Societal Psychology:Dr Tom Reader

A socially relevant Psychology:

attitudes and changing behaviour

Attitudes and Changing BehaviourAttitudes and Changing Behaviour

Dr Tom ReaderDr Tom Reader

PS443: Societal Psychology - Lecture 3.PS443: Societal Psychology - Lecture 3.

Institute of Social PsychologyInstitute of Social Psychology

Lecture Aims

1.1. To review the concept of ‘attitude’To review the concept of ‘attitude’

2.2. To consider the attitude-behaviour linkTo consider the attitude-behaviour link

3.3. To consider changing attitudes/behaviourTo consider changing attitudes/behaviour

4.4. Discussion PointsDiscussion Points

Dr T Reader. LSE.

Part 1: Attitudes are a cornerstone of Social Psychology

• Why?

1. Belief that attitudes influence (and can explain) social behaviour

• E.g. voting intentions, financial decision-making, social interactions

2. Belief that attitudes can predict future behaviour, and are changeable

• Relevance to you?

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An attitude is…….."a mental or neural state of readiness, organised through experience,

exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual's response to all objects

and situations with which it is related"

But what is an attitude? Gordon Allport (1935)

Dr T Reader. LSE.

Prominent/accessible in our mind

Triggers behaviour

Has a structure

Is situational

COGNITIVE…

FOCUSSES ON THE INDIVIDUAL…BUT SOCIAL

Social Psychologists measure Social Psychologists measure attitudes towards…attitudes towards…

PrejudicePrejudice

AgeAge LeadershipLeadership

WealthWealthSocietySociety

ProductsProducts

BehaviourBehaviour

FamilyFamily

PoliticsPolitics

PersonalityPersonality

Work-life balanceWork-life balance

GenderGender

OrganisationsOrganisations

BeliefBelief

TeamworkTeamwork

HealthHealth

RiskRisk

EducationEducation

BullyingBullying

ReligionReligion

Climate changeClimate changeCommunitiesCommunities

Social classSocial class

Components of attitudes

Affect

Feelings towards a person, object, or issue

+

Behaviour

Behavioural tendencies towards a person, object, or issue

Cognition

Reasoning on a person, object, or issue

For example…

…but individual components only give limited insight, and are often seen in a social vacuum

(E.g. Rosenberg & Hovland, 1960) (E.g. Rosenberg & Hovland, 1960)

Dr T Reader. LSE.

The utility of attitudes

• Mental short cutsMental short cuts

– E.g. Reduces the need evaluate othersE.g. Reduces the need evaluate others

• A way to express our valuesA way to express our values

– E.g. For social integration into groupsE.g. For social integration into groups

• Mental defenceMental defence

– E.g. To maintain psychological well-being (balance theory)E.g. To maintain psychological well-being (balance theory)

– E.g. To protect our ego (e.g. against rivals)E.g. To protect our ego (e.g. against rivals)

• Orienting behaviourOrienting behaviour

– E.g. towards others or objectsE.g. towards others or objects(Fazio, 1989; Heider, 1946; Katz, 1960; Smith, Bruner, & White, 1956;) (Fazio, 1989; Heider, 1946; Katz, 1960; Smith, Bruner, & White, 1956;)

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Cognitive Information processing, mental structures, memory binding Cognitive association, and attitude activation

Attitude formation

Experiential

Direct experience with an object/event (e.g. trauma)

Conditioning (i.e. object

association)

Social

Parents (e.g. moral values)

Communities (i.e. values

change according to norms)

Media (e.g. politics)

(For summary, see Hogg & Vaughan, 2001: Chapter 5 )(For summary, see Hogg & Vaughan, 2001: Chapter 5 )

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How do you measure attitudes?

Rosenberg & Hovland (1960) – the Yale model

Stimulus Attitude

Cognitive: what you know

Evaluative: what you feel

Behavioural: what you do

Observable antecedents

Hypothetical variable

Observableresponses

‘‘Attitudes’ are Attitudes’ are veiledveiled

We focus on outcomes We focus on outcomes of attitudes towards of attitudes towards

stimulusstimulus

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Attitude measurement

• Implicit measurementImplicit measurement (E.g. Mcrae et al., 1994)(E.g. Mcrae et al., 1994)

– E.g. response times to implicit stimuli; behaviour; E.g. response times to implicit stimuli; behaviour; physiological measurement (BP)physiological measurement (BP)

