MK 0011

1. Why is it important to consider the behavior of consumers while deciding on the marketing mix of the company? Elaborate with suitable examples.

Marketing concept evolved in late 1950s and the field of consumer behavior is deeply rooted in this concept. After World War II, there was great demand for almost all sorts of products and the marketing philosophy was to produce cheap goods and make them available at as many places as possible. This approach suited the marketers because demand exceeded supply and consumers were more interested in obtaining the product rather than in any specific features. This approach is called a production orientation and is based on the assumption that consumers will buy what is available and would not wait for what they really want. The marketer does not really care to know what consumer preferences are. The next stage has been product orientation, which assumes that consumers will buy the product that offers them the highest quality in terms of performance and features. The company makes all efforts to improve product quality. The focus is on the product rather than on what the consumers need or want. Professor Levitt has called thisexcessive focus on product quality as “marketing myopia.” This we see happen in highly competitive markets wheresome companies keep on adding unnecessary features, passing their cost on to the consumers, in hopes of attracting them.Selling orientationevolved as a natural consequence of production orientation and product orientation. Themarketer is primarily focused on selling the product that it unilaterally decided to produce. The assumption of this approach is that consumers would not buy enough of this product unless they are actively and aggressivelypersuaded to do so. This approach is known as “hard-sell” and consumers are induced tobuy what they do not want or need. The problem with this approach is that it does not take consumer satisfaction into account. This often leads to dissatisfaction and unhappiness in consumers and is likely to be communicated by word-of-mouth to other potential consumers, discouraging them to buy the product. Soon marketers realised that they could easily sell more goods if they produced only those goods that they had first confirmed consumers would buy. Thus, consumer needs and wants became the marketer’sprimary focus. This consumer-oriented marketing approach came to be called as the marketing concept. The important assumption underlying marketing concept is that a company must determine the needs and wants of its target markets and deliver the desired satisfactions more efficiently and effectively than the competition. This is the key to successful marketing.

1Q2. Define market segmentation and explain the different bases for market segmentation, with an example of each.Market Segmentation:Market segmentation is the process in marketing, “of dividing a market into distinct subsets(segments) that behave in the same way or have similar needs”. Because each segment is fairly homogeneous in its needs and attitudes, it is likely to respond similarly to a given marketing strategy. It is also likely to have similar feelings and ideas about a marketing mix, comprised of a given product or service, sold at a given price, distributed in a certain way and promoted in a certain way. Before marketers started using the concept of market segmentation, the way the business was done was through mass marketing, i.e. offering the same product and same marketing mix to all consumers. The classic case of such a practice was that of Henry Ford’s philosophy of offering Ford Model T car, with the choice to

the consumers of selecting any colour they wanted as long as it was black. If all consumers were alike, i.e. if all of them had the same needs, desires, personalities, backgrounds, attitudes, etc., mass marketing would have been relevant and highly successful. Then, only one standardized product, one advertising campaign and one marketing mix are needed for all consumers. The main advantage in this strategy is that, it costs substantially less. However, as we have seen in the vignette of HLL vs. Nirma, the consumers are indeed diverse and such a strategy of mass marketing would be highly risky in today’s market environment.

B a s e s f o r M a r k e t S e g m e n t a t i o nThe first step in developing a segmentation strategy is, to select the most appropriate basis on which the market can be segmented. There are many ways in which this can be done and some most popular variables used for market segmentation are discussed in the following paragraphs:Geographic Segmentation:In this method, the market is divided on the basis of location. There can be different categories in such segmentation also. Some of these are:

1a) Region of the world or country:East, West, South, North, Central, coastal, hilly, etc.2b)City Size: Metropolitan cities, small cities, and towns.3 c) Density of population:Urban, semi-urban, and rural.4 d) Climate: Hot, cold, humid, rainy

Demographic variablesThis is the second most popular variable used by marketers. Factors like age, education, income, etc. individually or in combination, are commonly used to segment the market. Some of these variables are discussed here:a)Age:The assumption here is that people in the same age group will behave in the same manner. Based on this we can have different subgroups like infants (new born to 1 year), children(1 to 12 years), teenagers (13 to 19 years), adolescents (16-19 years), youth (20-35 years),middle aged (36-50 years), elders or seniors (50 years and above).1 b)Gender:Male preferences are different from the female preferences. While some products l i ke garments and cosmet ics a re produced exc lus ive ly for each segment , there are some products, which are meant for both segments and these are called unisex products.2c) Education – School, College and University:The level of a consumer’s education will also affect the preferences and also the level of awareness. The higher the level of education, the higher is the awareness about the market environment and about different products. Their awareness about their rights as consumers will also be better.3 d) Marital status:Fami ly has been the focus o f most market ing e f for t s and house ho ld cont inues to be the target for many products and serv i ces . M arketers a re in teres ted in determining the profiles of decision makers in households, to develop appropriate marketing strategies. Many marketers have found it useful to target specific marital status groupings, like singles, divorced individuals, single parents, dual income married couples, etc.4e) Income:It is believed that, as the consumers’ income increases, their consumption behavior also changes. Research findings have proved that, the expenditure on food and basic necessities as a percentage

of total expenditure declines as consumer income increases. The consumer then starts buying costlier branded products, and also so called luxuries like automobiles, washing machines, microwave ovens, holiday packages, air travel, etc. On the basis of income, the segmentation can be – low income, lower middle income, middle income, higher middle income, high income, etc.

5 f) Occupation:Occupation is an important variable and different categories under this can be –self employed, part time employee, full time employee, etc. or professionals (doctors, chartered accountants , management consu l tants , e tc . ) , t raders and shopkeepers , bus inessmen and industrialists, sales personnel, teachers and professors, housewives, etc.

Psycho graphic Variables 1Marketers have been utilizing psycho graphic research, especially personality and attitude measurements. This type of consumer research has proven very valuable in identifying promising consumer segments, which are likely to be responsive to specific marketing messages. The psycho graphic profile of a consumer segment can be thought of as a composite of consumers’ activities, interests and opinions (AIO’s). As an approach to measuring this, the consumers’ responses are analyzed for a large number of statements:2– activities (how the consumer or family spends time – golf, gardening, volunteering in charitable activities, etc.),3– interests (what are the preferences and priorities like home, fashion, food, etc.)4– opinions (what are the feelings about a variety of political issues, social issues, economy, ecology, etc.)

Socio-cultural segmentationSociological (group) and cultural variables provide further bases for market segmentation. Consumer markets have been successfully segmented based on family life cycle, social class, cultural values, etc. Some of these are discussed in the following paragraphs:1 a) Family Life Cycle:This is based on the fact that many families pass through similar phases during a lifetime. At each stage the family needs different products and services. These segments can be l i ke – young s ing le peop le , new ly w eds , parents w i th in fants , parents w i th teenage children, etc.2b)Social Class:Social class, i.e. the relative status in the community can be the basis for segmentation. It has been found by research that, the consumers in different social classes vary in terms o f va lues , p roduct pre ferences and buy ing hab i t s . Soc ia l c lass i s measured by a weighted index of several demographic variables such as education, occupation and income.3 c) Culture and subculture:Members of the same culture tend to share the same values, be l ie f s and customs. Th i s type o f segmentat ion i s par t i cu lar ly success fu l in in ternat iona l marketing and it is important for the marketers to understand the target country’s beliefs, values and customs. Within the larger culture, distinct subgroups called subcultures are united by certain values and beliefs, which make effective market segments. Consumers are found to be more responsive to promotional messages, which they perceive as related to their own sub culture. Culturally distinct segments can be prospects for the same product, but they can be targeted more efficiently with d i f f e r e n t p r o m o t i o n a l a p p e a l s . F o r e x a m p l e , a b i c y c l e c a n b e p r o m o t e d a s a m e a n s o f transportation in Asia, whereas in western countries it can be promoted as a health and fitness product.

