ever be obtained from all of the Earth's non-renewable resources ofcoal, oil, natural gas, and mined uranium combined.[15]

From the table of resources it would appear that solar, wind or biomass would be sufficient tosupply all of our energy needs, however, the increased use of biomass has had a negative effecton global warming and dramatically increased food prices by diverting forests and crops into

biofuel production.[16]

As intermittent resources, solar and wind raise other issues.Solar energy can be harnessed in different levels around the world. Depending on a geographicallocation the closer to the equator the more "potential" solar energy is available. [17]

Applications of solar technologyAverage insolation showing land area (small black dots) required to replace the world primaryenergy supply with solar electricity. 18 TW is 568 Exajoule (EJ) per year. Insolation for mostpeople is from 150 to 300 W/m or 3.5 to 7.0 kWh/m/day.

Solar energy refers primarily to the use ofsolar radiation for practical ends. However, allrenewable energies, other thangeothermal and tidal, derive their energy from the sun.

Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive or active depending on the waythey capture, convert and distribute sunlight. Active solar techniques use photovoltaic panels,pumps, and fans to convert sunlight into useful outputs. Passive solar techniques includeselecting materials with favorable thermal properties, designing spaces that naturally circulateair, and referencing the position of a building to the Sun. Active solar technologies increase thesupply of energy and are consideredsupply side technologies, while passive solar technologiesreduce the need for alternate resources and are generally considered demand side technologies.[18]

Architecture and urban planning

Main articles: Passive solar building design andUrban heat island

Darmstadt University of Technology in Germany won the 2007 Solar Decathlon in Washington,D.C. with this passive house designed specifically for the humid and hot subtropical climate.[19]

Sunlight has influenced building design since the beginning of architectural history. [20] Advancedsolar architecture and urban planning methods were first employed by the Greeks and Chinese,who oriented their buildings toward the south to provide light and warmth.[21]

The common features ofpassive solararchitecture are orientation relative to the Sun, compactproportion (a low surface area to volume ratio), selective shading (overhangs) and thermal mass.[20] When these features are tailored to the local climate and environment they can produce well-lit spaces that stay in a comfortable temperature range. Socrates' Megaron House is a classicexample of passive solar design.[20]The most recent approaches to solar design use computermodeling tying togethersolar lighting, heatingandventilation systems in an integratedsolar
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design package.[22]Active solarequipment such as pumps, fans and switchable windows cancomplement passive design and improve system performance.

Urban heat islands (UHI) are metropolitan areas with higher temperatures than that of thesurrounding environment. The higher temperatures are a result of increased absorption of theSolar light by urban materials such as asphalt and concrete, which have loweralbedos and higher

heat capacitiesthan those in the natural environment. A straightforward method of counteractingthe UHI effect is to paint buildings and roads white and plant trees. Using these methods, ahypothetical "cool communities" program in Los Angeles has projected that urban temperaturescould be reduced by approximately 3 C at an estimated cost of US$1 billion, giving estimatedtotal annual benefits of US$530 million from reduced air-conditioning costs and healthcaresavings.[23]

Agriculture and horticulture

Greenhouses like these in the Westland municipality of the Netherlandsgrow vegetables, fruitsand flowers.

Agricultureand horticulture seek to optimize the capture of solar energy in order to optimize theproductivity of plants. Techniques such as timed planting cycles, tailored row orientation,staggered heights between rows and the mixing of plant varieties can improve crop yields.[24][25]

While sunlight is generally considered a plentiful resource, the exceptions highlight theimportance of solar energy to agriculture. During the short growing seasons of the Little Ice Age,French and Englishfarmers employed fruit walls to maximize the collection of solar energy.These walls acted as thermal masses and accelerated ripening by keeping plants warm. Earlyfruit walls were built perpendicular to the ground and facing south, but over time, sloping walls

were developed to make better use of sunlight. In 1699, Nicolas Fatio de Duilliereven suggestedusing atracking mechanismwhich could pivot to follow the Sun.[26] Applications of solar energyin agriculture aside from growing crops include pumping water, drying crops, brooding chicksand drying chicken manure.[27][28]More recently the technology has been embraced by vinters,who use the energy generated by solar panels to power grape presses.[29]

Greenhouses convert solar light to heat, enabling year-round production and the growth (inenclosed environments) of specialty crops and other plants not naturally suited to the localclimate. Primitive greenhouses were first used during Roman times to produce cucumbers year-round for the Roman emperorTiberius.[30] The first modern greenhouses were built in Europe inthe 16th century to keep exotic plants brought back from explorations abroad.[31] Greenhousesremain an important part of horticulture today, and plastic transparent materials have also been

used to similar effect in polytunnelsand row covers.Solar lighting
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Daylighting features such as thisoculus at the top of the Pantheon, in Rome, Italy have been inuse since antiquity.