• Likert (1932) techniqueLikert (1932) technique– Respondents indicate agreement with groups of statements Respondents indicate agreement with groups of statements

– 5-11 point scales are used; reliability is calculated5-11 point scales are used; reliability is calculated

– Summation of scores are used to calculate attitudes for Summation of scores are used to calculate attitudes for individuals and groupsindividuals and groups

• Thurstone (1928) – “attitudes can be measured”Thurstone (1928) – “attitudes can be measured”– Sets of statements are created and sorted by judges as Sets of statements are created and sorted by judges as

positive/negative (very labour intensive)positive/negative (very labour intensive)

– Respondents endorse statements, and attitudes calculatedRespondents endorse statements, and attitudes calculated

Dr T Reader. LSE.

Most attitude studies assess whether (and to what extent) we have positive

or negative dispositions towards a construct (Photo: Ekman-style face set)……..

…then they work out what is normal, and

where individuals/ groups lie...

…and finally whether attitude

influences behaviour

But…the answers are only as good as the measures….

Sir Humphrey Appleby describes the perfect attitude survey

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AttitudesAttitudes BehaviourBehaviour

Affect, Affect, behaviour, behaviour, cognitioncognition

Formed by social, Formed by social, cognitive & cognitive &

organisational factorsorganisational factors

Measured by Measured by Likert scales, Likert scales, association association

teststests

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Attitude and behaviour model

Discussion Point 1.

……but can we really but can we really isolateisolate individual attitudes individual attitudes from the from the social worldsocial world??

The majority of attitudinal The majority of attitudinal studies focus on the studies focus on the

individual…individual…

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Part 2: The relationship between attitude and behaviour

Research investigating attitudes and behaviour often use Research investigating attitudes and behaviour often use measures of the following:measures of the following:

• Self-reports of behaviour (e.g. health behaviours)Self-reports of behaviour (e.g. health behaviours)– Problems: difficult to check validity, social desirabilityProblems: difficult to check validity, social desirability

• Observations (e.g. work behaviours)Observations (e.g. work behaviours)

– Problems: hard to ascribe intention; Hawthorne effectsProblems: hard to ascribe intention; Hawthorne effects

• Implicit measures of behaviourImplicit measures of behaviour– Problems: difficult to design; ethical drawbacks; Problems: difficult to design; ethical drawbacks;

measurement accuracymeasurement accuracy

(e.g. Martin & Bateson, 1986)(e.g. Martin & Bateson, 1986)

Dr T Reader. LSE.

Attitudes towards Attitudes towards health can predict health can predict behaviour (e.g. behaviour (e.g. smoking, condom smoking, condom use)…use)…

……but positive but positive attitudes are not attitudes are not

enough: belief and enough: belief and efficacy also key…efficacy also key…

Attitudes towards Attitudes towards race, class, and race, class, and gender predict gender predict prejudiced or political prejudiced or political behaviours…behaviours…

……but often social but often social attitudes are implicit, attitudes are implicit,

inconsistent, and inconsistent, and shaped by situational shaped by situational

factors…factors…

Attitudes towards job Attitudes towards job satisfaction, safety, satisfaction, safety, and management and management predict work predict work behaviour…behaviour…

……but work but work behaviours also behaviours also

shaped by workplace shaped by workplace norms and personal norms and personal

relationships…relationships…(Manstead, 1996; Ogden, 2001;Furnham, 1997)(Manstead, 1996; Ogden, 2001;Furnham, 1997)Dr T Reader. LSE.

In addition, attitudes are more likely to predict behaviour when…

……the attitude object is well-defined and salientthe attitude object is well-defined and salient– i.e. attitude must be specific and relevanti.e. attitude must be specific and relevant

……attitude strength is highattitude strength is high– i.e. attitude must come easily to mindi.e. attitude must come easily to mind

……knowledge supporting an attitude is plentifulknowledge supporting an attitude is plentiful– i.e. knowledge increases certainty in behaviouri.e. knowledge increases certainty in behaviour

……attitudes support aspects of the selfattitudes support aspects of the self– i.e. they are consistent with beliefsi.e. they are consistent with beliefs

(Pratkanis & Turner, 1994)(Pratkanis & Turner, 1994)

Dr T Reader. LSE.