Behavioral Variables

Depending on the consumer behavior towards consumption parameters and situations related to such consumption, there can a different type of market segmentation. Some of these examples are discussed in the following paragraphs:

a) Benefit sought:There can be multiple benefits of the same product from the point of view of different consumers. For example, some consumers purely for the purpose of t e l e p h o n i c c o n v e r s a t i o n s m a y u s e t h e c e l l p h o n e . S o m e o t h e r s m a y b e u s i n g i t predominantly for messaging. Some consumers may look for this as a means of taking photographs whenever they need to. Depending on the different benefits sought, the segmentation can be made.

b) Occasion:For the same product, different occasions on which they can be consumed, for example, regular occasions vs. special occasions such as birthdays, weddings, Valentine’s day, Friendship day, etc. can be another option for segmentation.

c) Product usage rate:Some consumers are heavy users, some moderate and some light users of the same product. Based on the rate of consumption, target consumers may be segmented.

d) Brand loyalty:Many consumers may be hard core loyal (i.e., loyal to one brand), some may have split loyalty (loyal to more than one brand), some may have shifting loyalty(shift from favoring one brand to another) and some may be habitual switchers (zero brand loyalty). Based on this criterion, the marketers may segment their brand markets.

e) Product end use:Some products may have multiple end uses. This happens quite frequently in industrial markets, wherein the same raw material or packing material mayb e u s e d b y w i d e l y d i f f e r e n t i n d u s t r i e s . T h i s t h e n b e c o m e s a u s e f u l m e t h o d o f segmentation.

f) User status:The s tatus o f the consumer in many s i tuat ions such as non-user o f a product, potential user, first time user, regular user, etc. also offers another method of effective segmentations for devising the entire marketing mix for such segments.

g) Readiness-to-buy stage:This is the stage of preparedness to actually purchase the product or brand. The consumer may be in different stages of such preparedness, such as unaware, aware, informed, interested, desiring, or intending to purchase. Different promotional strategies can be devised depending on each of these stages, making this as the basis for segmentation.

h) Attitude towards product:There could be differing attitudes of different consumers towards the same brand or service, based on their perceptions and past experiences. Some marketers use this as the basis for segmentation, in order to suitably devise their promotional mix for better effectiveness. Some of these attitudes can be described as enthusiastic, positive, indifferent, negative or hostile.Multiple VariablesNo marketer can afford to use only a single basis of market segmentation in the highly complex market environment. Most marketers normally use multiple bases .Many geographic, psycho graphic, socio-cultural variables along with some of the behavioral variables are used as a combination to segment the markets and design a suitable marketing mix. When numerous variables are combined to give an in-depth understanding of a segment, this is referred to as depth segmentation. When enough information is combined to create a clear picture of atypical member of a segment, this is referred to as a buyer profile. When the

profile is limited to demographic variables, it is called a demographic profile (typically shortened to "demography"). A statistical technique commonly used in determining a profile is cluster analysis.

Q3. How does personality influence consumer behavior? What are its implications for marketing strategy?

Influence of Personality on Consumer Behavior:Personality can be defined as a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by a person that uniquely influences his or her cognitions, motivations, and behaviors in various situations. Every person has a consistent way of responding to his or her environment and this is based on the person’s inner psychological characteristics, which determine the kind of such response. Personality is thought to be determined largely by either genetics and heredity, or environment and experiences. There is evidence for both possibilities. Some even believe it is a combination of both. We keep describing people in terms of their personality in everyday life and many such descriptions are – dominant, outgoing, assertive, aggressive, lively, warm, a loof, sentimental, thick skinned, etc. These are all references to a person’s personality. There are many theories to explain how a personality develops. One of them which is quite simplistic is that a person finds it cumbersome to develop a new response every time a situation arises and it is more efficient for the individual to develop a standard response every time a similar situation arises. The personality traits can have a strong influence on the way consumers respond to marketer’s promotional efforts and also as to when, where and how they consume particular products and services. Hence an understanding of various personality characteristics will be very useful to plan and finalize various marketing mix strategies.

Personality is individualisticThese are due to inherited characteristics as well as those imbibed from the environment. This combination results in unique personality traits, which are never duplicated. Hence no two individuals can be exactly alike. Two persons may however resemble in one or more of some personality characteristics; but never in all the characteristics. Hence personality becomes a useful tool, which enables a marketer to segment customers into different categories, depending on one or more of the common traits. If there are no commonalities at all of at least some of the persona l i ty t ra i t s among a l l the consumers , then i t w ou ld be imposs ib le to do any market segmentation and it would be futile to develop products and promotions targeted at particular segments.

Personality is enduring and consistentEach ind iv idua l has a d i s t inc t set o f psycho log ica l t ra i t s , w h ich lead to cons i s tent and a l so enduring responses to cues and stimuli from the external environment. These features of a persona l i ty he lp marketers to exp la in and pred ic t consumer behav ior on the bas i s o f the personality characteristics. It is however not possible to change the personality of a consumer. The objective of a marketer is to find out which consumer responses are influenced favorably to which particular personality traits, so that they can try to influence relevant traits in their target group of customers. Personality is only one of the factors, which influence consumer behavior although it is one of the most important factors.

Personality can also changeAs the individual grows he cultivates a lot of traits, which lead to consistent behavior. However there are severa l c i r cumstances , w h ich lead to g radua l changes in the

persona l i ty o f the individual. For example the birth of a child may lead an aggressive person to become softer and more a f fec t ionate . S imi la r l y , ma jor events in l i fe l i ke marr iage , death o f a loved person , estrangement from a lover, a big change in career, etc. can lead to noticeable changes in an individual’s personality. Aging also contributes to such changes, resulting in an older person behaving in a more mature and calm way to adverse situations. The social changes like women’s empowerment also has brought in many changes in the general personalities in women in the last few decades and it has been found that women are showing many of the personality attributes traditionally exhibited by men.

Psychogenic TraitsPersona l i ty o f an ind iv idua l s tar t s f rom the e f fec t o f hered i tary fac tors . These are ca l led Psychogenic traits. Genetics have effects on an individual in four ways:1. Physiological differences, 2. Hereditary diseases, 3. Biological clock and 4. Psychological effects.

Physiological differencesThis is the most obvious effect of genetics. A person’s physical features like height, weight, facial features, colour of skin, colour and texture of hair, etc. are all caused by heredity.Hereditary diseasesMany diseases like hemophilia; Alzheimer’s disease, Schizophrenia, diabetes, etc. have been proven to be caused by genetic factors.

Biological clockAll living beings are governed by what is called a Biological Clock, which decides the rhythms of sleep wake cycles in our daily cycle of activity. This is also known as “Circadian Rhythm.”

Psychological effectsSuch effects of genetics constitute the personality of the individual at birth. There is however an ongoing debate as to whether the behavior of an individual gets predominantly influenced by the genetic factors or by the environmental factors while growing up. The first argument i.e. genetics being the major contributor credits the behavioral tendencies like our emotions, love of status, sexual preferences, notions of beauty, sociability, creativity, morality, etc. to our hereditary factors. The second argument insists that the personality gets predominantly influenced by the family and social environment like a person’s upbringing, family life, parental values, peer group influences, school/college, any religious groups, etc. The researchers trying to prove this point have studied the birth order of children. Birth order is the sequence in which the children are born to the same mother. Such researchers have proven after extensive studies that the birth order does matter. The older children are proven to be aspiring and ambitious. Having no younger children in the family during the initial period of their upbringing, they get influenced by the adult behavior and learn to act responsibly, and also maintain and enforce law and order in the family. The younger children by contrast have been found to take themselves less seriously, are more sociable, less judgmental, more risk taking, And more open to new things and change.

