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Socio-Psychological Factorsin Industrial Morale: I.The Prediction of SpecificIndicatorsRaymond E. Bernberg aa Department of Psychology , Los Angeles StateCollege , USAPublished online: 01 Jul 2010.

To cite this article: Raymond E. Bernberg (1952) Socio-Psychological Factors inIndustrial Morale: I. The Prediction of Specific Indicators, The Journal of SocialPsychology, 36:1, 73-82, DOI: 10.1080/00224545.1952.9919090

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T h e Journal of Social Psychology , 1952, 96, 73-82 .

S O C I O - P S Y C H O L O G I C A L F A C T O R S I N I N D U S T R I A L M O R A L E : I. THE P R E D I C T I O N OF S P E C I F I C

I N D I C A T O R S *

Depar tment of Psychology , Los Ange les S ta te Col lege

RAYMOND E. BERNBERG*.*

A. INTRODUCTION A comprehensive review by the author ( 3 ) of the literature on morale

reveals that two major hypotheses exist concerning the nature of morale as a specific behavioral process. One hypothesis is that morale is a group phenomenon, as suggested in the famous Hawthorne studies (9, 17 ,21 ,26 ) and most recently discussed a t length by Krech and Crutchfield (15 ) . T h e second hypothesis is that morale is the degree of acceptance of formal organi- zation by members of a group. This view has been expressed by Rarnard ( 1 ) and Simon (22 ) and is the inferred meaning of morale in industrial studies attempting to measure employee attitudes toward the company. T h e latter hypothesis is based on the old working concept of morale as illustrated by the studies of Bergen (2 ) , Roberts (20) , Kolstad ( 1 3 ) , Kolstad and Hull (14), Uhrbrock ( 2 5 ) , and Harris (8).

Some evidence has been published during Wor ld W a r I1 (6 , 18, 19) and most recently by Giese and Ruter ( 7 ) to indicate tentatively that morale, in the work situation, may be reflected in performance indicators such as ab- sences and tardiness. Sick call was used as an indicator of morale in various studies (24) made by the Army Air Force, during the last war. Indicators such as merit rating and short-time absences had never been used before as far as the author could ascertain. Merit rating as used in industry presumes to cover all factors of a worker's performance of his job as judged by his superior. Short-time absences are those periods of absence from work not encompassing a full day.

Many investigations of morale in industry have utilized one or the other of the major hypotheses of morale, or a modification of them, however, a

*Received in the Editorial Office on December 11, 1950. 'This material is derived from the author's dissertation submitted in May, 1950,

in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the Ph.D. degree at the University of California, Los Angeles.

T h i s research was facilitated in part by a research grant from the Institute of Industrial Relations, University of California, Los Angeles.

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74 JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

comparative study has never been made to reveal the relative predictive value of either hypothesis for performance indicators. T h e research to be reported was undertaken to determine which hypothesis of morale will best predict performance indicators in the industrial situation and thereby give a better understanding of morale as a specific behavioral process.

B. THE EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

1. T h e Population

T h e industry in which the study was undertaken is a large aircraft manu- facturing plant in Southern California. A total of 1009 hourly-paid em- ployees from five departments of three factories were used. T w o departments were from one factory: wing assembly and production machine shop. T w o similar departments were used from a second factory. T h e fifth department, from the third factory, was a final flight assembly department. T h e wing assembly departments are designated as Department A for Factory 1 , Depart- ment C for Factory 2. T h e production machine shops are Department B, Factory 1 and Department D , Factory 2. T h e final flight assembly depart- ment is Department E , Factory 3.

This population is unique in that the average number of years of schooling per worker is 11.5. T h e average length of time a worker was in his work group is approximately two years. T h e average length of time a worker was employed with the company is approximately five years. Ninety-three per cent of the population is male. Seventy-seven per cent of the population is married. T h e average age of the workers in this study is 37.4 years.

According to management and union, the third factory manifested the highest amount of morale, gr'oup spirit. T h e first factory was stated to have better working conditions and conveniences, etc., than the second factory and was believed to have higher morale. This judgment of union and manage- ment provided one criterion of validity for the tests of the various hypotheses of morale.

2. T h e Specific Indicators

Data which management maintains for purposes of administration were used for the performance indicators. These are records of absences, tardiness, short-time absences, trips to the medical unit for reasons other than occu- pational injury or disease, and merit rating.

This stands for the number of days each hourly- paid employee was absent during a 20-week period preceding the date when the study was undertaken. Unauthorized and sick leave absences of one full

a . Absences ( A B ) .