AttitudesAttitudes BehaviourBehaviour

Formed by social, Formed by social, cognitive & cognitive &

organisational factorsorganisational factors

Measured by Measured by Likert scales, Likert scales, association association

teststests

Organisational Organisational behaviourbehaviour

Health Health behavioursbehaviours

Social Social behavioursbehaviours

Affect, Affect, behaviour, behaviour, cognitioncognition

But, attitudes frequently: But, attitudes frequently:

1. Do not predict behaviour 1. Do not predict behaviour

2. Do not remain stable2. Do not remain stable

3. Are resistant to change3. Are resistant to change

WHY?WHY?

Dr T Reader. LSE.

Attitude and behaviour model

Discussion Point 2

Attitude change (winning hearts Attitude change (winning hearts and minds) is a constant theme and minds) is a constant theme

in modern society…in modern society…

……but do we change but do we change attitudes OR attitudes OR beliefsbeliefs on the on the

attitudes that are allowed to attitudes that are allowed to be be publicly expressedpublicly expressed? ?

Dr T Reader. LSE.

Part 3: Factors that influence attitude change and behaviour

Psychologists have attempted to understand Psychologists have attempted to understand the factors that mediate the relationship the factors that mediate the relationship

between attitudes and behaviour…between attitudes and behaviour…

Dr T Reader. LSE.

“Attitudes Versus Actions” (La Piere, 1934)

Eating out in 1930s US

La Piere and two Chinese friends travelled the US.

Ate in 250 restaurantsWrote to owners

Discrepancies…

92% of establishments (out of 128) stated that they did not accept Chinese customers

Inconsistencies….(Campbell, 1963) Attitudes vary across situations, and according to need Social pressure shapes behaviour, and attitudes can be

inconsistent (e.g. racial prejudice versus hospitality) General attitudes not predictive (e.g. morals & behaviour)

Dr T Reader. LSE.

Cognitive Dissonance (Festinger, 1957)

A psychological tension…

...produced by simultaneously having opposing cognitions

…reduced by changing attitudes, beliefs or actions

…Festinger & Carlsmith’s classic experiment (1959)

Buyers remorse

Attitudes are developed post-behaviour What are the implications for attitude-change programmes? Explains nudge theory? (Thaler and Sunstein, 2008)

Dangerous behaviours

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BehaviourBehaviour

• Beliefs about Beliefs about outcomesoutcomes

• Evaluations of Evaluations of these outcomesthese outcomes

Attitude Attitude towards the towards the behaviourbehaviour

Subjective Subjective normnorm

Behaviour Behaviour control control

(efficacy)(efficacy)

• Beliefs about Beliefs about significant other’s significant other’s attitudes to attitudes to behaviourbehaviour

• Motivation to Motivation to comply with otherscomply with others

• Internal control Internal control factorsfactors

• External control External control factorsfactors

Behavioural Behavioural intentionintention

Theory of Planned Behaviour (Azjen, 1991)

Dr T Reader. LSE.

E.g. Smoking cessation

Need more than positive attitudes

towards behaviour

Theory of planned behaviour (TPB): evidence

• TPB frequently used to explain health behaviour TPB frequently used to explain health behaviour change (e.g. condom use) change (e.g. condom use) (Brubaker & Wickersham, 1990; Schifter & Azjen, 1985)(Brubaker & Wickersham, 1990; Schifter & Azjen, 1985)

• Meta-analyses only provide limited support Meta-analyses only provide limited support (Albarracin et al., (Albarracin et al.,

2001; Webb and Sheeran, 2006)2001; Webb and Sheeran, 2006)

And doubts persists due to theoretical simplicity…. Emotion?

Time?

Correlation, not causation

Hierarchies of beliefs?

Dr T Reader. LSE.

Attitude Attitude changechange

Attitude change – persuasion (Janis & Hovland, 1959)

Pay attention to Pay attention to message from message from

persuaderpersuader

Comprehend the Comprehend the messagemessage

Accept the Accept the messagemessage

Retain the Retain the message message

The target of persuasion must..

Ideally, resulting in…

The communicator:The communicator: (e.g. expertise; likeable; (e.g. expertise; likeable;

confidentconfident

Whether the do this is influenced by…

The message:The message: (e.g. (e.g. non-direct; has clarity; non-direct; has clarity; presents arguments)presents arguments)

The audience:The audience: (e.g. (e.g. self-esteem; self-esteem;

intelligence; willingness intelligence; willingness to change; personalityto change; personality

But…persuasion is ongoing and unpredictable

Outside influences?