The history of lighting is dominated by the use of natural light. The Romans recognized a right tolight as early as the 6th century and English law echoed these judgments with the PrescriptionAct of 1832.[32][33] In the 20th century artificial lighting became the main source of interiorillumination but daylighting techniques and hybrid solar lighting solutions are ways to reduceenergy consumption.

Daylighting systems collect and distribute sunlight to provide interior illumination. This passivetechnology directly offsets energy use by replacing artificial lighting, and indirectly offsets non-solar energy use by reducing the need forair-conditioning.[34]Although difficult to quantify, theuse ofnatural lighting also offers physiological and psychological benefits compared to artificiallighting.[34] Daylighting design implies careful selection of window types, sizes and orientation;exterior shading devices may be considered as well. Individual features include sawtooth roofs,clerestory windows, light shelves, skylightsand light tubes. They may be incorporated intoexisting structures, but are most effective when integrated into a solar design package thataccounts for factors such asglare, heat flux and time-of-use. When daylighting features areproperly implemented they can reduce lighting-related energy requirements by 25%.[35]

Hybrid solar lighting is an active solarmethod of providing interior illumination. HSL systemscollect sunlight using focusing mirrors that track the Sun and use optical fibers to transmit itinside the building to supplement conventional lighting. In single-story applications thesesystems are able to transmit 50% of the direct sunlight received.[36]

Solar lights that charge during the day and light up at dusk are a common sight along walkways.[citation needed]

Although daylight saving time is promoted as a way to use sunlight to save energy, recentresearch has been limited and reports contradictory results: several studies report savings, butjust as many suggest no effect or even a net loss, particularly when gasoline consumption istaken into account. Electricity use is greatly affected by geography, climate and economics,making it hard to generalize from single studies.[37]

Solar thermal

Main article: Solar thermal energy

Solar thermal technologies can be used for water heating, space heating, space cooling andprocess heat generation.[38]

Water heating

Main articles: Solar hot waterandSolar combisystem
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Solar water heaters facing theSunto maximize gain.

Solar hot water systems use sunlight to heat water. In low geographical latitudes (below40 degrees) from 60 to 70% of the domestic hot water use with temperatures up to 60 C can be

provided by solar heating systems.[39]

The most common types of solar water heaters areevacuated tube collectors (44%) and glazed flat plate collectors (34%) generally used fordomestic hot water; and unglazed plastic collectors (21%) used mainly to heat swimming pools.[40]

As of 2007, the total installed capacity of solar hot water systems is approximately 154GW.[41]

China is the world leader in their deployment with 70 GW installed as of 2006 and a long termgoal of 210 GW by 2020.[42]Israel and Cyprus are the per capita leaders in the use of solar hotwater systems with over 90% of homes using them.[43]In the United States, Canada and Australiaheating swimming pools is the dominant application of solar hot water with an installed capacityof 18 GW as of 2005.[18]

Heating, cooling and ventilation

Main articles: Solar heating,Thermal mass, Solar chimney, andSolar air conditioning

Solar House #1 ofMassachusetts Institute of Technology in the United States, built in 1939, usedseasonal thermal storage for year-round heating.

In the United States, heating, ventilation and air conditioning(HVAC) systems account for 30%(4.65 EJ) of the energy used in commercial buildings and nearly 50% (10.1 EJ) of the energyused in residential buildings.[35][44]Solar heating, cooling and ventilation technologies can be usedto offset a portion of this energy.