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R A Y M O N D E. BERNBERG 75

day were counted as one unit each. Vacations, jury duty, and other such authorized leaves of absence were not considered. Long consecutive absences were discounted in order to lessen the weighting which prolonged illness factors might have. Each employee received a total A B score. T h i s score was the total number of absences subtracted from a constant. A high score indicates few absences and a low score indicates many absences.

b . Tardiness ( T ) . T h i s measure was obtained and scored like AB. Here, also, a high score means infrequent tardiness and a low score means frequent tardiness.

T h i s is the number of times a n individual was absent from work for an interval of time during the work day less than a full day. T h i s measure was computed and scored exactly as the first two described above.

T h i s is the number of times a n individual went to the medical aid unit during working hours for reasons other than occupational injury or disease. T h i s measure also was scored and computed exactly as the other three measures described.

e. Mer i t rating (A4R) . I t is company policy for supervisors to make tri-annual merit ratings of the hourly-paid employees. A merit rating scale was developed by Stockford and Bissell (23) for use by this company. T h e rating form covers five dimensions : adaptability, dependability, job knowl- edge, quality, quantity. Each dimension is rated on a scale with verbal referents. T h e total M R score is the average weighted score of the five dimensions.

T h e sum of the scores of the specific indicators for each individual was taken to make a total indicator score.

c. Short-time absences (ST).

d . Medical-unit trips ( H ) .

f. Total indicator score ( T O ) .

3. Tests of the Alorale Hypotheses

a. Group morale ( G M ) . T h e definition of morale as a group phenom- enon was based on Krech and Crutchfield’s (15) theory of six determiners of morale: ( a ) positive goals; ( b ) satisfaction of accessory needs; ( c ) sense of advance toward goals; ( d ) level of aspiration and achievement i ( e ) time perspective ;

These six determiners were used as basic content in the “direction of perception” technique which is discussed a t length in another publication (4). T h e test is an indirect method of attitude measurement and was formulated to test group morale by presenting stimulus materials which have no founda- tion in fact, as far as can be known. T h i s method structures a situation for the subject which demands a choice of answers based on previously determined

( f ) feelings of solidarity, identification and involvement.

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76 J O U R N A L OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

views. T h e answer selected indicates the direction of the subject’s perception on a dichotomized issue. T h e r e are 34 items in all. F o r example: “ I t has been shown that in the aircraft industry, groups such as yours contain the following percentage of workers who ‘don’t give a damn’ for the next fellow: ( a ) 1070; (6) 2570.’’ Also: “When a difficulty arises between workers in a group and persons outside the group, the amount of friction within the group: ( a ) increases; ( b ) decreases.” I n the first example, answer a is the answer in the direction of high morale. I n the second example, answer b is the answer in the direction of high morale. T h e number of items which a subject answers in the direction of high morale gives the GJZ score. T h e highest possible score is 34.

b. Acceptance of the formal organization (CnZ). A direct attitude measurement method was used for this par t of the questionnaire. T h e first six questions of both Bergen’s ( 2 ) and Uhrbrock’s ( 2 5 ) morale scales were used. These 12 questions were modified from their original form by alter- nating the direction of questioning. I n the original form, the items were all worded in one direction, positively. I n addition, the choices open to the subjects were constructed in the Likert (16) method of obtaining intensity of attitudes. T h a t is, the subject had five choices which ranged from very strongly agreeing with the question to very strongly disagreeing with the question. For example: “ I think this company treats its employees worse than any other company does. (Check one) Strongly agree (a)-agree ( 6 ) - undecided (c)-disagree (d)-strongly disagree ( e ) .” T h e numbers stand for the value of the answer checked. T h e Cnl score is the numerical sum of values for the 12 questions answered by the subject.

c. Rat ing the Superwisor (S). Several studies (11, 1 2 ) have suggested that the formal leader of the organization, the supervisor, might be the key to morale. T h e degree t o which the members of a work organization believe they have a good leader might reflect the state of their morale. T h i s was tested by having the employees rate the statement: “ O n the whole, I believe that the supervisor in my group is a man who knows his job and is a leader.” T h e employees rated their supervisors on a thermometer scale similarly used successfully by Katz ( 1 0 ) and Crespi ( 5 ) as a measurement of intensity of opinion. T h e scale ranges from 0 to 100 degrees with seven referent points f rom “very strongly agree” to “very strongly disagree.”

T h e employee population used in this study was asked to express agreement o r disagreement on the following proposition: “On the whole, I believe that my group has a high degree of morale. By that, I mean the men work willingly and cheerfully as a well

d . Self-rating of niorale (sill).