Other models? E.g. elaboration-likelihood

(Petty & Cacioppo, 1986)See Hogg and Vaughan, chapter 6.

Dr T Reader. LSE.

Attitude control

The ‘inner check’ (Allport, 1954)

The person who wishes to suppress an unacceptable attitude must regulate “appropriate thoughts, and quell inappropriate ones” (Wenger,

1994)

This can result in “ironic suppression”

(see the ‘white bear’ experiment; Wenger, Schneider, Carter & White, 1987)

Dr T Reader. LSE.

Devine (1989): Attitude control

1. Low and high prejudiced individuals do not differ on

knowledge of stereotypes (n=40)

Devine (1989): Attitude control

2. Subliminal priming can cause low-prejudice individuals to show

prejudicial behaviour (termed stereotype activation) (n=323)

Devine (1989): Attitude control

3. Frequently, we inhibit or suppress negative attitudes

towards others as we consider them to be immoral or socially

unacceptable…

Macrae et al (1994): Attitude rebound

…but…suppressing a negative attitude means that it is in our

mind…and it can reappear if we are stressed or relaxed…

From cognitive to social perspectives…

E.g. Social representations: Critiques the focus on viewing attitudes as an ‘individual’ (and often divisive) construct……

..…rather, knowledge is shared, negotiated, and embedded within

social structures.

(Moscovici, 1961; Howarth, 2006; Jovchelovitch, 2007)

Dr T Reader. LSE.

Discussion Point 3

Attitude change programmes Attitude change programmes attempt to develop attempt to develop

homogenous attitudes homogenous attitudes towards numerous things (e.g. towards numerous things (e.g.

health)…health)…

……who should decide what is a who should decide what is a good or bad attitude, and what good or bad attitude, and what does it mean for diverse beliefs does it mean for diverse beliefs

and thoughts? and thoughts?

Dr T Reader. LSE.

AttitudesAttitudes BehaviourBehaviour

Formed by social, Formed by social, cognitive & cognitive &

organisational factorsorganisational factors

Measured by Measured by Likert scales, Likert scales, association association

teststests

Organisational Organisational behaviourbehaviour

Health Health behavioursbehaviours

Attitude Attitude consistency, consistency,

strength, strength, dissonancedissonance

Situational Situational factors; factors;

personalitypersonality

Implicit beliefsImplicit beliefs

Self-efficacy, Self-efficacy, social normssocial norms

Social RepsSocial Reps

Affect, Affect, behaviour, behaviour, cognitioncognition

Attitude and behaviour model

Social Social behavioursbehaviours

Dr T Reader. LSE.

Examples of my own interest in attitudes…

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• Attitudes towards risk and safetyAttitudes towards risk and safety

– E.g. risk-taking behaviours in oil industryE.g. risk-taking behaviours in oil industry

• Attitudes towards managementAttitudes towards management

– E.g. belief that management prioritise safety in air traffic controlE.g. belief that management prioritise safety in air traffic control

• Medical staff attitudes towards patientsMedical staff attitudes towards patients

• E.g. for compassionE.g. for compassion

• Attitudes towards teamwork and shared decision-Attitudes towards teamwork and shared decision-makingmaking

– E.g. for senior doctors and bedside nursing staff collaborating to E.g. for senior doctors and bedside nursing staff collaborating to decide patient treatments; open communication about safety decide patient treatments; open communication about safety concernsconcerns

Links to be made…

Dr T Reader. LSE.

• CultureCulture– E.g. Attitudes on beliefs, prejudice, society; Social repsE.g. Attitudes on beliefs, prejudice, society; Social reps

– Allport, 1967; Ajzen, 1977; Greenwald, 1995; Howarth, 2006;Allport, 1967; Ajzen, 1977; Greenwald, 1995; Howarth, 2006;

• OrganisationsOrganisations– E.g. organisational commitment; risk-taking; job satisfactionE.g. organisational commitment; risk-taking; job satisfaction

– Ostroff, 1992; Zohar 2000; Sexton, Thomas, & Helmreich, 2000Ostroff, 1992; Zohar 2000; Sexton, Thomas, & Helmreich, 2000

• CommunicationCommunication– E.g. Public opinion; attitudes towards science; voting behavioursE.g. Public opinion; attitudes towards science; voting behaviours

– Lewis, 2001; Miller, 2004; Gaskell et al., 2004; Lewis, 2001; Miller, 2004; Gaskell et al., 2004;

• Health, community and developmentHealth, community and development– E.g. Changing health-related attitudes and behaviours E.g. Changing health-related attitudes and behaviours

– Bennet & Bozioneles, 2000; Campbell et al., 2010; Sniehotta, 2010;Bennet & Bozioneles, 2000; Campbell et al., 2010; Sniehotta, 2010;

Questions for debate….