Thermal mass is any material that can be used to store heatheat from the Sun in the case ofsolar energy. Common thermal mass materials include stone, cement and water. Historically theyhave been used in arid climates or warm temperate regions to keep buildings cool by absorbingsolar energy during the day and radiating stored heat to the cooler atmosphere at night. Howeverthey can be used in cold temperate areas to maintain warmth as well. The size and placement ofthermal mass depend on several factors such as climate, daylighting and shading conditions.When properly incorporated, thermal mass maintains space temperatures in a comfortable rangeand reduces the need for auxiliary heating and cooling equipment.[45]

A solar chimney (or thermal chimney, in this context) is a passive solar ventilation systemcomposed of a vertical shaft connecting the interior and exterior of a building. As the chimneywarms, the air inside is heated causing an updraft that pulls air through the building.
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Performance can be improved by using glazing and thermal mass materials in a way that mimicsgreenhouses.[citation needed]

Deciduoustrees and plants have been promoted as a means of controlling solar heating andcooling. When planted on the southern side of a building, their leaves provide shade during thesummer, while the bare limbs allow light to pass during the winter.[46]Since bare, leafless trees

shade 1/3 to 1/2 of incident solar radiation, there is a balance between the benefits of summershading and the corresponding loss of winter heating.[47]In climates with significant heatingloads, deciduous trees should not be planted on the southern side of a building because they willinterfere with winter solar availability. They can, however, be used on the east and west sides toprovide a degree of summer shading without appreciably affecting winter solar gain.[48]

Water treatment

Main articles: Solar still,Solar water disinfection,Solar desalination, andSolar PoweredDesalination Unit

Solar water disinfection in Indonesia

Small scale solar powered sewerage treatment plant.

Solar distillation can be used to make saline orbrackish waterpotable. The first recordedinstance of this was by 16th century Arab alchemists.[49] A large-scale solar distillation projectwas first constructed in 1872 in the Chilean mining town of Las Salinas.[50] The plant, which had

solar collection area of 4,700 m, could produce up to 22,700 L per day and operated for40 years.[50] Individual stilldesigns include single-slope, double-slope (or greenhouse type),vertical, conical, inverted absorber, multi-wick, and multiple effect.[49]These stills can operate inpassive, active, or hybrid modes. Double-slope stills are the most economical for decentralizeddomestic purposes, while active multiple effect units are more suitable for large-scaleapplications.[49]

Solar waterdisinfection (SODIS) involves exposing water-filled plasticpolyethyleneterephthalate (PET) bottles to sunlight for several hours.[51] Exposure times vary depending on
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weather and climate from a minimum of six hours to two days during fully overcast conditions.[52] It is recommended by theWorld Health Organization as a viable method for household watertreatment and safe storage.[53]Over two million people in developing countries use this methodfor their daily drinking water.[52]

Solar energy may be used in a water stabilisation pond to treat waste waterwithout chemicals or

electricity. A further environmental advantage is that algae grow in such ponds and consumecarbon dioxide in photosynthesis, although algae may produce toxic chemicals that make thewater unusable.[54][55]

Cooking

Main article: Solar cooker

The Solar Bowl in Auroville,India, concentrates sunlight on a movable receiver to producesteam forcooking.

Solar cookers use sunlight for cooking, drying and pasteurization. They can be grouped intothree broad categories: box cookers, panel cookers and reflector cookers.[56] The simplest solarcooker is the box cooker first built by Horace de Saussure in 1767.[57] A basic box cookerconsists of an insulated container with a transparent lid. It can be used effectively with partiallyovercast skies and will typically reach temperatures of 90150 C.[58]Panel cookers use areflective panel to direct sunlight onto an insulated container and reach temperatures comparable

to box cookers. Reflector cookers use various concentrating geometries (dish, trough, Fresnelmirrors) to focus light on a cooking container. These cookers reach temperatures of 315 C andabove but require direct light to function properly and must be repositioned to track the Sun.[59]

The solar bowl is a concentrating technology employed by the Solar Kitchen inAuroville,Pondicherry, India, where a stationary spherical reflector focuses light along a line perpendicularto the sphere's interior surface, and a computer control system moves the receiver to intersect thisline. Steam is produced in the receiver at temperatures reaching 150 C and then used for processheat in the kitchen.[60]

A reflector developed byWolfgang Schefflerin 1986 is used in many solar kitchens. Schefflerreflectors are flexible parabolic dishes that combine aspects of trough and power towerconcentrators. Polar trackingis used to follow the Sun's daily course and the curvature of thereflector is adjusted for seasonal variations in the incident angle of sunlight. These reflectors canreach temperatures of 450650 C and have a fixed focal point, which simplifies cooking.[61]Theworld's largest Scheffler reflector system in Abu Road, Rajasthan, India is capable of cooking upto 35,000 meals a day.[62] As of 2008, over 2,000 large Scheffler cookers had been builtworldwide.[63]

Process heat

Main articles: Solar pond,Salt evaporation pond, andSolar furnace
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STEP parabolic dishes used for steam production and electrical generation.

