SMALSISMALSISchool School

Motivation and Motivation and Learning Learning

Strategies Strategies InventoryInventory

Kathy Stroud, PhD Kathy Stroud, PhD

Cecil R. Reynolds, PhD Cecil R. Reynolds, PhD

Texas A&M UniversityTexas A&M University

RationaleRationale

Research over the past 50 or more years in educational, Research over the past 50 or more years in educational, school, and related areas of psychology has demonstrated school, and related areas of psychology has demonstrated repeatedly that students who engage in strategic learning and repeatedly that students who engage in strategic learning and test-taking perform at higher levels academically than those test-taking perform at higher levels academically than those who do not. Academic achievement levels can be improved who do not. Academic achievement levels can be improved significantly by improving the study skills, learning, reading significantly by improving the study skills, learning, reading comprehension, test-taking, and related strategies of learners comprehension, test-taking, and related strategies of learners at all ages and is effective with both regular and special at all ages and is effective with both regular and special education students. Yet, there are few measures of such skills education students. Yet, there are few measures of such skills and strategies. The current workshop describes the and strategies. The current workshop describes the development, application, and interpretation of the School development, application, and interpretation of the School Motivation and Learning Strategies Inventory (SMALSI), a scale Motivation and Learning Strategies Inventory (SMALSI), a scale developed and normed for use with students from 8 years of developed and normed for use with students from 8 years of age through 18 years. Additionally, examples of techniques for age through 18 years. Additionally, examples of techniques for remediating measured deficiencies in each area assessed by remediating measured deficiencies in each area assessed by the SMALSI are presented and resources designated for the SMALSI are presented and resources designated for locating and developing additional methods for improving locating and developing additional methods for improving student characteristics in the measured areas.student characteristics in the measured areas.

Despite 50+ years of supportive Despite 50+ years of supportive science, we are not teaching science, we are not teaching

strategies.strategies. “In reading, instruction in the 11th and 12th

grades may not prepare students for college level reading assignments (especially considering the number of college freshmen who enroll in a remedial reading course). A greater emphasis in teaching reading strategies is present in remedial reading courses at the postsecondary level—the same strategies that seem no longer taught at the high school level ….” (p.39)

ACT Curriculum Survey: 2005-2006. Iowa City IA: ACT (2007).

Teaching Learning and Teaching Learning and Study Strategies Has Many Study Strategies Has Many

BenefitsBenefits Knowing how to study and learn Knowing how to study and learn

enhances student motivation.enhances student motivation. Teaching students how to study and Teaching students how to study and

learn produces “…empowered learners, learn produces “…empowered learners, and such students enjoy higher and such students enjoy higher academic achievement levels and a academic achievement levels and a wider array of lifetime opportunities…”wider array of lifetime opportunities…”

Gubi, A., Platton, P., & Nelson, A. (2008) Motivating students: School psychologists as Gubi, A., Platton, P., & Nelson, A. (2008) Motivating students: School psychologists as

motivational change agents. Communique, 37 (4), 37-38.motivational change agents. Communique, 37 (4), 37-38.

What is a Learning What is a Learning Strategy?Strategy?

It is NOT what has become known as It is NOT what has become known as Learning StylesLearning Styles

Learning Strategies are defined as:Learning Strategies are defined as:

“ “The purposeful behaviors of a The purposeful behaviors of a learner that are intended to facilitate learner that are intended to facilitate the acquisition and processing of the acquisition and processing of information.”information.”

Current emphases in reading Current emphases in reading instruction do not promote instruction do not promote

comprehensioncomprehension “It should come as no surprise…we are

frustrated with the over-attention to sound, letter, and word-level processing that characterizes instruction for struggling readers, given the evidence that progress often boils down to a little progress in learning how to sound out words and only small improvement in comprehension.” (p. 523)

Pressley et al, 2009.

Pressley et al. (2009) go on to tell us that…

“When skilled readers read, they are very active before, during, and after reading in the service of getting meaning from text.” (p. 529)

Passive listening to word-calling in our heads does not promote comprehension—we must manipulate information to understand it. This requires the use of a strategy.

