Soil arthropod diversity and quarry rehabilitation

Results of the preliminary investigations

Abstract.

The main goal of the project was to investigate soil recovery processes on the reclaimed territories

of Kavtiskhevi and Gardabani quarries by means of soil inhabiting invertebrates.

Field investigations were provided on the territories of Kavtiskhevi limestone and

Gardabani clay quarries. Soil samples were collected on quarries of different ages and adjacent

natural ecosystems that were referred as control sites. Two replicates were taken at each site.

Invertebrates were extracted from soil, slide mounted and identified. 22 species of oribatid mites

were found in seven locations of Gardabani clay quarry with Phyllozetes tauricus Gordeeva, 1978

new for Caucasian fauna. 24 species are registered for four locations of Kavtiskhevi quarry

with Simkinia schachthachtinskoi (Kulijev, 1961) and Laisobelba sp. new for Georgian

fauna. Lasiobelba sp. is proposed as possible new species for science. All identified individuals

are counted. Three forms of springtails were found on Gardabani with Pseudosinella octopunctata

new for Georgian fauna; one form of springtails was found in Kavtiskhevi quarry. In Kavtiskhevi,

springtails were found only on control site and were absent from quarries.

Springtails are more sensitive to soil disturbance than oribatid mites. Punctoribates

punctum (Oribatida) is a pioneer species of disturbed habitats. This species is abundant on quarries

of different age in Kavtiskhevi and is less numerous on control sites. As for new for Georgia

species, Phyllozetes tauricus was found on 15 years old quarry and Simkinia schachthachtinskoi –

on oldest limestone quarry in Kavtiskhevi. Laisobelba sp. was registered on natural meadow.

In general, abundance and species richness of soil invertebrates was low on active quarries

and increased along the quarry age. Oribatid and springtail fauna on 40 years old quarries in

Gardabani was surprisingly poor. Further investigations are needed to receive statistically

significant data.

Soil fauna on the reclaimed sites of Gardabani quarries shows increase of species richness

that indicates on progress of soil formation processes ongoing at these sites. Similarly, diversity

and abundance of soil invertebrates on oldest (from 1923) quarry in Kavtiskhevi indicates active

soil formation processes supporting formation of soil fauna. However, soil fauna of old and

reclaimed sites on both, Gardabani and Kavtiskhevi quarries is still far from those, found on natural

sites.

In all steps of provided activities actively was involved master student of the Agricultural

University Georgia, Nino Todria. Based on provided investigations she is preparing master thesis

that will be finished and presented in May 2015

Introduction.

The main goal of the project is to investigate soil recovery processes on the reclaimed territories

of Kavtiskhevi and Gardabani quarries by means of soil inhabiting invertebrates. Soil zoocenoses,

microarthopods in particular, by their complex structure and species composition are widely

reported bioindicators of the regeneration degree of the productive soil layer (Bielska, 1996;

Hutson, 1980). Oribatid mites, in the Acarine suborder Oribatida, are associated with organic

matter in most terrestrial ecosystems (Behan-Pelletier and Eamer, 2007; Maraun et al., 2007;

Norton and Behan-Pelletier, 2009). Their ability for dispersal is low and those that do disperse as

adults (Norton, 1994). As a result, oribatid mites cannot easily escape from stress conditions.

Population of oribatid mites decline rapidly when their habitat is damaged, that allows detection

of environmental degradation. So, they can be considered as «early warning» indicators of stress.

Appearance and dominance of oribatid mites in the microarthropod complex indicates the

beginning of soil and humus formation (Hutson, 1980; Dunger et al., 2001). Analyses of the

structure of their communities help to reveal the degree of soil stability and its formation trend.

Springtails (Collembola) are major components of terrestrial ecosystems, constituting a

substantial proportion of the soil animal biomass and diversity and are thus frequently and easily

found (Coleman et al., 2004). Like oribatids, they play an important role in plant litter

decomposition and in soil formation processes. They are known as one of the pioneers of early

stages of soil recovery processes and rapid colonizers of reclaimed waste sites (Hutson, 1980).

Collembolans are particularly sensitive to mechanical disturbances (Maraun, et al. 2003).

In provided investigation we investigated (1) the biodiversity of soil microarthropods

(Oribatida, Collembola), (2) the patterns of colonization of disturbed sites by oribatid mites and

springtails in the succession process of soil recovery and (3) the influence of soil mocroarthropods

on soil formation processes.