1…can we really isolate individual 1…can we really isolate individual

attitudes from the social world?attitudes from the social world?

2…do we change attitudes OR beliefs 2…do we change attitudes OR beliefs on the attitudes that are allowed to be on the attitudes that are allowed to be

publicly expressed?publicly expressed?

3…who should decide what is a good 3…who should decide what is a good or bad attitude, and what does it mean or bad attitude, and what does it mean for diverse beliefs and thoughts?for diverse beliefs and thoughts?

Dr T Reader. LSE.

References (1)•Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Making Processes, 50, 179-211.

•Albarracín, D., Johnson, B., Fishbein, M., & Muellerleile, P. (2001). Theories of reasoned action and planned behavior as models of condom use: A meta-analysis. . Psychological Bulletin, 127, 142-161.

•Allport, G. (1935). Handbook of social psychology. Worcester, MA: Clark University Press.

•Allport, G. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

•Campbell, D. (1963). Social attitudes and other acquired behavioural dispositions. In S. Koch (Ed.), Psychology: A study of science (Vol. 6). New York: Mcgraw Hill.

•Devine, P. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 5-18.

•Ekman, P., & Friesan, W. (1975). Unmasking the face: A guide to recognizing emotions from facial clues. . Oxford, UK: Prentice-Hall.

•Fazio, R. (1989). On the power and functionality of attitudes: The role of attitude accessibility. In M. Sorrentino & E. Higgins (Eds.), Attitude structure and function. New York: Guildford Press.

•Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

•Festinger, L., & Carlsmith, J. (1959). Cognitive consequences of forced compliance. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 58, 203-210.

•Heider, F. (1946). Attitudes and cognitive organization. Journal of Psychology, 21, 107-112.

•Howarth, C. (2006). How social representations of attitudes have informed attitude theories: the consensual and reified. . Theory and psychology, 16, 691-714.

•Janis, I., & Hovland, C. (1959). An overview of persuasibility research. In C. Hovland & I. Janis (Eds.), Personality and persuasibility (pp. 1-26). New Haven: Yale University Press.

Dr T Reader. LSE.

References (2)•Jovchelovitch, S. (2007). Knowledge in Context: Representation, community and culture. . London: Routlege.

•Katz, D. (1960). The functional approach to the study of attitudes. Public Opinion Quarterly, 24, 163-204.

•LaPiere, R. (1934). Attitudes vs. Actions. Social Forces, 13, 230-237.

•Likert, R. (1932). A technique for the measurement of attitudes. Archives of Psychology, 22, 44-53.

•Macrae, C., Bodenhausen, G., Milne, A., & Jetten, J. (1994). Out of mind but back in sight: Stereotypes on the rebound. . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, , 67, 808-817.

•Martin, P., & Bateson, P. (1986). Measuring behaviour: An introductory guide. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

•Moscovici, S. (1961). La psychanalyse, son image et son public. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.

•Petty, R., & Cacioppo, J. (1979). Issue-involvement can increase or decrease persuasion by enhancing message-relevant cognitive responses. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 751-783.

•Rosenberg, M., & Hovland, C. (1960). Cognitive, affective, and behavioral components of attitude. In M. Rosenberg, C. Hovland, W. McGuire, R. Abelson & J. Brehm (Eds.), Attitude organization and change: An analysis of consistency among attitude components. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

•Smith, M., Bruner, J., & White, R. (1956). Opinions and personality. Oxford: John Wiley & Sons. .

•Sunstein, C., & Thaler, R. (2008). Nudge: Improving decisions about health, wealth, and happiness: Yale Press.

•Thurstone, L. (1928). Attitudes can be measured. American Journal of Sociology, 33, 529-554.

•Webb, T., & Sheeran, P. (2006). Does changing behavioral intentions engender behavior change? A meta-analysis of the experimental evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 249-268.

•Wenger, D. (1994). Ironic processes of mental control. Psychological Review, 101, 34-52Dr T Reader. LSE.