Theoretical Models for Learning Theoretical Models for Learning StrategiesStrategies

Weinstein & Mayer (1986)Weinstein & Mayer (1986) RehearsalRehearsal ElaborationElaboration OrganizationOrganization Comprehension MonitoringComprehension Monitoring Affective StrategiesAffective Strategies

Weinstein (1994)Weinstein (1994) Model of Strategic Learning: Skills, Will, Self-Model of Strategic Learning: Skills, Will, Self-

RegulationRegulation

Theoretical Models for Self-Theoretical Models for Self-Regulated LearningRegulated Learning

Zimmerman (1998)Zimmerman (1998) 3 cycling phases of learning3 cycling phases of learning

Forethought, performance or volitional Forethought, performance or volitional control, self-reflectioncontrol, self-reflection

Winne & Hadwin (1998)Winne & Hadwin (1998) 4 phases of learning4 phases of learning

Define the task; set goals and devise a Define the task; set goals and devise a strategy; use tactics and strategies, monitor, strategy; use tactics and strategies, monitor, evaluate, and make changesevaluate, and make changes

What is the SMALSI?What is the SMALSI?School Motivation and Learning School Motivation and Learning

Strategies InventoryStrategies Inventory Standardized self-report inventory for ages Standardized self-report inventory for ages

8 years to 19 years in 2 forms8 years to 19 years in 2 forms

Child form:Child form: Ages 8-12Ages 8-12 Teen form:Teen form: Ages 13-19Ages 13-19

Designed to assess multiple constructs Designed to assess multiple constructs related to Learning Strategies, Academic related to Learning Strategies, Academic Motivation, Test-taking Strategies, and Motivation, Test-taking Strategies, and Test AnxietyTest Anxiety

What is the SMALSI?What is the SMALSI?School Motivation and Learning School Motivation and Learning

Strategies InventoryStrategies Inventory May be administered individually or in groups, May be administered individually or in groups,

large or smalllarge or small

Completed in 20-30 minutes by most students Completed in 20-30 minutes by most students reading at grade level 3.5 or higher (may be read reading at grade level 3.5 or higher (may be read to others)to others)

Yields a profile of T-scores (M=50, SD=10) from Yields a profile of T-scores (M=50, SD=10) from which strengths and weaknesses in specific areas which strengths and weaknesses in specific areas can be determined and targeted for teaching if can be determined and targeted for teaching if necessarynecessary

Computer-scoring or Hand-scoring availableComputer-scoring or Hand-scoring available

Flesch-Kincaid Reading Indexes for the Flesch-Kincaid Reading Indexes for the SMALSISMALSI

Child and Teen FormsChild and Teen Forms SMALSI ChildSMALSI Child

Flesch-Kincaid Reading Level 3.5Flesch-Kincaid Reading Level 3.5

Kincaid Reading Ease Score 88.0Kincaid Reading Ease Score 88.0

SMALSI Teen SMALSI Teen

Flesch-Kincaid Reading Level 3.4Flesch-Kincaid Reading Level 3.4

Kincaid Reading Ease Score 87.1Kincaid Reading Ease Score 87.1

SMALSI Student Strengths SMALSI Student Strengths Subscale DefinitionsSubscale Definitions

Study Strategies SubscaleStudy Strategies Subscale: Selecting : Selecting important information, relating new important information, relating new to previously learned information, to previously learned information, and memory strategies for encoding.and memory strategies for encoding.

Note-taking/Listening Skills:Note-taking/Listening Skills: Discriminating important material Discriminating important material when taking notes, organizing notes, when taking notes, organizing notes, efficiency in note-taking.efficiency in note-taking.

SMALSI Student StrengthsSMALSI Student StrengthsSubscale DefinitionsSubscale Definitions

Reading and Comprehension Reading and Comprehension Strategies: Strategies: Previewing, monitoring, Previewing, monitoring, and reviewing text, including self-and reviewing text, including self-testing to ensure understanding.testing to ensure understanding.

Writing-Research Skills:Writing-Research Skills: Researching Researching topics in a variety of ways, organizing topics in a variety of ways, organizing writing projects as well as monitoring writing projects as well as monitoring and self-checking for errors.and self-checking for errors.