Solar concentrating technologies such as parabolic dish, trough and Scheffler reflectors canprovide process heat for commercial and industrial applications. The first commercial systemwas the Solar Total Energy Project (STEP) in Shenandoah, Georgia, USA where a field of 114parabolic dishes provided 50% of the process heating, air conditioning and electrical

requirements for a clothing factory. This grid-connected cogeneration system provided 400 kWof electricity plus thermal energy in the form of 401 kW steam and 468 kW chilled water, andhad a one hour peak load thermal storage.[64]

Evaporation ponds are shallow pools that concentrate dissolved solids through evaporation. Theuse of evaporation ponds to obtain salt from sea water is one of the oldest applications of solarenergy. Modern uses include concentrating brine solutions used in leach mining and removingdissolved solids from waste streams.[65]

Clothes lines,clotheshorses, and clothes racks dry clothes through evaporation by wind andsunlight without consuming electricity or gas. In some states of the United States legislationprotects the "right to dry" clothes.[66]

Unglazed transpired collectors (UTC) are perforated sun-facing walls used for preheatingventilation air. UTCs can raise the incoming air temperature up to 22 C and deliver outlettemperatures of 4560 C.[67] The short payback period of transpired collectors (3 to 12 years)makes them a more cost-effective alternative than glazed collection systems.[67] As of 2003, over80 systems with a combined collector area of 35,000 m had been installed worldwide, includingan 860 m collector inCosta Rica used for drying coffee beans and a 1,300 m collector inCoimbatore, India used for drying marigolds.[28]

Electrical generation

Main article: Solar power

Sunlight can be converted into electricity using photovoltaics (PV),concentrating solar power(CSP), and various experimental technologies. PV has mainly been used to power small andmedium-sized applications, from the calculatorpowered by a single solar cell to off-grid homespowered by a photovoltaic array. For large-scale generation, CSP plants likeSEGS have been thenorm but recently multi-megawatt PV plants are becoming common. Completed in 2007, the14 MW power station in Clark County,Nevada, United States and the 20 MW site inBeneixama, Spainare characteristic of the trend toward largerphotovoltaic power stationsin theUnited States and Europe.[68] As an intermittent power source, solar power requires a backupsupply, which can partially be complemented with wind power. Local backup usually is donewith batteries, while utilities normally use pumped-hydro storage. The Institute for Solar EnergySupply Technology of the University of Kassel in Germany pilot-tested a combined power plantlinking solar, wind, biogas and hydrostorage to provide load-following power around the clock,entirely from renewable sources.[69]

Experimental solar power

Main articles: Solar pondandThermogenerator
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Solar Evaporation Ponds in the Atacama Desert, South America

A solar pond is a pool of salt water (usually 12 m deep) that collects and stores solar energy.Solar ponds were first proposed by Dr. Rudolph Bloch in 1948 after he came across reports of alake in Hungaryin which the temperature increased with depth. This effect was due to salts inthe lake's water, which created a "density gradient" that preventedconvection currents. Aprototype was constructed in 1958 on the shores of the Dead Sea nearJerusalem.[70]The pondconsisted of layers of water that successively increased from a weak salt solution at the top to ahigh salt solution at the bottom. This solar pond was capable of producing temperatures of 90 Cin its bottom layer and had an estimated solar-to-electric efficiency of two percent.Thermoelectric, or "thermovoltaic" devices convert a temperature difference between dissimilarmaterials into an electric current. First proposed as a method to store solar energy by solarpioneer Mouchout in the 1800s,[71] thermoelectrics reemerged in the Soviet Union during the1930s. Under the direction of Soviet scientist Abram Ioffe a concentrating system was used tothermoelectrically generate power for a 1 hpengine.[72] Thermogenerators were later used in theUS space program as an energy conversion technology for powering deep space missions such asCassini, Galileo and Viking. Research in this area is focused on raising the efficiency of thesedevices from 78% to 1520%.[73]