Objectives

The objectives of the provided preliminary investigations were to:

1. Provide the inventory of soil arthropods (oribatid mites, springtails);

2. Study biotic complexity of reclaimed and control sites using invertebrates as bioindicators;

3. Identify pioneer colonists species and species adapted to the anthropogenic pressure;

4. Reveal the effectiveness of provided reclamation activities

Background information

Field sampling was performed on 13.05.2014 and 10.06.2014. Description of visited sites is as

follows (Tables 1-2):

Table 1. Gardabani clay quarry (Fig. 1)

Abbreviation Site description GPS coordinates

G1 Active quarry (pic. 1) 41°30.640 45°05.695

G2 Nitrogen dump (pic. 2) 41°30.533 45°05.607

G3 40 years old quarry (pic. 3) 41°30.430 45°05.516

G4 15 years old quarry (pic. 4) 41°30.438 45°05.709

G5 Two years ago reclaimed site (pic 5) 41°30.135 45°05.866

G6 One year ago reclaimed site

G7 Control. Natural meadow (pic. 6)

Note: sites G5, G6 and G7 are located close to each other, so, the GPS coordinates are the

same.

Table 2. Kavtiskhevi limestone quarry (Fig. 2)

Abbreviation Site description GPS coordinates

K1 Oldest quarry of 1923 (pic. 7) 41°53.999 44°26.568

K2 Active quarry (pic. 8) 41°53.702 44°26.739

K3 20 years old quarry (pic. 9) 41°53.718 44°26.533

K4 Control. Natural meadow (pic. 10) 41°53.277 44°27.681

Up to date each site was visited twice. At each site soil samples were taken, microarthropods

were extracted, slide mounted, identified and counted. Faunal and ecological analyses are

performed (detailed description of each activity see in Method and Result sections)

Methods.

Field researches were performed on 13.05.2014 and 10.06.2014. At each site GPS

coordinates were taken.

During field sampling at each site six soil samples were taken of 10 cm3 volume for each.

Soil samples were appropriately labelled, delivered in the laboratory and invertebrates were

extracted from soil using Berlese-Tullgren apparatus (pic. 11). The functioning of this apparatus

is based on the negative reaction of soil invertebrates on high temperature, lack of humidity and

light. Duration of the extraction was one week and extracted soil arthropods were stored in 70%

alcohol with drop of glycerol. In order to perform species identification, for oribatid mites

temporary slides were made using cavity slides and drop of lactic acid. Such slides allow to turn

the specimen on all sides to observe the characters needed. For springtail identification permanent

slides were made using Heuer and Rusek media. Species identification was performed under the

compound microscope (pic. 12). For identifications appropriate keys of Weigmann (2006),

Ghilarov & Krivolutsky (1975) and Fjellberg (1998, 2007) were used.

All identified individuals were counted. For statistical analyses PAST software and

Microsoft excel were used. In order to reveal oribatid mites and springtail diversity, Simpson’s

index of biodiversity (1-D) was calculated. Sampling completeness was revealed by Chao1 index.

Cluster analyses was performed in order to show faunal likeness between the sites.

Site mapping was performed using Google earth.

Results

Oribatid mite diversity

In total 52 species of oribatid mites are registered on both investigated quarries. 22 species

were found in seven locations of Gardabani clay quarry with Phyllozetes tauricus Gordeeva, 1978

new for Caucasian fauna. 24 species are registered in four locations of Kavtiskhevi limestone

quarry with Simkinia schachthachtinskoi (Kulijev, 1961) and Lasiobelba sp. new for Georgian

fauna. Lasiobelba sp. is proposed to be a new species for science. Punctoribates punctum

(Oribatida) is a pioneer species of disturbed habitats. This species is abundant on quarries of

different age in Kavtiskhevi and is less numerous on control sites. As for new for Georgia species,

Phyllozetes tauricus was found on 15 years old quarry and Simkinia schachthachtinskoi – on oldest

limestone quarry in Kavtiskhevi. Laisobelba sp. was registered on natural meadow (Annex 1).

Number of oribatid mite species in Gardabani was higher on 15 years old quarry, reclaimed

sites and natural meadow (10-13) and only one species was found on 40 years old quarry. In

Kavtiskhevi, high number of species (12-19) was registered in 80 and 20 years old quarries and

natural meadow and eight species were found on active quarry. Calculation of Chao1 index

revealed about 80-95% of sampling completeness for Gardabani sites except nitrogen dump (G2),

where sampling completeness was 36%. As for Kavtiskhevi sites, sampling completeness was 85-

90% on 20 years old quarry and natural meadow and was 57% and 70% in oldest (K1) and active

quarry (K2) respectively. Simpson’s index of diversity was higher in 15 years old and reclaimed

sites in Gardabani compared to the natural meadow. As for Kavtiskhevi quarry, the diversity index

was higher in oldest (80 years old) quarry and natural meadow compared to active and 20 years

old sites (Table 3).