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R A Y M O N D E. BERNBERG 77

organized team.” T h e rating was done on a thermometer scale described above in the S measure. T h e purpose of this measure was ( a ) to include a subjective rating of the work group, that is, the multiple individual cognitions of morale in the group; ( 6 ) to use it as a criterion for the tests of the morale hypotheses; ( c ) to see i f this simple measure differed in any way from the two major hypotheses of morale.

4. Administration of the Survey

A questionnaire was administered to 1009 hourly-paid employees and their supervisors in the various departments as previously discussed. I t consists of 11 mimeographed sheets and contains a forwarding letter and four parts. T h e four parts correspond to the four tests of morale hypotheses discussed above.

I t was necessary for each individual employee in the research to be identified by name so that the results of the questionnaire could be related to the data obtained from the company records, that is, A B , T , ST, H , and AIR. A s stated, a n intensive attempt was made to have good union and management cooperation to help make the study a success. T h e questionnaires were numerically coded and only the author knew the relationship of name to code. I n this way, the employees did not have to write their names on the questionnaires and they were assured of anonymity aside from the author.

Just before closing time, 1009 questionnaires were distributed to the employees in five departments. T h e y were asked to complete them a t home and return them the next morning. An extra 24 hours were given to em- ployees absent on the first day. No questionnaires were accepted later than 48 hours af ter the initial distribution of the questionnaires.

C. RESULTS

1. T h e Returns

Of the 1009 questionnaires distributed, 890 were returned completed-an 88.3 per cent return. Approximately 79 per cent were received on the first day after distribution and 9.3 percent were returned the second day. O n l y a very small number of questionnaires were returned either blank or partially completed. These were considered in the not returned category. T h e r e were no significant differences between the departments in the number of ques- tionnaires returned.

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78 JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

TABLE 1 RELIABILITY COEFFICIENTS

r .72 .8 3 .68 .78 3 0 .8 6 .79 ur .02 .01 .03 .01 - .01 .o 1

2. Reliability of thP Measures

Table 1 presents the reliability coefficients of the tests of the morale hypotheses, GICI and CM, as well as the specific indicator measures. T h e coefficients were obtained by the split-half method, taking odd and even questions or odd and even weeks for the indicator scores and computing a Pearson correlation coefficient. T h e Spearman-Brown prophecy formula was then used and a correction was made for attenuation. These reliability coefficients may be considered good for group prediction.

3 . The Prediction of TO b y the Tes t s of Morale

Table 2 presents a matrix of the Pearson product moment intercorrelations between all the specific indicators and the tests of morale. T h e specific indicators have significant intercorrelations between themselves. AIR appears to account for a large part of the criterion, about 42.5 per cent of the varia- bility of the criterion. A B appears to account for about 11.7 per cent of the criterion. T h e other three indicators cover a very small portion of the varia- bility of T O .

T h e tests of morale have highly significant correlations between themselves. T h e highest correlation, C M with G M , is plus .77. T h e next highest cor- relation is GM with S M , plus .67. T h e r e are no significant correlations of the indicators and the tests of morale except in the case of SM with TO where the coefficient is plus .13, significantly different from zero.

TABLE 2 INTERCORRELATIONS OF TESTS OF MORA'LE AND SPECIFIC INDICATORS

AB

AB T

S T H

MR GM CM S

SM TO

- .22 .26 .09 .17 .06 .01 .oo .04 .47

T

.22

.18

.03 .11 .04 .03 .07 .06 .31

__

-

~

ST .26 .18

.13 - .o 5 .02 .02 .02

-.05 .2s

H .09 .03 . I 3

.02 -.03

.02 .04 .oo 2 3

-

MR GM CM S

.I7 .06 .ll .04 .os .02 .02 -.03 - .02

.02 -

.05 .77 .03 .51 .02 .67 .88 .04

.01 .oo .03 .07 .02 .02 .02 .04 .05 .03 .77 .51

.48 .48 - .47 .19 .06 .06

-

SM

.04 .06

-.05 .oo .02 .67 .47 .49

.13 -

T O

,47 .31 .25 .23 .88 .04 .06 .06 .13

- -

-

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RAYMOND E. B E R N B E R G 79

TABLE 3 MULTIPLE R A N D BETA WEIGHTS

(Crout Method)

Factor Beta weight

1. Group Morale ( G M ) -.15 2. Acceptance ( C M ) .10

4. Self-Rating of Morale (SM) .20 3. Rating of Supervisor ( S ) -.03

Ro. 1 2 3 4 = .16 , aRo. 1 2 3 4 = .03

Table 3 shows the Beta weights of the tests of morale by the multiple correlation method of their prediction for T O . T h e multiple R is plus .16. It is evident that SM provides the major portion of the predictive value which the four tests have communally for T O .