Solar chemical

Main article: Solar chemical

Solar chemical processes use solar energy to drive chemical reactions. These processes offsetenergy that would otherwise come from an alternate source and can convert solar energy intostorable and transportable fuels. Solar induced chemical reactions can be divided intothermochemical orphotochemical.[74]

Hydrogen production technologies been a significant area of solar chemical research since the1970s. Aside from electrolysis driven by photovoltaic or photochemical cells, severalthermochemical processes have also been explored. One such route uses concentrators to splitwater into oxygen and hydrogen at high temperatures (2300-2600 C).[75] Another approach usesthe heat from solar concentrators to drive thesteam reformationof natural gas thereby increasingthe overall hydrogen yield compared to conventional reforming methods.[76]Thermochemicalcycles characterized by the decomposition and regeneration of reactants present another avenuefor hydrogen production. The Solzinc process under development at theWeizmann Institute usesa 1 MW solar furnace to decompose zinc oxide (ZnO) at temperatures above 1200 C. Thisinitial reaction produces pure zinc, which can subsequently be reacted with water to producehydrogen.[77]

Sandia's Sunshine to Petrol (S2P) technology uses the high temperatures generated byconcentrating sunlight along with a zirconia/ferrite catalyst to break down atmospheric carbon
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dioxide into oxygen and carbon monoxide (CO). The carbon monoxide can then be used tosynthesize conventional fuels such as methanol, gasoline and jet fuel.[78]

A photogalvanic device is a type of battery in which the cell solution (or equivalent) formsenergy-rich chemical intermediates when illuminated. These energy-rich intermediates canpotentially be stored and subsequently reacted at the electrodes to produce an electric potential.

The ferric-thionine chemical cell is an example of this technology.[79]

Photoelectrochemical cells or PECs consist of a semiconductor, typically titanium dioxide orrelated titanates, immersed in an electrolyte. When the semiconductor is illuminated an electricalpotential develops. There are two types of photoelectrochemical cells: photoelectric cells thatconvert light into electricity and photochemical cells that use light to drive chemical reactionssuch as electrolysis.[80]

Solar vehicles

Main articles: Solar vehicle,Electric boat, andSolar balloon

Australia hosts the World Solar Challenge where solar cars like the Nuna3 race through a

3,021 km (1,877 mi) course from Darwin to Adelaide.Development of a solar powered car has been an engineering goal since the 1980s. The WorldSolar Challenge is a biannual solar-powered car race, where teams from universities andenterprises compete over 3,021 kilometres (1,877 mi) across central Australia from DarwintoAdelaide. In 1987, when it was founded, the winner's average speed was 67 kilometres per hour(42 mph) and by 2007 the winner's average speed had improved to 90.87 kilometres per hour(56.46 mph).[81] TheNorth American Solar Challenge and the planned South African SolarChallenge are comparable competitions that reflect an international interest in the engineeringand development of solar powered vehicles.[82][83]

Some vehicles use solar panels for auxiliary power, such as for air conditioning, to keep theinterior cool, thus reducing fuel consumption.[84][85]

In 1975, the first practical solar boat was constructed in England.[86]By 1995, passenger boatsincorporating PV panels began appearing and are now used extensively.[87] In 1996,KenichiHorie made the first solar powered crossing of the Pacific Ocean, and the sun21 catamaran madethe first solar powered crossing of the Atlantic Ocean in the winter of 20062007.[88] There areplans to circumnavigate the globe in 2010.[89]
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Helios UAV in solar powered flight.

In 1974, the unmanned AstroFlight Sunrise plane made the first solar flight. On 29 April 1979,the Solar Risermade the first flight in a solar powered, fully controlled, man carrying flyingmachine, reaching an altitude of 40 feet (12 m). In 1980, the Gossamer Penguin made the firstpiloted flights powered solely by photovoltaics. This was quickly followed by the SolarChallengerwhich crossed the English Channel in July 1981. In 1990 Eric Raymond in 21 hopsflew from California to North Carolina using solar power.[90] Developments then turned back tounmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) with the Pathfinder(1997) and subsequent designs,

culminating in the Helios which set the altitude record for a non-rocket-propelled aircraft at29,524 metres (96,864 ft) in 2001.[91]The Zephyr, developed by BAE Systems, is the latest in aline of record-breaking solar aircraft, making a 54-hour flight in 2007, and month-long flights areenvisioned by 2010.[92]