SMALSI Student StrengthsSMALSI Student StrengthsSubscale DefinitionsSubscale Definitions

Test-taking Strategies:Test-taking Strategies: Increasing Increasing efficiency in test-taking, including efficiency in test-taking, including eliminating unlikely answers and eliminating unlikely answers and strategic guessing.strategic guessing.

Organizational Techniques: Organizational Techniques: Organizing class and study materials, Organizing class and study materials, structuring assignments including structuring assignments including homework and other projects.homework and other projects.

SMALSI Student StrengthsSMALSI Student StrengthsSubscale DefinitionsSubscale Definitions

Time Management:Time Management: Effective use of Effective use of time to complete assignments, time to complete assignments, understanding of time needed for understanding of time needed for academic tasks.academic tasks.

On the child version, Time Management On the child version, Time Management and Organizational Techniques are and Organizational Techniques are combined into a single scale.combined into a single scale.

SMALSI Student Liabilities SMALSI Student Liabilities SubscalesSubscales

Low Academic Motivation:Low Academic Motivation: Level of Level of intrinsic motivation to engage and intrinsic motivation to engage and succeed in academic tasks.succeed in academic tasks.

Test Anxiety:Test Anxiety: Student’s experience of Student’s experience of debilitating symptoms of test debilitating symptoms of test anxiety, lower performance on tests anxiety, lower performance on tests due to excessive worry.due to excessive worry.

SMALSI Student Liabilities SMALSI Student Liabilities SubscalesSubscales

Concentration/Attention Difficulties:Concentration/Attention Difficulties: Attending to lectures and other Attending to lectures and other academic tasks, monitoring and academic tasks, monitoring and adjusting attention to performance, adjusting attention to performance, concentrating and the avoidance of concentrating and the avoidance of distractions.distractions.

The Number One Goal of SMALSI The Number One Goal of SMALSI Use?Use?

To assist us in making To assist us in making more children,more children,

more effective more effective strategic learners who strategic learners who can can

demonstrate their demonstrate their knowledge and skills knowledge and skills accuratelyaccurately

Who Can Use the SMALSI?Who Can Use the SMALSI? School and related (e.g., child-clinical, pediatric) School and related (e.g., child-clinical, pediatric)

psychologistspsychologists School counselors and LPCsSchool counselors and LPCs Educational DiagnosticiansEducational Diagnosticians

**With the Assistance of the Psychologist, **With the Assistance of the Psychologist, Counselor, or Diagnostician**Counselor, or Diagnostician**

Learning Disability Specialists and Special Learning Disability Specialists and Special Education Teachers with assessment trainingEducation Teachers with assessment training

Regular Education Teachers with a course in Regular Education Teachers with a course in classroom assessment or tests and measurementclassroom assessment or tests and measurement

To use SMALSI appropriately, the user should have a background in education and learning along with training in assessment or tests and measurement.

Appropriate Usage

Applications of the SMALSIApplications of the SMALSI

• • Screening in regular educationScreening in regular education - Identifying group weaknesses in a classroom or - Identifying group weaknesses in a classroom or

schoolschool - Identifying individuals with a lack of or poorly - Identifying individuals with a lack of or poorly

developed strategies for learningdeveloped strategies for learning• • Pre-referral intervention/preventionPre-referral intervention/prevention• • Assessing students with DisabilitiesAssessing students with Disabilities Learning Disabilities Learning Disabilities Emotional DisturbanceEmotional Disturbance ADHDADHD TBITBI

How Matt Crandell, School How Matt Crandell, School Psychologist uses the SMALSIPsychologist uses the SMALSI

The SMALSI I have to say is such a great rating The SMALSI I have to say is such a great rating scale to be used with students, teachers, scale to be used with students, teachers, and parents. I have been using the SMALSI and parents. I have been using the SMALSI for initials, re-evals, as well as for general ed for initials, re-evals, as well as for general ed students looking to improve their study habits.students looking to improve their study habits.

I have been encouraging our guidance I have been encouraging our guidance counselors & teachers to first try the SMALSI prior counselors & teachers to first try the SMALSI prior to sending a referral package to SPED.to sending a referral package to SPED.