Table 3. Diversity indexes of oribatid mite on Gardabani and Kavtiskhevi quarries

G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 G7 K1 K2 K3 K4

Taxa_S 8 8 1 12 13 12 10 19 7 15 12 chao1 9.5 22 1 13.2 13.17 14.5 11.5 33 10 17 12.75

abundance 125 ± 59

66,5± 47

8,5± 12

475± 577

658± 560

258± 247

950± 283

950± 307

150± 188

717± 990

458,5± 648

Dominance_D 0.22 0.125 1 0.25 0.18 0.12 0.48 0.12 0.26 0.33 0.2013 Simpson_1-D 0.78 0.87 0 0.75 0.82 0.88 0.51 0.88 0.73 0.67 0.79

Abundance (inds/m2) of oribatid mites in Gardabani was low on active, nitrogen and 40

years old quarries; abundance increased on older quarries and reclaimed sites and was highest on

the natural meadow (Table 3. Figure 3.) In Kavtiskhevi, abundance was highest on 80 years old

quarry, followed by 20 years old quarry and natural meadow and was lowest on active quarry

(Table 3. Figure 4).

Provided Cluster analyze shows oribatid mites of reclaimed sites (G5, G6) and 15 years

old quarry (G4) grouping together showing maximal faunal similarity. Natural meadow (G7) and

nitrogen dump (G2) are grouped next to these sites and active (G1) and 40 years old quarry (G3)

are most distinct from others (Figure 5). Cluster analyze for Kavtiskhevi sites shows oribatid mites

of the oldest (K1) and 20 years old (K3) quarries clustering together with natural meadow (K4)

and active quarry (K2) isolated from all (Figure 6).

Springtail (Collembola) diversity

Fauna of springtails in both, Gardabani and Kavtiskhevi quarries is especially poor. Only

three forms are revealed in Gardabani quarry with Pseudosinella octopunctata new for Georgian

fauna. Springtails in Gardabani were found only in old quarries, reclaimed sites and natural

meadows and were totally absent from active quarry and nitrogen dump. Two forms are identified

to the species level. In Kavtiskhevi one individual of springtail larva was found in oldest limestone

quarry. All individuals in both sites are presented as singletons (list see in Annex 2). All springtails

were found during first sampling event and were completely absent from sampling performed in

July.

Simpson’s index of diversity for springtails are either 1 (where one species is represented

by one individual) or 0.5 (where two species are found).

Cluster analyze shows Kavtiskhevi springtails isolation from Gardabani fauna. As for

Gardabani sites, springtails of 40 years old quarry (G3) and natural meadow (G7) are clustered

together, whereas another cluster is formed by springtails inhabiting reclaimed sites (G5-G6) and

15 years old quarry (G4) (Fig. 7).

Discussion

Colonization of post-industrial dumps by soil invertebrates supports soil formation

processes and can be regarded as a part of secondary succession (Andrés and Mateos, 2006; Scheu

and Schulz, 1996). Although oribatid mites and springtails are known as having low mobility

(Weigmann, 1982) and being slow colonizers (Dunger, 1989), their ability of passive dispersal is

quite high (Karasawa et al., 2005; Lebedeva, 2012; Lehmitz et al., 2011).

Provided investigation on Gardabani and Kavtiskhevi quarries revealed 52 oribatid and

four springtail species with Phyllozetes tauricus Gordeeva, 1978, Simkinia

schachthachtinskoi (Kuliev, 1961), Lasiobelba sp. and Pseudosinella octopunctata new species for

Georgian fauna that enriches regional faunal diversity. Lasiobelba sp. is probably new species for

science supporting by that global faunal diversity. If taking into account only two replicates for

each site, more comprehensive and intensive investigations can provide additional faunal data.

In our study, the faunal composition differed significantly between post-industrial and

natural habitats. In dump soils, Punctoribates puctum dominated, whereas in natural sites and old

dumps rare and new for Caucasus/Georgia species were found both, for oribatid mites and

springtails (see Results section). P. punctum is considered as cosmopolitan species and good

colonizers during early stages of succession (Skubala, 1995; Skubala and Gulvik, 2005). It is often

found in high densities in urban, rural and disturbed habitats (Maraun and Scheu, 2000; Maraun et

al., 2003; Murvanidze et al., 2011; Scheu and Schulz, 1996; St. John et al., 2002; Weigmann,

1995).