A solar balloon is a black balloon that is filled with ordinary air. As sunlight shines on theballoon, the air inside is heated and expands causing an upward buoyancy force, much like anartificially heated hot air balloon. Some solar balloons are large enough for human flight, butusage is generally limited to the toy market as the surface-area to payload-weight ratio isrelatively high.[93]

Solar sails are a proposed form of spacecraft propulsion using large membrane mirrors to exploitradiation pressure from the Sun. Unlike rockets, solar sails require no fuel. Although the thrust issmall compared to rockets, it continues as long as the Sun shines onto the deployed sail and inthe vacuum of space significant speeds can eventually be achieved.[94]

The High-altitude airship(HAA) is an unmanned, long-duration, lighter-than-air vehicle usinghelium gas for lift, and thin-film solar cells for power. The United States Department of DefenseMissile Defense Agency has contracted Lockheed Martin to construct it to enhance the BallisticMissile Defense System (BMDS).[95] Airships have some advantages for solar-powered flight:they do not require power to remain aloft, and an airship's envelope presents a large area to theSun.

Energy storage methods

Main articles: Thermal mass, Thermal energy storage,Phase change material, Grid energystorage, andV2G
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Solar Two's thermal storage system generated electricity during cloudy weather and at night.

Solar energy is not available at night, and energy storage is an important issue because modernenergy systems usually assume continuous availability of energy.[96]

Thermal mass systems can store solar energy in the form of heat at domestically usefultemperatures for daily orseasonal durations. Thermal storage systems generally use readilyavailable materials with high specific heatcapacities such as water, earth and stone. Well-designed systems can lowerpeak demand, shift time-of-use to off-peakhours and reduce overallheating and cooling requirements.[97][98]

Phase change materials such as paraffin wax and Glauber's salt are another thermal storage

media. These materials are inexpensive, readily available, and can deliver domestically usefultemperatures (approximately 64 C). The "Dover House" (inDover, Massachusetts) was the firstto use a Glauber's salt heating system, in 1948.[99]

Solar energy can be stored at high temperatures using molten salts. Salts are an effective storagemedium because they are low-cost, have a high specific heat capacity and can deliver heat attemperatures compatible with conventional power systems. The Solar Two used this method ofenergy storage, allowing it to store 1.44TJ in its 68 mstorage tank with an annual storageefficiency of about 99%.[100]

Off-grid PV systems have traditionally used rechargeable batteries to store excess electricity.With grid-tied systems, excess electricity can be sent to the transmissiongrid. Net meteringprograms give these systems a credit for the electricity they deliver to the grid. This credit offsetselectricity provided from the grid when the system cannot meet demand, effectively using thegrid as a storage mechanism.[101]

Pumped-storage hydroelectricity stores energy in the form of water pumped when energy isavailable from a lower elevation reservoir to a higher elevation one. The energy is recoveredwhen demand is high by releasing the water to run through a hydroelectric power generator.[102]

Development, deployment and economicsMain article: Deployment of solar power to energy grids
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Nellis Solar Power Plant in the United States, the largest photovoltaicpower plant inNorthAmerica.

Beginning with the surge in coaluse which accompanied theIndustrial Revolution, energyconsumption has steadily transitioned from wood and biomass to fossil fuels. The earlydevelopment of solar technologies starting in the 1860s was driven by an expectation that coal

would soon become scarce. However development of solar technologies stagnated in the early20th century in the face of the increasing availability, economy, and utility of coal andpetroleum.[103]

The 1973 oil embargoand 1979 energy crisis caused a reorganization of energy policies aroundthe world and brought renewed attention to developing solar technologies.[104][105] Deploymentstrategies focused on incentive programs such as the Federal Photovoltaic Utilization Program inthe US and the Sunshine Program in Japan. Other efforts included the formation of researchfacilities in the US (SERI, now NREL), Japan (NEDO), and Germany(Fraunhofer Institute forSolar Energy Systems ISE).[106]

Commercial solar water heaters began appearing in the United States in the 1890s.[107]Thesesystems saw increasing use until the 1920s but were gradually replaced by cheaper and more

reliable heating fuels.[108] As with photovoltaics, solar water heating attracted renewed attentionas a result of the oil crises in the 1970s but interest subsided in the 1980s due to fallingpetroleum prices. Development in the solar water heating sector progressed steadily throughoutthe 1990s and growth rates have averaged 20% per year since 1999.[41] Although generallyunderestimated, solar water heating is by far the most widely deployed solar technology with anestimated capacity of 154 GW as of 2007.[41]

ISO StandardsThe International Organization for Standardization has established a number of standardsrelating to solar energy equipment. For example, ISO 9050 relates to glass in building while ISO10217 relates to the materials used in solar water heaters.