Group TraitsThese are aga in due to severa l hered i tary fac tors l i ke race , gender and age . These are considered as group traits. An individual is born with these traits and these traits cannot be altered. Researches have analyzed these traits to examine whether significant differences exist between groups of customers with these common traits.

Race:

This is a person’s genetic heritage. This is the concept of dividing people into populations or groups on the basis of various sets of characteristics and beliefs about common ancestry. The most widely used human racial categories are based on visible traits (especially skin color, facial f e a t u r e s a n d h a i r t e x t u r e ) , a n d s e l f - i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . O n e o f t h e r e s e a r c h e s w h i c h w a s conceptualized by using a genetic distance map is given on the next page: The persona l i ty t ra i t s o f d i f fe rent races have been genera l l y found to have many common personality traits. For example – the core values of the Japanese are found to be hard work, loyalty to the group, obligation to return favours, respect for age and tradition, etc. Indians are found to be deeply religious, hard working, and ambitious, maintain tradition and customs, humility, self-denial for the sake of group, etc. Chinese are found to value hard work, long term rec iproca l re la t ionsh ips , respect for author i ty , harmony in a l l th ings , d i sc ip l ine in de lay ing gratification, etc.

Gender Th is i s a g roup t ra i t and i s d iv ided in to tw o groups – male and female . These groups have common traits, which influence consumer values and preferences. Male female differences are found to be influenced by the life cycle. Sex differences between male and female pre-puberty children are found to be very minimal. However, as they move into teenage years, the differences begin to show up and as they grow into adulthood and parenthood these differences are found to be more significant. As a person moves into old age, the differences are found to become less acute.

AgeIn this context we are referring to chronological age, which is different from psychological age(how young a person feels). This has a significant influence on the personality and also the consumer behaviour. Marketers have successfully segmented the markets based on age criteria.

EnvironmentT h e r e a r e s e p a r a t e t h e o r i e s a n d r e s e a r c h s t r e a m s , w h i c h c o n s i d e r t h e environment as the major determinant of personality. In these studies it has been proved that a personality can be developed and molded by a society by means of environmental shaping. The Amer ican psycho log i s t B .F . Sk inner i s the lead ing proponent o f such a theory know n as Behaviorism Theory. As per this theory, a person develops a pattern of behavioural responses because of the rewards and punishments offered by the environment of the person. Skinner believed that children do bad things because the behavior obtains attention that serves as are inforcer. For example: a child cries because the child's crying in the past has led to attention. These are the responses and consequences. The response is the child crying, and the attention that child gets is the reinforcing consequence.4. Distinguish between the different types of selective perception and their implications for marketing strategy.

PerceptionPerception is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and organizing sensory information.This has been defined as the process by which an individual selects, organizes and interprets stimuli received from the environment into a meaningful and coherent picture. This process is a

highly individual process and two persons who are exposed to identical stimuli, can perceive them totally differently based on each person’s needs, values and expectations.

Selection in the Perceptual Process

Each individual in today’s world gets a huge amount of information every day and it is essential for being selective at each step of the perception process. They ignore some stimuli and some interpretation of stimuli. There are four processes by which the individual manages this selection-selective exposure, selective attention, selective interpretation and selective blocking.

Selective ExposureA customer is exposed to a large number of marketing communications every day and only a few of these communications achieve actual exposure, depending on the needs and interests of the consumer at that point of time. Consumers look out for some selected advertisements, some selected shelf displays in a store, listen to some sales people, depending on what they are planning to purchase. Consumers not interested in a product will totally skip the advertisements o f such products . Th i s se lec t i ve exposure i s a l so know n as gate keep ing . Consumers are becoming more and more selective as the advertising clutter increases. The usage of internet, wherein the consumer is able to selectively collect the data pertinent to his need and requirement in a more efficient manner, is becoming more popular in this regard.

Selective AttentionEven when the consumer is forced to look at an advertisement about a product, which is of no interest to him/her, the consumer may still ignore it. A person’s interest may be initially attracted by the stimulus characteristics; but beyond initial attention the consumer’s further

processing of this information from the stimulus depends on the personal interest in the featured product or service. There are three things, which make a person more likely to pay extra attention to a stimulus such as an advertisement –1. Something that relates to a current need – for example, if you are planning to buy a stereo system, you are more likely to notice ads for stereo systems or displays of stereo systems in an electronic shop.2. Something that we expect to see – People are more likely to notice something that they expect to see. If you enter a bookshop, which also stocks music CDs, chances are that you may not notice the music, since you will be expecting to see only books.3. Something that is unusual – People are more likely to notice something, which differs from the ordinary. For example, an ad, which is in bold print or a TV commercial that is louder than normal, is bound to attract more attention. Making use of this principle, some advertisers choose media, which are of specialized nature, where the product being advertised will fit in. For example, the computer laptops are advertised in computer related sections of the newspaper or magazine. Even on the Internet, customer specific banner ads are placed in related web sites. Such selective placements of ads benefit both the marketers and consumers, since the marketers get better attention and consumers are saved from all the clutter.

Percept ua l Pro ces s a nd Ma rk et ing S t ra t egyPract i ca l l y a l l the e lements o f market ing communications get affected by the perceptual process of the consumer, most important of which are - product design, brand names, packaging design, in store displays, print ads and also TV commerc ia l s . There are some spec ia l a reas o f market ing s t rategy w here in the consumer perceptual process has significant effect. These are as under:Price PerceptionThe price/quality relationship refers to the perception by most consumers that are latively high price is a sign of good quality. The belief in this relationship is most important with complex products that are hard to test, and experiential products that cannot be tested until used(such as most services). The greater the uncertainty surrounding a product, the more consumers depends on the price/quality hypothesis and the more of a premium they are prepared to pay. There are many cases wherein some products were perceived as low quality when the price was lowered. However excessive reliance on the price/quantity relationship by consumers may lead to the raising of prices on all products and services, even those of low quality, which in turn causes the price/quality relationship to no longer apply.

Premium pricing (also called prestige pricing) is the strategy of pricing at, or near, the high end of the possible price range. People will buy a premium priced product because:1. They believe the high price is an indication of good quality;2. They believe it to be a sign of self worth – "They are worth it" - It authenticates their success and status - It is a signal to others that they are a member of an exclusive group; and3. They require flawless performance in this application - The cost of product malfunction is too high to buy anything but the best - example: heart pacemaker The term Goldilocks pricing is commonly used to describe the practice of providing a "gold-plated" version of a product, at a premium price, in order to make the next-lower priced option

look more reasonably priced; for example, encouraging customers to see business-class airline seats as good value for money by offering an even higher priced first-class option. Similarly, third-class railway carriages in Victorian England are said to have been built without windows, not so much to punish third-class customers (for which there was no economic incentive), as to motivate those who could afford second-class seats to pay for them, instead of taking the cheaper option. This is also known as a potential result of price discrimination. The name derives from the Goldilocks story, in which Goldilocks chose neither the hottest nor the coldest porridge, but instead the one that was "just right". More

technically, this form of pricing exploits the general cognitive bias of aversion to extremes. Consumers will always have a „reference price in their mind about each product, at the time of ‟ purchase. If the actual price is lower than the reference price, the product is perceived as good value for money. Another important aspect of consumer psychology is that there is a „band or ‟ „latitude of price, i.e. the maximum and minimum levels of price in the consumer’s mind about‟ the product, which he/she wishes to purchase. If the actual price is within this band, the consumer will purchase the product. If it is more than the maximum level, the consumer may perceive it to be too high and reject the product purchase. If the actual price is below the minimum level, the consumer may perceive it as a substandard product and again reject. Another way this principle works is that, consumers have certain cut off levels for accepting a price and prices below this level will be acceptable. Many marketers like Bata shoe company use this psychology and adopt the „odd pr i c ing method l i ke R s . 99 .00 , 199 .00 , e tc . Consumers perce ive R s . 99 as be low ‟Rs.100 and hence acceptable.