  I also interview the student after scoring the I also interview the student after scoring the SMALSI and then with the information collected I SMALSI and then with the information collected I set up a plan with all parties to improve the set up a plan with all parties to improve the students weak areas through AIS services. students weak areas through AIS services. 

Matt goes on to say…Matt goes on to say…

TeachersTeachers find it useful because it gives them a find it useful because it gives them a clear picture of what students know about clear picture of what students know about learning. learning.

ParentsParents like it of because they get a better like it of because they get a better picture of how their child thinks about learning. picture of how their child thinks about learning.

For For studentsstudents it provides a real eye opener. it provides a real eye opener. Some of the items in regard to study skills on the Some of the items in regard to study skills on the SMALSI, students have never thought of, so the SMALSI, students have never thought of, so the SMALSI also provides new strategies for the SMALSI also provides new strategies for the students. It makes them think about how to students. It makes them think about how to learn.learn.

Matt concludes by telling Matt concludes by telling me…me…

Another positive from the SMALSI is it provides Another positive from the SMALSI is it provides a way to show teachers, parents, and students a way to show teachers, parents, and students that SpEd is not always the right answer--many that SpEd is not always the right answer--many teachers, parents, and students are looking to teachers, parents, and students are looking to throw a SpEd label on the problem and not throw a SpEd label on the problem and not consider other explanations. The SMALSI consider other explanations. The SMALSI provides a gentle way to show perhaps other provides a gentle way to show perhaps other avenues should be explored first. avenues should be explored first.

I also use the SMALSI with students I work with I also use the SMALSI with students I work with privately and have had great results with it as privately and have had great results with it as well. Overall, I think the SMALSI is a valuable well. Overall, I think the SMALSI is a valuable tool and should be part of any evaluation. tool and should be part of any evaluation.

Interpreting SMALSI Results Interpreting SMALSI Results

Individual ChildrenIndividual Children 3 Step Procedure3 Step Procedure 11 Determine the validity of the protocol. Determine the validity of the protocol.

22 Profile and review the scores. Profile and review the scores.

33 Interpret the individual subscales and Interpret the individual subscales and draw conclusions regarding needed draw conclusions regarding needed educational intervention. educational intervention. ++ 1SD=intervene 1SD=intervene

Interpreting SMALSI ResultsInterpreting SMALSI Resultsfor Groups/Classroomsfor Groups/Classrooms

Use a Modified Interpretive ProcedureUse a Modified Interpretive Procedure Plot means on profile sheet in place of Plot means on profile sheet in place of

individual scores.individual scores. Use altered cutoff scores to denote Use altered cutoff scores to denote

group weaknesses (consider 45-55 as group weaknesses (consider 45-55 as WNL).WNL).

Draw inferences for needed group Draw inferences for needed group instruction in learning strategies.instruction in learning strategies.

Benefits of Using the Benefits of Using the SMALSISMALSI

Students who engage in strategic learning and Students who engage in strategic learning and test-taking perform at higher academic levels test-taking perform at higher academic levels than those who do not.than those who do not.

If you improve the study skills, learning If you improve the study skills, learning strategies, reading comprehension and test-strategies, reading comprehension and test-taking behavior of students, their academic taking behavior of students, their academic achievement will also improve.achievement will also improve.

This is true at all grade levels, with both regular This is true at all grade levels, with both regular and special education students.and special education students.

The SMALSI provides a quick, cost-effective way The SMALSI provides a quick, cost-effective way to identify and target poor learning strategies to identify and target poor learning strategies that affect academic performancethat affect academic performance

In RTI Models for Reading, In RTI Models for Reading, Include Strategy InstructionInclude Strategy Instruction

In a recent meta-analysis, Scammacca et al. In a recent meta-analysis, Scammacca et al. (2007) examined outcomes from intervention (2007) examined outcomes from intervention studies conducted with adolescent students with studies conducted with adolescent students with reading difficulties. reading difficulties.

The overall effect size across all 31 studies was The overall effect size across all 31 studies was 0.95.0.95.

Instruction in reading comprehension strategies Instruction in reading comprehension strategies was associated with the largest effects.was associated with the largest effects.