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Notes1. Smil (1991), p. 240

2. "Natural Forcing of the Climate System". Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/041.htm#121. Retrieved 2007-09-29.

3. "Radiation Budget". NASA Langley Research Center. 2006-10-17.http://marine.rutgers.edu/mrs/education/class/yuri/erb.html. Retrieved 2007-09-29.

4. Somerville, Richard. "Historical Overview of Climate Change Science" (PDF).Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. http://ipcc-wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/Report/AR4WG1_Print_Ch01.pdf. Retrieved 2007-09-29.

5. Vermass, Wim. "An Introduction to Photosynthesis and Its Applications". Arizona StateUniversity. http://photoscience.la.asu.edu/photosyn/education/photointro.html. Retrieved 2007-09-29.

6. Smil (2006), p. 12

7. Archer, Cristina."Evaluation of Global Wind Power". Stanford.http://www.stanford.edu/group/efmh/winds/global_winds.html. Retrieved 2008-06-03.

8. "Energy conversion by photosynthetic organisms". Food and Agriculture Organization of the

United Nations.http://www.fao.org/docrep/w7241e/w7241e06.htm#TopOfPage. Retrieved 2008-05-25.

9. "World Consumption of Primary Energy by Energy Type and Selected Country Groups, 1980-2004".Energy Information Administration.http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/iealf/table18.xls. Retrieved 2008-05-17.

10. "World Total Net Electricity Consumption, 1980-2005". Energy Information Administration.http://www.eia.doe.gov/iea/elec.html. Retrieved 2008-05-25.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_financehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_financehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_nanotubes_in_photovoltaicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_nanotubes_in_photovoltaicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crookes_radiometerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crookes_radiometerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desertechttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desertechttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drake_Landing_Solar_Communityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drake_Landing_Solar_Communityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_storagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_storagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EURO-SOLAR_Programmehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EURO-SOLAR_Programmehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_dimminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_dimminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greasestockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greasestockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_electricityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_electricityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_voltage_direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_voltage_direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levelised_energy_costhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levelised_energy_costhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_conservation_topicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_conservation_topicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_renewable_energy_organizationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_renewable_energy_organizationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_solar_energy_topicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_solar_energy_topicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_vehiclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_vehiclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar-charged_vehiclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar-charged_vehiclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_solarizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_solarizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin-filmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin-filmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_solar_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_solar_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trombe_wallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trombe_wallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wafer_(electronics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wafer_(electronics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_energy_resources_and_consumptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_energy_resources_and_consumptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_energy_resources_and_consumptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_Flower_Towerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_Flower_Towerhttp://marine.rutgers.edu/mrs/education/class/yuri/erb.htmlhttp://marine.rutgers.edu/mrs/education/class/yuri/erb.htmlhttp://marine.rutgers.edu/mrs/education/class/yuri/erb.htmlhttp://marine.rutgers.edu/mrs/education/class/yuri/erb.htmlhttp://ipcc-wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/Report/AR4WG1_Print_Ch01.pdfhttp://ipcc-wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/Report/AR4WG1_Print_Ch01.pdfhttp://ipcc-wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/Report/AR4WG1_Print_Ch01.pdfhttp://photoscience.la.asu.edu/photosyn/education/photointro.htmlhttp://photoscience.la.asu.edu/photosyn/education/photointro.htmlhttp://photoscience.la.asu.edu/photosyn/education/photointro.htmlhttp://www.stanford.edu/group/efmh/winds/global_winds.htmlhttp://www.stanford.edu/group/efmh/winds/global_winds.htmlhttp://www.stanford.edu/group/efmh/winds/global_winds.htmlhttp://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/iealf/table18.xlshttp://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/iealf/table18.xlshttp://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/iealf/table18.xlshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_Information_Administrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_Information_Administrationhttp://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/iealf/table18.xlshttp://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/iealf/table18.xlshttp://www.eia.doe.gov/iea/elec.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_Information_Administrationhttp://www.eia.doe.gov/iea/elec.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_financehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_nanotubes_in_photovoltaicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crookes_radiometerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desertechttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drake_Landing_Solar_Communityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_storagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EURO-SOLAR_Programmehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_dimminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greasestockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_electricityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_voltage_direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levelised_energy_costhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_conservation_topicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_renewable_energy_organizationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_solar_energy_topicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_vehiclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar-charged_vehiclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_solarizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin-filmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_solar_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trombe_wallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wafer_(electronics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_energy_resources_and_consumptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_energy_resources_and_consumptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_Flower_Towerhttp://marine.rutgers.edu/mrs/education/class/yuri/erb.htmlhttp://marine.rutgers.edu/mrs/education/class/yuri/erb.htmlhttp://ipcc-wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/Report/AR4WG1_Print_Ch01.pdfhttp://ipcc-wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/Report/AR4WG1_Print_Ch01.pdfhttp://ipcc-wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/Report/AR4WG1_Print_Ch01.pdfhttp://photoscience.la.asu.edu/photosyn/education/photointro.htmlhttp://photoscience.la.asu.edu/photosyn/education/photointro.htmlhttp://www.stanford.edu/group/efmh/winds/global_winds.htmlhttp://www.stanford.edu/group/efmh/winds/global_winds.htmlhttp://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/iealf/table18.xlshttp://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/iealf/table18.xlshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_Information_Administrationhttp://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/iealf/table18.xlshttp://www.eia.doe.gov/iea/elec.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_Information_Administrationhttp://www.eia.doe.gov/iea/elec.html