Country of OriginCountry of origin is the country of manufacture, production, or growth where an article or product comes from. There are differing rules of origin under various national laws and international treaties. With the globalization and consequent availability of many products from different parts of the world in each country, most consumers have fixed perceptions about the quality from different countries. For example the products from Germany are perceived to be of high quality standards and those from China are perceived to be of very low quality. Such negative and positive perceptions may change with time. For example, Japanese products were having a very poor quality image in early 1960s and today they are perceived to be top quality producers.

Corporate ImageA corporate image refers to how a corporation is perceived. It is a generally accepted image of what a company "stands for". The creation of a corporate image is an exercise in perception management. Primarily marketing experts who use public relations and other forms of promotion to suggest a mental picture to the public create it. Typically, a corporate image is designed to be appealing to the public, so that the company can spark an interest among consumers, create share of mind, generate brand equity, and thus facilitate product sales. The company does not solely create a corporation’s image. Other contributors to a company' s image could include news media, journalists, labour unions, environmental organizations, and other NGOs. Corporations are not the only form of organizations that create these types of images. Governments, charitable organizations, criminal organizations, religious organizations, political organizations, and educational organizations all tend to have a unique image, an image that is partially deliberate and partially accidental, partially self-created and partially exogenous.

Q5. Select and briefly describe two advertisements that you have seen – one that tries to change attitudes towards a low involvement product and one that tries to change attitude towards a high involvement product. Which one is likely to be more successful and why?

Attitudes

Attitude is a hypothetical construct that represents an individual's like or dislike for an item. Attitudes are positive, negative or neutral views of an "attitude object": i.e. a person, behaviour or event. People can also be "ambivalent" towards a target, meaning that they simultaneously possess a positive and a negative bias towards the attitude in question.Attitudes are defined as learned predispositions to respond to an object or class of objects in a consistently favorable or unfavorable way.

Attitudes are learnt and they are formed on the basis of some experience or information about the object. The object in this context refers to many market related concepts like a product, brand, product category, service, product use, people, advertisement, price, retail outlet, etc.

Attitudes remain in the mind. This is what is known as predisposition and this will propel the consumer towards behaving in a certain way or prevent the consumer from behaving in another way. Attitudes result in consistent response- favourable or unfavourable. However despite their consistency attitudes are not necessarily permanent and they do change. Attitudes come from judgments. Attitudes develop on the basis of three factors Affect behavioral change or conation and cognition . The affective response is a physiological response that expresses an individual's preference for an entity. The behavioral intention is a verbal indication of the intention of an individual. The cognitive response is a cognitive evaluation of the entity to form an attitude. Most attitudes in individuals are a result of observational learning from their environment. The link between attitude and behavior exists but depends on human behavior, some of which is irrational. For example, a person who is in favor of blood transfusion may not donate blood. This makes sense if the person does not like the sight of blood, which explains this irrationality. The above three factors are discussed in more detail in the following paragraphs: Cognitions are also called beliefs. Beliefs are expectations of what something is or is not; or what something will do or will not do. There are three types of beliefs- descriptive, evaluative and normative.

Descriptive beliefs are about the quality or attributes of the object or person. The examples are – „this computer has a large memory or, „this airline is always late”, etc.

Evaluative beliefs are about personal likes and dislikes, preferences, etc.Normative beliefs are moral and ethical in nature and mostly they relate to the way someone acts.Hierarchies in AttitudesThe three components of attitude are related and the sequence in which these components occur for a person is known as „hierarchy of attitudes There are three types of attitude hierarchy which‟are discussed in the following paragraphs:

1 a) Learning Hierarchy:This is the most commonly occurring hierarchy. In this, cognition or thoughts come first, affect or feelings come next and co native or action comes last. In this case the consumer thinks first, feels next and acts last. The learning hierarchy assumes brand beliefs lead to brand feelings and finally to brand purchase. An example is that of choosing a place for a holiday. In this case the consumer collects all the information about several alternatives, and based on the judgment of suitable alternatives, evaluates the personal feelings generated by each of the alternatives and then finally decides on which place to go.

2 b) Emotional Hierarchy:Here the consumer feels first and then acts and thinks last. Based on the feelings towards a brand, the consumer buys or avoids a brand. The thinking and learning takes place through product usage. In this case, considering the example of holiday planning, the consumer may have some positive feelings about some beach resort, which the consumer has seen on TV and dec ides on th i s w i thout go ing in to any other in format ion . The cogn i t ion or learning process takes place last when the consumer is staying in the resort.

3 c) Low Involvement Hierarchy:

Th is i s the case w here in the consumer i s not very much involved, since not much is at stake unlike in the case of the earlier hierarchies of learning and emotional hierarchies where the consumer is highly involved. Take the example of a consumer who sees a new type of brown bread, which seems to be good, while shopping for other products in a store. The consumer may not think much about this and simply buy it and take it home. Thus the action of purchase (Conation) comes first in such a case, then the feelings (affect) and then thoughts (cognitive).

Factors affecting Attitude Change:Attitudes can be changed through persuasion. The celebrated work of Carl Hovl and, at Yale University in the 1950s and 1960s, helped to advance knowledge of persuasion. In Hovland's v iew , w e shou ld unders tand at t i tude change as a response to communicat ion . He and h i s colleagues did experimental research into the factors that can affect the persuasiveness of a message:

Target Characteristics:These are characteristics that refer to the person who receives and processes a message. One such is intelligence trait intelligence – it seems that more intelligent people are less easily persuaded by one-sided messages. Another variable that has been studied in this category is self-esteem. Although it is sometimes thought that those higher in self-esteemare less easily persuaded, there is some evidence that the relationship between self-esteem and persuasibility is actually curvilinear, with people of moderate self-esteem being more easily persuaded than both those of high and low self- esteem levels. The mind frame and mood of the target also plays a role in this process.

Source Characteristics:The major source characteristics are expertise, Trust, trust worthiness and Interpersonal attraction / attractiveness. The credibility of a perceived message has been found to be a key variable here. If one reads a report on health and believes it comes from a professional medical journal, one may be more easily persuaded than if one believes it is from a popular newspaper. Some psychologists have debated whether this is a long-lasting effect and Hovl and and Weiss (1951) found the effect of telling people that a message came from a credible source disappeared after several weeks (the so-called "sleeper effect"). Whether there is a sleeper effect is controversial. Received wisdom is that if people are informed of the source of a message before hearing it, there is less likelihood of a sleeper effect than if they are told a message and then told its source.3.Message Characteristics:The nature of the message plays a role in persuasion. Some times presenting both sides of a story is useful to help change attitudes.4. Cognitive Routes:A message can appeal to an individual's cognitive evaluation to help change an attitude. This is studied in more detail in the coming paragraphs.

Routes for Changing of AttitudeThere are many questions faced by marketers, like why do some attitudes persist indefinitely while some others change quite often? To understand such issues and also to influence changes in consumer attitudes, one has to understand how attitudes can be formed where none existed before and how the already existing attitudes can be changed. There are three routes for attitude formation and change: Cognitive, affective and co native.

a) Cognitive Route:

Th is i s the most common and e f fect ive approach . I n th i s case , the cognitive component of the consumer’s attitude is focused upon. There are four marketing strategies to achieve changes in attitude through this route:

Change beliefs:In this strategy, the marketer tries to shift the beliefs of the consumer about the performance of the brand in one or more attributes. Providing facts and statements about the performance of the particular attribute does this. When Coca-Cola faced the accusation that pesticide residues were found in many Coke bottles, they advertised giving the lab reports of reputed testing laboratories to prove that the pesticide residue was within tolerable limits.