Scammacca, N., Roberts, G., Vaughn, S., Edmonds, M., Wexler, J., Reutebuch, C. K., et al. (2007). Scammacca, N., Roberts, G., Vaughn, S., Edmonds, M., Wexler, J., Reutebuch, C. K., et al. (2007). Reading interventions for adolescent struggling readers: A meta-analysis with implications for Reading interventions for adolescent struggling readers: A meta-analysis with implications for practice. practice. Portsmouth, NH: RMC Research Corporation, Center on Instruction.Portsmouth, NH: RMC Research Corporation, Center on Instruction.

The Intervention Manual Has 3 Sections

Section I:An Introduction to Learning Strategies

Chapter 1: An Introduction to Learning Strategies: Assessment and Development

Chapter 2. The Research Evidence From the Education Sciences: How Teaching Learning

and Study Strategies Enhances Learning

Section II:Strategies for Developing

Learning Strengths

7 Chapters—one for each SMALSI Strength Scale

Ex. Chapter Outline; Section II

Chapter 3. Teaching Study Strategies The SMALSI and Study Strategies What Are the Best Study Strategies? Teaching the Best Study Strategies Teaching Students to Improve Their Concentration

When Studying Teaching Students to Improve Memorization Teaching Students to Develop Associations With

Prior Learning Teaching Students to Use Self-Talk During Study Teaching Students to Use Concept Maps Teaching Students to Use Multiple Sources of

Information Summary

Section III: Strategies for Overcoming Academic

Liabilities

3 Chapters—one for each SMALSI Liabilities Scale

Section III: Strategies for Overcoming Academic

Liabilities, ex. Chapter 12. Enhancing Low Academic Motivation The SMALSI and Academic Motivation What Are the Best Academic Motivation Strategies? Teaching the Best Academic Motivation Strategies Teaching Students to Set Goals and Increase Self-

Determinism Teaching Students About Choice and Preference Teaching Students About Participation and

Involvement Teaching Students to Understand Situated

Motivation and the Impact of the Environment Teaching Students to Unlearn a History of Failure

by Setting Up Success Summary

Also 2 Helpful Appendices

Appendix A: Web Sites With Supplemental Information on Improving Learning and Study Strategies

Appendix B: Reproducible Figures References

Examples of Instructional Examples of Instructional Approaches for Approaches for

Teaching Students to be Teaching Students to be Strategic LearnersStrategic Learners

According to research summaries from the NationalInstitute For Literacy (NIFL)

■ “Comprehension is the reason for reading. If readers can read the words but do not understand what they are reading, they are not really reading.”

[Reading is comprehension of text, not fluency!]

■ “Text Comprehension is improved by instruction that helps readers use specific comprehension

strategies.” ■ Recall that strategies are conscious, purposeful plans for accomplishing a goal.

NIFL Reviews Denote 6 NIFL Reviews Denote 6 Strategies for Improving Strategies for Improving Text Comprehension That Text Comprehension That

Have Strong Scientific SupportHave Strong Scientific Support

Science says the following Science says the following strategies are the most strategies are the most

effective. effective. Teach readers to:Teach readers to: Monitor their comprehensionMonitor their comprehension Use graphic and semantic organizersUse graphic and semantic organizers Generate questions about what they readGenerate questions about what they read Answer questions about what they readAnswer questions about what they read Recognize the structure of the material (e. Recognize the structure of the material (e.

g., setting, goals of content, outcomes)g., setting, goals of content, outcomes) SummarizeSummarize

What teaching strategies are What teaching strategies are most effective for teaching most effective for teaching

strategies?strategies? The most effective strategy for The most effective strategy for

teaching strategies is clear, direct teaching strategies is clear, direct instruction that includes instruction that includes 44 components:components:

Direct explanationDirect explanation Modeling by the teacherModeling by the teacher Guided practiceGuided practice ApplicationApplication

Even though these strategies for instruction are the most effective for the most learners, these may not work for everyone

….alternative approaches are available.