Our previous investigation provided on Chiatura manganese quarries (Murvanidze et al.,

2013) showed that soil recovery processes take place on postindustrial dumps: the older the dump,

the more diverse is the oribatid assemblage. The colonization route of oribatid mites proceeds from

forests to dumps, via meadows, in spite of the fact that only a minor number of species are found

in both forests and dump sites. The main colonizers of the new habitats were P. punctum, S.

laevigatus, S. latipes and Tectocepheus velatus sarekensis.

Extremely poor oribatid and springtail fauna on 40 years old quarry (G3) in Gardabani

seems to be fact provided by soil disturbance by unidentified natural or anthropogenic factors.

Correct age of this site needs also additional investigation.

As cluster analyses shows, for both, Gardabani and Kavtiskhevi quarries oribatid and

springtail community composition found on quarry sites, seems to be still quite isolated from the

natural ones. Even reclaimed sites in Gardabani show no total recovery of soil and soil inhabiting

invertebrates with their clustering together with 15 year old dump. It seems that natural succession

ongoing on old quarry successively recovers soil structure followed by development of diverse

soil fauna and vice versa, quarry colonization by soil forming invertebrates improves soils

structure making it more favorable for further colonization. That is in accordance with our previous

statement (Murvanidze et al., 2013) that natural succession processes can support even more

diverse fauna than artificial reclamation (Skubala, 2006) and self-sustaining rehabilitation via

natural processes is regarded as a good ecological restoration. However, Secondary succession is

usually slow and incompatible with the societal requirements for rapid solutions (Ash et al., 1994;

Bradshaw, 1997) whereas artificial reclamation procedures fulfill societal needs for fast recovery

of damaged surfaces and its reuse.

Conclusions

In the frame of provided researches can be concluded that natural soil recovery processes

are ongoing on both, Gardabani and Kavtiskhevi quarries. These processes are largely supported

by activity of soil inhabiting invertebrates and mainly by oribatid mites (no larger “soil engineers”

like earthworms were found on quarries). The older the quarry is – the diverse is soil fauna and

vice versa. However, soil recovery is not complete on quarries and soil fauna even on older quarries

not similar to the natural meadows.

Overall, soil fauna of Kavtiskhevi seems to be more impoverished compared to Gardabani.

Even on the oldest quarry (K1) being in use in 1930, fauna of soil invertebrates is not similar to

the natural site.

Provided reclamation measures in Gardabani supports soil recovery. Invertebrate

communities established there resemble those, found on old quarries but are still quite far from the

communities found on natural meadow.

Poor fauna found on 40 years quarry in Gardabani makes gap in provided research.

Additional investigations are needed to reveal problems disturbing soil formation processes.

For prospects of future development, implementation of additional field and ecological

investigations are needed. Two sampling events are not enough to reveal full diversity of oribatid

mites and springtails. Sampling covering all four seasons of the year would cover most species

emerging in different seasons. Even during provided scarce investigation, one new species for

Caucasus, two new species for Georgia and one probably new species for science were found (see

result section). Additional sampling can provide additional material for regional biodiversity.

Moreover, additional replicates would make quantitative data more suitable and significant

for statistical analyses. Hence, the overall conclusion may differ from initial ones.

In all steps of provided activities actively was involved master student of the Agricultural

University Georgia, Nino Todria. She actively participated in field sampling, laboratory treatment

and calculations needed to make ecological analyses. Based on the provided investigations, she is

preparing master thesis that will be finished and presented in May 2015.

Annexes

Annex 1. List of oribatid mites on Gardabani and Kavtiskhevi quarries

Species G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 G7 K1 K2 K3 K4

Aleurodamaeus setosus 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Austrocarabodes foliaceisetus georgiensis Murvanidze & Weigmann, 2007 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1

Belba dubinini Bulanova-Zachvatkina, 1962 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 0

Carabodes kintrishiana Murvanidze 2008 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Ceratozetes gracilis (Michael, 1884) 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 5

Ceratozetes minutissmus Willmann, 1951 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Cymbaeremaeus cymba (Nicolet, 1855) 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Damaolus ornatissimus Csiszár, 1962 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

Epilohmannia cylindrica (Berleze,1904) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3 0

Eupelops acromios (Hermann, 1804) 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

Galumna tarsipennata Oudemans, 1914 0 0 0 0 27 4 22 0 0 0 16

Galumna Sp. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Graptoppia foveolata (Paoli, 1908) 0 0 0 0 0 0 76 0 0 0 0