Shift importance:Most consumers organize the various attributes of a brand in their mind in the order of their importance. Marketers try this method of convincing the consumer that the strong attributes of their brand are most important to the consumer. For example, Saffola brand-cooking oil advertises that controlling cholesterol is important to the consumer and by inference, since Saffola is known for this attribute, the consumer is persuaded to change to this brand.

Add beliefs:This is another approach in which the marketer tries to add new beliefs to the a l ready ex i s t ing set o f be l ie f s , per ta in ing to the brand at t r ibutes . One beer brand s tar ted advertising that date of packing of beer is important, since freshness is an important attribute. This was relatively unknown to the consumer earlier and the consumer never bothered to look at the packing date. After this campaign the consumer started considering the age of beer as a relevant attribute.

Change ideal:In this strategy, the marketer tries to change the perceptions of the ideal brand. There are many five star hotels that have come up recently with proper certification on eco friendly concept being followed in their hotel. They try to change the attitude of the hotel guests to consider an eco friendly hotel as an ideal attribute for an ideal brand.

b) Affective Route:Many companies try to influence consumers liking of their brand without ‟trying to change the beliefs. If the liking for the product increases in the mind of the consumer, it will lead to positive beliefs, which in turn will lead to purchase of the brand. There are three basic approaches to achieve this:1i) Classical Conditioning: In this approach, a stimulus the consumer likes, such as music is consistently paired with the brand name. Over a period, some of the positive feelings associated with the music will get transferred to the brand. Other such stimuli used are pictures, which create, warm, loving feelings, etc. ii) Affect towards ad: Positive feelings towards the ad may increase the liking for the brand. Using humour, celebrities, or emotional stories in the ads increase the affect towards the ad. Ads, which arouse negative feelings or emotions, like fear, guilt, sorrow, etc. can also bring in attitude change. For example CRY (Child Relief & You) a char i ty organ i sat ion show s p ic tures o f dest i tute ch i ld ren to generate sympathy and thus contributes to the cause.2iii) Mere Exposure: Just by increased exposure, brand preference can be improved. Presenting the brand to the consumer on a large number of occasions does this. Repetitive advertisement so f low invo lvement products have been proven to increase the l i k ing o f the consumer and subsequent purchase.

Thus, in this route, which utilizes the concept of classical conditioning, the following points will have to be noted:– Advertisements with this concept need not contain cognitive (Factual or attribute) information. – Liking of the consumer for the ad itself will be critical for this type of campaign – Repetition of the ads is most important. – Traditional types of measuring effectiveness of advertising focusing on cognitive component willnot be appropriate for these types of campaigns.

Assignment Set – 2

1. Briefly explain what is meant by diffusion of an innovation. What are the different stagesin the process of adoption of a new product?

Diffusion of an Innovation:Diffusion is the movement of particles of a substance from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration, resulting in the uniform distribution of the substance. In the marketing context, this refers to the process by which innovations spread i.e. how the market assimilates them. The definition of diffusion includes four basic elements of the diffusion process:

The innovation 2. The channels of communication, 3. The social system and 4. Time.

The Innovation:When studying the diffusion of innovations it is important to understand that you are not just looking at the spread of an innovation through a society, but rather the spread of different kinds of innovations through a society. An innovation is an item, thought, or process that is new to a certain area but not necessarily to the world. The term innovation may refer to both radical and incremental changes to products, processes or services. The often unspoken goal of innovation is to solve a problem. Innovation is an important top ic in the s tudy o f economics , bus iness , techno logy , soc io logy , and eng ineer ing . S ince innovation is also considered a major driver of the economy, the factors that lead to innovation are also considered to be critical to policy makers. In the organisational context, innovation maybe linked to performance and growth through improvements in efficiency, productivity, quality, competitive positioning, market share, etc. All Organisations can innovate, including for example hospitals, universities, and local governments. While innovation typically adds value, innovation may also have a negative or destructive effect, a s n e w d e v e l o p m e n t s c l e a r a w a y o r c h a n g e o l d o r g a n i s a t i o n a l f o r m s a n d p r a c t i c e s . Organ i sat ions that do not innovate e f fec t ive ly may be dest royed by those that do . Hence innovation typically involves risk. A key challenge in innovation is maintaining a balance between process and product innovations. Process innovations tend to involve a business model, which may develop shareholder satisfaction through improved efficiencies. Product innovations develop customer support, however at the risk of costly R&D that can erode shareholder returns. Innovations can be classified in four ways depending on the orientation.

Company Oriented:Th is approach t reats the new ness f rom the perspect ive o f the manufacturer. When the product is “new” to the company, it is considered new although it may not be new in the marketplace. This approach is not useful when we want to understand the consumer acceptance of a new product.

Product Oriented:This approach focuses on the features inherent in the product and on the effect these features have on consumers established consumption patterns. Depending on the ‟ extent to

which a new product is likely to disrupt the established consumption patterns, this isfurther classified into three categories:

Continuous Innovation:This type of innovation is a simple change or improvement of an already existing product where the adopter still uses the product in the same manner as before. An example of a continuous innovation is now seen in the automobile industry as it continues to change and develop. This involves modifications in the existing product rather than a totally new product. This has the least disruptive influence on established practices of the consumer. Other examples are those of “Improved Surf Excel”, “New Taste maker in Maggie Noodles” etc. Dynamically Continuous Innovation:Here the innovation cans either be a creation of anew product or a radical change to an existing one. Here the consumption patterns of people are somewhat altered. An example of this type of innovation would be compact discs. This may involve the creation of a new product or a modification of the existing product, which does not

alter the established consumption patterns. This is somewhat more disruptive than a continuous innovation. Some examples are that of “Maruti 800 with MPFI engine”, Camcorders with DVD recording”, etc. Discontinuous Innovation:This is a totally new product in the market. This is the big idea innovation. In this situation, because the product has never been seen before, there are total changes to consumers buying and usage patterns. This requires consumers to adapt to totally ‟ new consumption patterns. Examples are solar energy or electric cars.

Market Oriented:In this approach, the newness of the product is judged in terms of how much exposure the consumers have to the new product. There are two definitions of a new product in this approach: 1. If the product has been purchased by a relatively small percentage of the potential target consumers, it is considered as a new product. 2. A product is considered new if it has been in the market for a relatively short period of time. Both these definitions are quite subjective, since the researcher has to establish the degree of sales penetration, or how long is considered as short time for the purpose of considering the product as new.Consumer Oriented:Some researchers favour this approach wherein any product, which is judged by the consumer as new, is considered “new”. In other words, the newness of the product is based on the consumer’s perception of the product, rather than the physical features or the market penetration.

Process of AdoptionThe second major process in the diffusion of innovation is adoption. The stages through which a consumer passes w h i le a r r i v ing a t a dec i s ion – to t ry or not to t ry , o r to cont inue us ing or discontinue using a new product – is called “adoption process”. There are five stages in arriving at a decision to purchase or reject a new product.