An Alternative ApproachAn Alternative Approach

Describe the strategyDescribe the strategy Justify the strategyJustify the strategy Demonstrate the strategyDemonstrate the strategy Specify when and where the strategy Specify when and where the strategy

should be usedshould be used Demonstrate how to evaluate whether Demonstrate how to evaluate whether

the use of the strategy has been the use of the strategy has been successfulsuccessful

Student Strategy: CAN-DOStudent Strategy: CAN-DO

Task AreaTask Area: Acquiring content: Acquiring content

ProcessProcess: : CCreate list of items to learnreate list of items to learn AAsk self if list is completesk self if list is complete NNote details and main ideasote details and main ideas DDescribe components and their escribe components and their

relationshipsrelationships OOverlearn main items followed by verlearn main items followed by

learning learning detailsdetails

Classroom ApplicationsClassroom Applications: This strategy may assist : This strategy may assist with memorization of lists of items through with memorization of lists of items through rehearsal techniques.rehearsal techniques.

Student Strategy: FISTStudent Strategy: FISTTask AreaTask Area: Reading comprehension: Reading comprehension

ProcessProcess: : FFirst sentence is readirst sentence is read IIndicate a question based on material in ndicate a question based on material in

first first sentencesentence SSearch for answer to questionearch for answer to question TTie question and answer together ie question and answer together

through through paraphrasingparaphrasing

Classroom ApplicationsClassroom Applications: This questioning : This questioning strategy helps students actively pursue responses strategy helps students actively pursue responses to questions related directly to material being to questions related directly to material being readread

Student Strategy: PIRATESStudent Strategy: PIRATESTask AreaTask Area: Test taking: Test taking

ProcessProcess: : PPrepare to succeedrepare to succeed IInspect instructions carefullynspect instructions carefully RRead entire question, remember memoryead entire question, remember memory

strategies, and reduce choicesstrategies, and reduce choices AAnswer question or leave until laternswer question or leave until later

TTurn back to the abandoned itemsurn back to the abandoned items EEstimate unknown answers by avoiding stimate unknown answers by avoiding

absolutes and absolutes and eliminating similar choiceseliminating similar choices SSurvey to ensure that all items have a responseurvey to ensure that all items have a response

Classroom ApplicationsClassroom Applications: PIRATES may help learners : PIRATES may help learners complete tests more carefully and successfully.complete tests more carefully and successfully.

Student Strategy: SQ3RStudent Strategy: SQ3R

Task AreaTask Area: Reading: Reading

ProcessProcess: : SSurvey urvey

QQuestionuestion

RReadead

RReciteecite

RRevieweview

Classroom ApplicationsClassroom Applications: SQ3R provides a systematic : SQ3R provides a systematic approach to improve reading comprehension.approach to improve reading comprehension.

Wlodkowski’s Model for Enhancing MotivationANS-ACR

Develop Strategies for Develop Strategies for Motivation that Address a Key Motivation that Address a Key

Q in 6 AreasQ in 6 Areas

Wlodkowski’s StrategiesWlodkowski’s Strategies

Attitude StrategiesAttitude Strategies: What can I do : What can I do to establish positive student to establish positive student attitudes toward this learning task attitudes toward this learning task and establish an expectation of and establish an expectation of success?success?

Needs Strategies:Needs Strategies: How can I best How can I best meet the needs of the students?meet the needs of the students?

Wlodkowski’s StrategiesWlodkowski’s Strategies

Stimulation Strategies:Stimulation Strategies: How can I How can I structure this learning task to structure this learning task to stimulate students continuously and stimulate students continuously and sustain attention and engagement?sustain attention and engagement?

Affective Strategies:Affective Strategies: How can I How can I make the affective experience and make the affective experience and emotional climate positive ones?emotional climate positive ones?

Wlodkowski’s StrategiesWlodkowski’s Strategies

Competence Strategies: Competence Strategies: How will How will these learning tasks increase or these learning tasks increase or affirm students’ feelings of affirm students’ feelings of competence.competence.

Reinforcement Strategies:Reinforcement Strategies: What What reinforcement will this learning reinforcement will this learning activity provide for students?activity provide for students?

Keller’s Model for Enhancing Keller’s Model for Enhancing Motivation Motivation

The IREO ModelThe IREO Model InterestInterest RelevanceRelevance ExpectancyExpectancy OutcomesOutcomes