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11. Smil (2006), p. 12

12. Solar energy: A new day dawning? retrieved 7 August 2008

13. Powering the Planet: Chemical challenges in solar energy utilizationretrieved 7 August 2008

14. "Energy conversion by photosynthetic organisms". Food and Agriculture Organization of theUnited Nations.http://www.fao.org/docrep/w7241e/w7241e06.htm#TopOfPage. Retrieved 2008-05-25.

15. Exergy (available energy) Flow Charts2.7 YJ solar energy each year for two billion years vs.1.4 YJ non-renewable resources available once.

16. The Clean Energy ScamTime March 27, 2008 retrieved 15 October 2008

17. http://www.solarenergybyzip.com

18.^ ab Philibert, Cdric. "The Present and Future use of Solar Thermal Energy as a Primary Sourceof Energy"(PDF). International Energy Agency.http://www.iea.org/textbase/papers/2005/solarthermal.pdf. Retrieved 2008-05-05.

19. "Darmstadt University of Technology solar decathlon home design". Darmstadt University ofTechnology. http://www.solardecathlon.de/index.php/our-house/the-design. Retrieved 2008-04-

25.20.^ abc Schittich (2003), p. 14

21. Butti and Perlin (1981), p. 4, 159

22. Balcomb(1992)

23. Rosenfeld, Arthur;Romm, Joseph; Akbari, Hashem; Lloyd, Alan. "Painting the Town White --and Green". Heat Island Group. http://eetd.lbl.gov/HeatIsland/PUBS/PAINTING/. Retrieved2007-09-29.

24. Jeffrey C. Silvertooth. "Row Spacing, Plant Population, and Yield Relationships". University ofArizona. http://ag.arizona.edu/crop/cotton/comments/april1999cc.html. Retrieved 2008-06-24.

25. Kaul (2005), p. 169174

26. Butti and Perlin (1981), p. 4246

27. Bnard (1981), p. 347

28.^ ab Leon (2006), p. 62

29. "A Powerhouse Winery".News Update. Novus Vinum. 2008-10-27.http://www.novusvinum.com/news/latest_news.html#gonzales. Retrieved 2008-11-05.



32. "Prescription Act (1872 Chapter 71 2 and 3 Will 4)". Office of the Public Sector Information.http://www.opsi.gov.uk/RevisedStatutes/Acts/ukpga/1832/cukpga_18320071_en_1. Retrieved

2008-05-18.33. Noyes, WM (1860-03-31). "The Law of Light". The New York Times.

http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9503E1D81E30EE34BC4950DFB566838B679FDE&oref=slogin. Retrieved 2008-05-18.

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