1. Awareness, 2. Interest, 3. Evaluation, 4. Trial and 5. Adoption (or Rejection) Awareness: The consumer is first exposed to the new product. At this stage the innovation is introduced to the person, but there is no true knowledge of the product. Because of this lack of

information, the person does not feel the need to run out and find out more information, much less consider consuming it. The awareness stage merely sets the groundwork for the following stages. It is argued that since a person often stumbles upon the innovation by accident during the awareness stage, it will provide little incentive to get more information. Others feel that for a person to become aware, the innovation must fill a particular need in their life for them to notice. Interest: The consumer i s in teres ted in the product and s tar t s search ing for add i t iona l information. At this stage, the person decides to invest time and energy into finding out more about the innovation. At this point the person feels good about the innovation, but does not really know how or i f i t can be usefu l in h i s /her ow n l i fe . The in teres t s tage i s pure ly to gather knowledge, not to decide whether to adopt. Evaluation: Consumer decides whether or not to believe that this product or service will sa t i s fy h i s /her need. At th i s s tage , the person f i r s t s beg ins to make a dec i s ion about the innovation. How could I use it? Do I really need it? Would it be to my advantage if I had it? These are a l l quest ions the consumers ask themse lves dur ing the eva luat ion s tage . Then i f the innovation appears to be positive for their life, they will try it out. If the innovation has a negative connotation, they may seek the advice and knowledge of their peers. Trial: The consumer uses the product on a limited basis. This is the next stage called the trial stage. Here the individual physically gives the innovation a chance by trying it out for a limited period. What they are looking to find out during this trial stage is how the innovation can fit intotheir needs and desires. Research proves that most people will not adopt an innovation without personally testing it first to see if it really “works”. .Adoption/Rejection:If trial is favourable, the consumer decides to use the product on a full- scale basis; if un favourable, the consumer decides to reject it. This final stage is the adoption stage. Here the individual uses information that they have gathered in the interest and evaluation stages and with the outcome of the trial stage, decides to adopt the innovation. At this point in the adoption process, the individual not only adopts the innovation but embraces it for the future. There is, however, another possible stage to the adoption process. After the individual adopts the innovation they may decide to reject it for whatever reason. This decision to reject the innovation after agreeing to adopt it is called discontinuance. This is a very simplistic model, as there could be several other steps involved in this process. In many cases , the post adopt ion or post purchase eva luat ion can lead to a s t rengthened commitment, or to a decision to discontinue use.

The adopt ion o f some products may have very l i t t le e f fec t on the behav ioura l and l i fe s ty le changes o f consumers . Some innovat ions may lead to major changes in these spheres . Examples o f innovat ions , w h ich had a major impact on soc ie ty , inc lude the automobi le , locomotive, telephone, refrigerator, television, airplane, personal computer, etc.

2. Explain the different types of consumer buying decisions, with suitable examples.Different Types of Consumer Buying Decisions:

The process of consumer decision-making consists of various steps as follows:First Step: Problem RecognitionThe decision process begins with this step. The consumer first notices and recognizes the need to be satisfied or problem to be solved for fulfilling some need. A consumer feels the thirst and looks for water or a beverage. Another consumer finds that the ink in his pen is over and hence looks out for a refill. Problem recognition is the state in which the consumer feels the need to buy something to help him/her get back to the original state of physical or psychological comfort. There are two types of stimuli, which result in problem recognition:11. Internal Stimulus: This is internal state of physical or psychological discomfort felt by the consumer, for example – hunger, thirst, boredom, etc.22. External Stimulus: This is the outside influence like an advertisement of a product, or the fresh bread smell near a bakery, which would stimulate the need in the mind of the consumer.

The external stimuli can influence a consumer in three different states of mind.1i. When the consumer has already recognized the problem and is looking for a solution. This is when the consumer may even actively pursue the external stimuli like advertisements or the salesmen to look at various alternatives.ii. When the consumer had recognized the problem in the past but was not able to find a solution for various reasons like not having the time, not a priority, etc. For example a consumer wanted to buy a microwave oven, which was getting postponed, and when a neighbor bought a microwave oven, the need surfaced strongly to push the consumer to look at alternatives.iii. When a problem, which was dormant, was not recognized in the past. This happens with most of the technological advances and innovations. The consumer who would have been happy with an old product may feel that the old product is not satisfying his/her need when the new product is advertised. For example, before the e-mail, the consumer never recognized the normal snail mail, which took so much effort, cost and delays as a problem. Based on these facts there are two types of demand for a product or a service: Primary Demand:This is the demand for the category of the product or service itself, which seeks to convert a non-buyer of it into a buyer. All the marketing efforts for promoting a new product or service are to generate the primary demand. This is done normally by educating the consumer about the benefits of the new product/service and also as to how this can solve a problem, which has not been noticed or recognized till now. Secondary or selective demand:This is the conversion of the demand from one brand to another. In mature markets of any product, the marketers concentrate on the secondary demand creation. There has been a controversy in the basic function of marketing- whether it is to create a need, or whether it is satisfy an already existing need. Many people argue that, no one needed many of the products like a video camera, a mobile phone etc. and that high profile marketing efforts created such demand. However, when one defines the needs in proper perspective, incorporating the principles of Marketing Myopia, it is easy to figure out how these new concepts and product s are catching up and why these are just satisfying the dormant needs of a consumer.

Second Step: Pre purchase Search:This is the second step in the consumer decision process. Once the consumer has recognized the problem, the next step is to search for relevant information to solve the problem. This search is confined to a set of brands, which can be classified as follows:1.Awareness Set:This is the set of brands, which the consumer is aware of.2.

Recalled Set:This is the set of brands, which the consumer can remember when deciding.3.Considered Set:This is the set of brands, which the consumer considers for the final selection after discarding the other brands.

The pre-purchase information may be obtained from various sources, like advertisements, brochures, salesmen, shop displays, company website, etc. which is basically given by the marketer. The consumer may also get the information from friends and acquaintances, or from his/her own past experience. Nowadays there are many other sources, most important of which is the Internet, which can produce a huge number of alternatives to the consumer, whether he/she intends to buy the product/service online or offline. In fact, some researchers have listed the following benefits of an Internet search, which are responsible for the phenomenal popularity of this medium: Cost:the Internet offers the lowest cost for information search, which is the most attractive feature of this source. Selection:The consumers are ab le to get a fa i r l y l a rge number o f a l ternat ives by searching the Internet very quickly. Reliability:The consumers find the Internet sources more reliable than the store salesmen or adver t i sements . I n fac t many w ebs i tes , b logs , e tc . that encourage ac tua l consumer reviews have increased the credibility of this information. Quick product comparison:There are many sites which give product comparisons and this has again helped the consumers in taking more informed quick decisions, which would have been either too laborious or time consuming before the advent of this feature in the internet. The extent of search effort by a consumer depends on many factors. These are as under:

Perceived Risk:This is the extent of loss incurred by the consumer if he takes a wrong decision, in the buying process. There can be many risks involved in making a purchase decision by a consumer like:

a. The product may not perform as well as the expectation.b. Your immediate social circle may disapprove.c. The consumer may not be feeling comfortable psychologically with the product, although it may not have any product-related problems.d. There may be another equivalent brand, which is lower in price, or the same brand may be available at a cheaper rate at some other outlet.e. This product may become obsolete in the near future and the new products may have much better features. When the perceived risk of the buyer is high, he/she is likely to go for extensive search. The consumer may not find much risk in routine purchases and hence may not seek a lot of information before the purchase decision.

Involvement:This is the perceived importance of the product for the consumer. There are some products, which a consumer buys routinely without much thought and there are some products,

which will involve a great deal of involvement and care of the consumer in decision making. This depends on how the consumer considers the importance of the product either financially or psychologically. Sometimes the emotional involvement of the consumer in a buying decision may be high, although the cost of the product/service may not be high. Such high purchase decision involvement results in extensive search of Pre purchase information.

Experience:The consumer may have the previous experience with the product or the brand, which will lead to less extensive search for Pre purchase information. In such situations the purchase decisions will be routinely made.

What is meant by “post-purchase dissonance”? Suggest five different ways in which marketers can reduce post purchase dissonance.

Post purchase Dissonance:Post purchase dissonance is basically an after purchase cognitive behavior. While evaluating the benefits after a purchase it is common for customers to be concerned about their purchase decision. It is caused by cognitive dissonance. Here the customer thinks that if he had purchased some other item it would have been better than the one he bought. Simply he is not completely satisfied with the purchase and is most likely to switch brands. As the consumers use the product, they evaluate the performance critically in the initial stages by comparing it with their expectations. Such an evaluation may lead to following three outcomes:Performance matches expectations: This leads to a neutral feeling and satisfaction. There is a likelihood of this consumer buying this brand again in future from the same store.