Haplozetes elegans (Kunst, 1977) 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Hermanniella granulata (Nicolet, 1855) 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Hermanniella punctulata Berlese, 1910 0 0 0 1 0 0 5 0 0 0 0

Lasiobelba sp. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3

Liacarus brevilamellatus Mihelčič, 1955 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Liebstadia longior (Berlese, 1908) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 0

Liebstadia similis (Michael, 1888) 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 1 0 3 0

Microppia minus (Paoli, 1908) 0 0 0 1 8 0 0 0 0 0 1

Minunthozetes pseudofusiger (Schweizer, 1922) 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

Mirozetes auxiliaris Grandjean, 1936 0 1 0 0 5 5 0 0 0 0 0

Oppia nitens C.L.Koch 1836 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

Oppiella fallax (paoli, 1908) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

Oribatula tibialis (Nicolet, 1855) 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 0 0 0

Papillacarus sp. 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Parachipteria Georgica Murvanidze & Weigmann, 2003 6 1 0 2 11 0 0 0 0 0 0

Passalozetes africanus Grandjean, 1932 0 0 0 11 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

Peloptulus phaenotus (C.L.Koch, 1844) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 5 1

Peloribates longipilosus Csiszar & Jeleva, 1962 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

Pergalumna nervosa (Berlese, 1914) 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0

Phthiracarus laevigatus (C.L. Koch, 1844) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

Phyllozetes tauricus Gordeeva, 1978 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

Plateremaus mirabilis Csiszár, 1962 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

Protoribates capucinus Berlese, 1908 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

Punctoribates punctum (C. L. Koch, 1839) 0 1 0 3 0 0 2 20 8 47 17

Phyllozetes taucicus Gordeeva, 1978 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Rhysotritia ardua (C. L. koch, 1841) 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 1 0 0 1

Scheloribates laevigatus (Koch, 1835) 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 23 0 2 0

Scheloribates longus Kulijev, 1968 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 2

Scutovertex minutus (C. L. Koch, 1835) 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3

Simkinia schachthachtinokoi Kulijev, 1961 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

Simkinia tianschanica Krivolutsky, 1966 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 6 0 0 0

Sphaerochthonius splendidus (Berlese, 1904) 0 0 0 5 3 6 0 10 0 0 0

Tectoribates ornatus (Schuster, 1958) 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

Tectocepheus velatus sarekensis Tragardh,1910 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0

Tectocepheus velatus velatus (Michael,1880) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 1 11 3

Thypochthhonius tectorum (Berlese, 1896) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 0

Trichoribates naltschicki Shaldybina, 1971 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 3 0 2 0

Xenillus tegeocranus (Hermann, 1804) 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Zygoribatula frisiae (Oudemans, 1916) 2 0 0 25 12 3 0 5 3 1 2

Annex 2. List of springtails (Collembola) on Gardabani and Kavtiskhevi quarries

Localition G-7 G-6 G-5 G-4 G-3 K-1

species

Pseudosinella octopunctata Börner, 1901 0 1 1 1 0 0

Pseudosinella sexoculata Schött, 1902 1 1 0 0 1 0

Hypogastruridae sp. larva 0 0 0 1 0 0

Protaphorura sp. Larva 0 0 0 0 0 1

Figure 1. Map of sampling sites in Gardabani

Figure 2. Map of sampling sites in Kavtiskhevi

Figure 3. Abundance of oribatid mites on Gardabani quarries

Figure 4. Abundance of oribatid mites on Kavtiskhevi quarries

Figure 5. Cluster of faunal similarities of oribatid mites on Gardabani quarries

Figure 6. Cluster of faunal similarities of oribatid mites on Kavtiskhevi quarries

Figure 7. Cluster of faunal similarities of springtails on Gardabani and Kavtiskhevi

quarries

Pic. 1. G1. Active quarry in Gardabani Pic. 2. G2. Nitrogen dump in Gardabani

Pic. 3. G3. 40 years old quarry in Gardabani Pic. 4. G4. 15 years old quarry in gardabani

Pic. 5. G5. Reclaimed site in Gardabani Pic. 6. G7. Control, Natural meadow

Pic. 7. K1. 1923 year quarry in Kavtiskhevi Pic. 8. K2. Active quarry in Kavtiskhevi

Pic. 9. K3. 20 years old quarry in Kavtiskhevi Pic. 10. Control. Natural meadow

Pic. 11. Extraction of invertebrates from soil Pic. 12. Making microscope slides

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