4. The Prediction of Departmental Differences Table 4 gives the means and sigmas of the GM, C M , S, SM, and T O

measures for the five departments. An inspection of the departmental means reveals that on G M , Department E has the highest mean score, with Depart- ments A and C next and Departments B and D the lowest. Department E has the highest mean score for all measures except S , where it has the lowest mean score. O n S, Departments A and C have higher mean scores than B and D . T h i s pattern is almost the same on the Cnl and S M measures. H o w -

TABLE 4 DEPARTMENTAL MEANS .4ND SIGMAS FOR THE TESTS OF MORALE A N D THE

TOTAL SPECIFIC INDICATOR SCORE

A B

X 22.1

u 5.5 x 43.3

u 7.0 x 84.6

u 15.7 X 82.9

u 16.0 X 181.2

c 11.8

GM

c M

S

SM

T O

21.4

5.1 42.7

7.2 80.9

20.5 80.1

19.6 174.6

12.6

C D

22.1 21.8

5.1 5.3 44.2 43.5

7.1 7.4 85.8 81.2

17.9 19.7 81.5 81.9

16.7 17.3 177.5 170.9

9.1 11.0

- E

23.4

4.5 44.7

5.1 79.4

17.0 87.9

11.7 184.8

12.0

Total

22.1

3.8 43.6

7.1 83.1

18.8 82.1

17.1 177.3

12.0

_ _

N 255 188 224 156 67 890

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80 JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

ever, i f the data are taken by factories, (Departments A and C-Factory 1, Departments B and D-Factory 2, and Department E-Factory 3 ) , the highest mean scores on all the measures show Factory 3 the highest, Factory 1 next, and then Factory 2, except on S where Factory 3 has the lowest mean score.

TABLE 5 VARIANCE TABLE

Source Variance

Sum of squares df estimate

Rows

Columns (GM, CM, S, SM, T O ) 2,349,485 4 587,371

(Departments) 23,116,193 4 5,779,048 Interaction 10,009,335 16 625,583 Within-cells 1,609,527 22,225 72.42 Total 3 7,084, 540 22,249

i/w R/i C/i C/R

F 8638.26 .938 9.24 9.85 P < .001 > .05 < .001 < .001

In Table 5 , the results of an analysis of variance are shown. T h e inter- action variance is highly significant. I t indicates the effect of the department in which an individual works on how he scores on the various measures. T h e row variance is insignificant but the column variance is highly significant. T h i s indicates, and was further brought out by t ratio tests, the significance of mean differences between departments on the various measures.

I t is interesting to note that the correlational results show the tests of morale not to be predictors for individuals of the specific indicators. However, the analysis of variance shows these tests of morale to be able to predict departmental differences in a pattern which generally corroborates the judg- ment of management and union.

D. SUMMARY

Various tests of morale were constructed to analyze the relative predictive value of major morale hypotheses for specific indicators in the work situation. T h e t w o main hypotheses of morale are ( a ) that morale is a group phenom- enon and ( b ) that morale is the acceptance of formal organization by mem- bers of a group. Each test of morale was presumed to measure a n hypothesis of morale as a specific behavioral process. T h e specific indicators were per- formance variables such as absences, tardiness, short-time absences, trips to the medical aid unit for reasons other than occupational injury or disease, and merit rating.

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RAYMOND E. BERNBERG 81

Hourly-paid employees of a large aircraft manufacturing plant in Southern California were used as the population for the study. Completed question- naires were returned by 890 employees from five departments of three fac- tories in the plant. Union and man?gement established qualitative criteria.

O n the basis of a statistical analysis of the results, the following generali- zations are made:

1. No significant relationship exists between the tests of morale and the specific indicators for the prediction of individuals.

2. Analysis of variance methods show that the departments and factories differ consistently in the same sequence on the tests of morale and the total specific indicator scores. T h u s , except in one instance differences on the tests of morale and the total specific indicator score can be predicted for depart- ments and factories. T h i s corroborates union’s and management’s judgment of the high to low range of morale in the departments and factories used in the study.

Department E has the highest mean score on all measures except the one which rates the supervisors. T h i s suggests that a department of highly skilled men is especially critical of its supervisors. I t also suggests that in a well organized efficient team of employees who have high morale, supervisors do not necessarily play an important part in the integration of the group.

A comparison of the two major hypotheses concerning the nature of morale as a specific behavioral process shows that both hypotheses predict group differences but not individual differences on performance variables.

3.

4.

1.

2. 3.

4.

5.

6.

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8.

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