Performance exceeds expectations: This could lead to a strong brand and store loyalty in future purchases. Performance is below expectations: In this case, especially if the involvement is intensive, the consumer may respond in different ways as explained below.

Cognitive Dissonance: This may result in doubting the wisdom of the choice, which creates what is called “Cognitive Dissonance” which is a disturbance in the mind. The consumer may then try to reduce such disturbance by trying to justify the soundness of the decision by seeking further positive information about their choice and avoid any negative inputs they may get at this s tage . Thus they w i l l re - read the product brochures , g iv ing pos i t i ve features and avo id competitors advertisements, or any negative inputs by friends or acquaintances. Marketers can ‟ make use of this psychology, by asking their sales people to get a feedback from the consumers, which may reveal some of the positive features neglected by them previously. Marketers should try to reduce cognitive dissonance to the extent possible, through the following strategies –

Avoid making over-promises, either in their advertisements or through their sales people. Train their dealers and salespeople to examine the needs of consumers and

recommend products that would best fit their needs. Deve lop comparat ive adver t i s ing campaigns targeted to new buyers ,

h igh l ight ing the superiority of their brand over the competitors brands.

Develop “post-buy” services at the dealer level, to build confidence in the brand among consumers.

Enclose an easy to understand instruction booklet along with the product. Send the customer a letter congratulating them on the new purchase and emphasize the

high quality of the product. Ask for customers’ feedback on the product.1

Exit: This is the extreme reaction when the consumer is totally convinced that the choice was indeed bad. He/she may then decide not to buy this brand again. They may go through the entire process of the purchase process from the very beginning when they need to buy the product again.

Complain: Dissatisfied customers may either complain or just keep quiet. The likelihood of the consumer voicing a complaint depends on three factors-a) Extent of dissatisfaction (whether the dissatisfaction is serious or not),b) Attribution to marketer (whether the consumer feels that this complaint can definitely be attributed to the marketer) or c ) Consumer ’ s persona l i ty (degree o f aggress iveness/ submiss iveness , se l f - conf idence , assertiveness etc.)

I f th i s resu l t s in a compla int and i f the marketer success fu l l y redresses the compla int , the consumer may perceive that justice has been done. Such a result is possible when the consumer feels that he/she was treated with respect during the process of conflict resolution, the policy and procedure followed was fair and the final decision was justified. If the consumer is satisfied that justice has been done, he is likely to continue with the same brand and store. If the consumer is dissatisfied with this the hostility increases. There could be adverse word of mouth publicity. It has been found by research that consumer complaints are good for the marketers. A relatively low percentage of consumers actually complain and if the complaint is redressed, they are likely to become loyal customers. A majority of dissatisfied consumers may not complain; but simply turn to competitors brands. It has also been found by research that the negative publicity of ‟d i ssat i s f ied customers i s much more w ide ly done than the pos i t i ve pub l i c i ty o f sa t i s f ied customers. The satisfied customers are less likely to spread the word across about the good features of the product. However the dissatisfied customer is more likely to take the initiative to spread the word around about the negative aspects of his/her experience, which could be more damaging. Hence a complaint redressal system is a very important part of a successful marketing strategy.

4. What are some of the differences between consumer buying behavior and business buying behavior? Briefly explain the factors influencing business-buying behavior.

Consumer Buying Behaviour:As mentioned in the introduction, “Consumer Behaviour is the study of individuals or Organisations and the activities undertaken by them to select, procure and use products or services to satisfy their needs and wants.” The activities undertaken by the consumer can be either of the following:

1. Psychological activities,Involving thinking processes like considering the need for the product or service, whether to purchase, what to purchase, when to purchase, how to purchase, comparing the various features and prices, reading customer reviews, etc.

2. Physical activities,like going to a shop, looking for and enquiring about alternatives, visiting an e-commerce site, transacting on the e-commerce site, etc. Clearly, consumer behavior is a process, rather than a singular act of buying. The process maybe longer for some products than for others. It generally involves a number of activities prior to purchase. It is also an orderly process, since these activities take place in a particular sequence –e.g., search for information, evaluation of information, seeking opinions of others, trial of the product, etc. Sheth & Mittal have further expanded the above definition by including the study of various roles played by a customer such as -11. The user (who uses or consumes the product or service)22. The payer (who pays for such a product or service)33. The buyer (who physically acts to procure the product or service).In fact, consumer behaviour could involve as many as five different roles – the initiator of the decision, the person who influences the decision, the decision maker, the buyer and the user. Consumer behaviour is complex, since the same person may play all the roles, or there may be more than one person playing different roles. Depending on the roles being played, the behaviour and decision making process may change.In addition, consumer behaviour is a complex interplay of several factors. According to Philip Kotler, consumer behaviour is influenced by both internal and external factors. His model of consumer behaviour is illustrated.

Business buying behaviour:Business-to-business or

“B2B”is a term commonly used to describe the transaction of goods or services between businesses, as opposed to that between businesses and other groups, such as transactions between business and individual consumers (B2C) or business to government Organisations (B2G) transactions. B2B is typically performed in much higher volumes than (B2C)applications. B2B can also encompass marketing activities between businesses, and not just the f ina l t ransact ions that resu l t f rom market ing , though B 2B can be used to ident i fy sa les t ransact ions betw een bus inesses (a l so somet imes re fer red to as ' I ns t i tut iona l Sa les ' ) . For example, a company selling photocopiers would likely be a B2B sales organization, as opposed to a B2C sales organization. The term 'Business to Business' can also mean all transactions made in an industry value chain 'before' the finished product is sold to the end-consumer for final consumption. Purchasing refers to a business or organization attempting to acquire goods or services to accomplish the goals of the enterprise. Though there are several organizations that attempt to set s tandards in the purchas ing process , p rocesses can vary g reat ly betw een organ izat ions . Typically the word “purchasing” is not used interchangeably with the word “procurement”, since procurement typically includes Expediting, Supplier Quality, and Traffic and Logistics in addition to Purchasing. Purchasing managers/directors and procurement managers/directors guide the organization’ s acqu i s i t ion procedures and s tandards . M ost organ izat ions use a three-w ay check as the foundation of their purchasing programs. This involves three departments in the organization completing separate parts of the acquisition process. The three departments do not all report to the same senior manager to prevent unethical practices and lend credibility to the process. These departments can be purchasing, receiving; and accounts payable or engineering, purchasing and accounts payable; or a plant manager, purchasing and accounts payable. Combinations can vary significantly, but a purchasing department and accounts payable are usually two of the three departments involved. H i s tor i ca l l y , the purchas ing depar tment i s sued Purchase Orders for supp l ies , serv i ces , equipment, and raw materials. Then, in an effort to decrease the administrative costs associated with the repetitive ordering of basic consumable items, "Blanket" or "Master" Agreements were put into place. These types of agreements typically have a longer duration and increased scope to maximize the Quantities of Scale concept. When additional supplies are required, a simple release would be issued to the supplier to provide the goods or

services. Purchasing managers realized once contracts for the low rupee value consumables are in place, procurement can take a smaller role in the operation and use of the contracts. There is still oversight in the forms of audits and monthly statement reviews, but most of their time is now ava i lab le to negot ia te major purchases and set t ing up o f o ther long- term contracts . These contracts are typically renewable annually.

Factors Influencing Business Buying Behaviour

There are many factors, which affect the business buying behaviour, which can be classified into two categories – situation specific and organisation specific.

Situation Specific FactorsThere are three factors under this category:Buy classThere are three buy classes: new task purchase, modified rebuy, and straight rebuy.

A new task purchase is a problem or requirement that has not arisen before, such that the buying center does not have any re levant exper ience w i th the product or serv i ce .

A modified rebuy is a s i t u a t i o n s u c h t h a t t h e b u y i n g c e n t e r h a s s o m e r e l e v a n t e x p e r i e n c e t o d r a w u p o n . T h e alternatives considered, however, are different, or changed from the ones considered the last time a similar problem arose.

A straight rebuy is the purchase of standard parts; maintenance, repair, and operating items and supplies; or any recurring need that is handled on a routine basis. The concept of buy class is important because the purchase process is different among these three classes.1b. Perceived Risk, Importance and Complexity:

Perceived Riskre fers to the expected probab i l i t y that the purchase may not produce a satisfactory outcome. This is due to two factors: 1. The degree of uncertainty that the choice maybe wrong. 2. The amount at stake in case the choice happens to be wrong. The new tasks have the h ighest uncer ta inty and the s t ra ight rebuy the low est . The amount a t s take can be the financial loss or the performance loss in case of wrong decision. Financial loss depends on the purchase price and performance loss pertains to the product not performing to standards.The importance of purchaseis a combination of the amount at stake and the extent to which the product plays a strategic role in the organisation. Higher the amount at stake and more strategic the product’s role- the more important is the purchase.Complexityrefers to the extensiveness of the effort required to understand and manage the product during its acquisition. This has two dimensions:1. The number of performance specifications and2. The technical and the specialist knowledge required understanding these specifications. The above three factors, viz. perceived risk, importance and complexity influence how extensive and involved the purchase decision process will be.1c. Time PressureCustomers behave differently when they are under time pressure. This refers to how urgently the item is needed. When the item is needed urgently, the purchase decision will tend to short circuit the usual process, make the process less deliberative and give more direct role to the user.

1II. Organisation Specific Factors There are four organisational factors, which affect buying behaviour:

1. Size, 2. Structure, 3. Purchase resources and 4. Purchase orientation.

1a. Size:The size of the organisation not only determines the customer’s potential purchase volume, but also the sophistication of the buying process. Small business Organisations and entrepreneurial firms behave more like a family, usually consisting of one person and large Organisations have larger buying groups or buying centers and more formalized procedures.2b.Structure:This refers to the number of departmental units and geographical locations over which the units are spread out and also its degree of centralization. If the organisation has more number of departments it will have larger buying group/center, and the buying process is likely to be prolonged.c. Purchase Resources:This refers to the availability of professional buyers and the extent towhich the purchase office is staffed with the required type and number of experts as well as equ ipment . G enera l l y , l a rge and profess iona l l y managed f i rms w i l l have bet ter resourced purchase departments leading to well evaluated decisions and also formal and rigorous vendor evaluation.d. Purchase Orientation:This refers to the philosophy of purchase, i.e. which can vary from „ purchas ing s imply as an admin i s t rat i ve funct ion for organ i s ing mater ia l s needed at most economical rates, to „viewing it as a strategic managerial function whose goal is to add value to‟the organisation’s ability, to offer better value to its customers.3

5. Explain the theory of Classical Conditioning and its implications for marketers

Classical Conditioning:Classical Conditioning (also known as Pavlovian or Respondent Conditioning) is a form of assoc ia t i ve learn ing that w as f i r s t demonst rated by I van Pav lov . The typ ica l p rocedure for inducing classical conditioning involves paired presentations of a neutral stimulus along with a stimulus of some significance. The neutral stimulus could be any event that does not result in an overt behavioral response from the organism under investigation. Pavlov referred to this as a Conditioned Stimulus (CS). Conversely, presentation of the significant stimulus necessarily evokes an innate, often reflexive, response. Pavlov called these the Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

and Unconditioned Response (UR), respectively. If the CS and the US are repeatedly paired, eventually the two stimuli become associated and the organism begins to produce a behavioral response to the CS. Pavlov called this the Conditioned Response (CR).The original and most famous example of classical conditioning involved the salivary conditioning of Pavlov's dogs. During his research on the physiology of digestion in dogs, Pavlov noticed that, rather than simply salivating in the presence of meat powder (an innate response to food that he ca l led the uncond i t ioned response) , the dogs began to sa l i vate in the presence o f the lab techn ic ian w ho normal ly fed them. Pav lov ca l led these “psych ic secret ions” . F rom th i s observation he predicted that, if a particular stimulus in the dog’s surroundings was present when the dog was presented with meat powder, then this stimulus would become associated with food and cause salivation on its own. In his initial experiment, Pavlov used bells to call the dogs to their food and, after a few repetitions, the

dogs started to salivate in response to the bell. Thus, a neutral stimulus (bell) became a conditioned stimulus (CS) as a result of consistent pairing with the unconditioned stimulus (US - meat powder in this example). Pavlov referred to this learned relationship as a conditional reflex (now called Conditioned Response).This type of classical conditioning will be occurring in our everyday lives. This has been proved in many marketing experiments. In an experiment in a supermarket, the music pace was varied on different days from slow to fast. On the days when slow music was played, the shoppers were found spending more time in the store and also bought more products, when compared to the days on which fast music was played. Marketers have used this principle when they pair their brand with a likeable celebrity. The celebrity’s personality by classical conditioning rubs on to the product itself. Some business customers boast about their famous clients. Some manufacturers go out of the way to get associated with prestigious retail outlets.

Operant Conditioning:It is also known as Instrumental conditioning and it differs from classical conditioning, primarily in the role and timing of reinforcement and was developed by B.F. Skinner. Reinforcement and punishment, the core tools of operant conditioning, are either positive (delivered following are sponse), or negative (withdrawn following a response). This creates a total of four basicconsequences:1. Positive reinforcement occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a favorable stimulus(commonly seen as pleasant) that increases the frequency of that behavior. In the Skinner box experiment, a stimulus such as food or sugar solution can be delivered when the rat engages in a target behavior, such as pressing a lever.2. Negative reinforcement occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus (commonly seen as unpleasant), thereby increasing that behavior's frequency. In the Skinner box experiment, negative reinforcement can be a loud noise continuously sounding inside the rat's cage until it engages in the target behavior, such as pressing a lever, upon which the loud no i se i s removed. 3 . Pos i t i ve pun ishment (a l so ca l led "Pun ishment by cont ingent stimulation") occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by an aversive stimulus, such as in t roduc ing a shock or loud no i se , resu l t ing in a decrease in that behav ior . 4 . Negat ive pun ishment (a l so ca l led "Pun ishment by cont ingent w i thdraw al" ) occurs w hen a behav ior (response) is followed by the removal of a favorable stimulus, such as taking away a child's toy following an undesired behavior, resulting in a decrease in that behavior. Marketers make use of this concept by offering extrinsic rewards like coupons, sweepstakes and rebates, when their brand has no intrinsic ally or superior reward compared to competing brands. Many airlines offer frequent flier programs that accumulate mileage towards future free redemption.

ModelingIn this model the individual learns by observing others. Children learn from their parents, from their teachers, individuals learn from experts, etc. This type of learning is also called imitation or imitative behaviour. There are four classes of people who are likely to be imitated by others:11. Persons superior in age/grade hierarchy22. Persons superior in social status33. Persons superior in intelligence ranking system44. Superior technicians in any field

The choice of the model varies from culture to culture. The age hierarchy works more in eastern countries like Japan, India, China, etc. where elders are always respected and emulated. In western countries, grade hierarchy is operational. In most societies the more educated are imi tated by less educated persons , more sk i l l ed techn ic ians are imi tated by less sk i l l ed technicians and those who are in higher social class, are imitated by those in lower class. The middle class normally aspires to imitate the rich