sifakis 2007

1

The education of teachers of English as alingua franca: a transformative perspective

Nicos SifakisHellenic Open University, Greece

By: Amirhamid Forough Ameri [email protected]

May 2016

2

Overview Introduction English as a lingua franca – basic considerations Reflective teaching and transformative learning

Reflective teaching and action research Mezirow’s ‘transformative learning’ Transformative learning and ELF teacher education

A preliminary framework of ELF teacher education Phase 1: Preparation Phase 2: Identifying the primary issues of ELF discourse Phase 3: Raising awareness of secondary issues in ELF discourse Phase 4: ELF and pedagogy Phase 5: Formulating an ELF action plan

3

Introduction The spread of English on a global scale has greatly impacted ESOL research. Such research has focused on

The use of English by international (or ‘non-native’) users areas such as the sociolinguistics of English as a global, international or world language

International and intercultural communication via English, such as the ownership of the language by its users or the processes involved in the negotiation of their identity.

Some studies have shed light on the historical processes that contributed to bringing about the global character of English The shifting roles of ‘native’ speakers (NSs) and ‘non-native’ speakers (NNSs) the nature of standard language the attitudes and beliefs of learners and teachers.

4

Introduction While there is a great deal of information on the international spread of English, there is

less debate regarding the education of ELF teachers, i.e. English intended for communication mainly between non-native users.

No specific proposals have been made to date. Nevertheless, the demand for a comprehensive orientation for ELF teacher development

is increasing. Current research shows most ESOL practitioners seem to share the more traditional,

established beliefs regarding the importance of a single variety (usually British English or General American) for their teaching situation.

Therefore, all this research “has not so far led to noticeable changes in English teaching and teacher education policy” (Jenkins 2006a).

Introduction Seidlhofer 2004: The teaching of English is going through a truly postmodern phase in which old forms

and assumptions are being rejected while no new orthodoxy can be offered in their place.

Such teacher education would foster an understanding of the processes of language variation and change, the relationship between language and identity, the importance of social-psychological factors in intercultural communication.

5

Training Education

Being trained in a restricted set of pre-formulated techniques for specific teaching contexts

Enables teachers to judge the implications of the ELF phenomenon for their own teaching contexts and to adapt their teaching to the particular requirements of their learners.

6

Introduction A truly transformative approach to ELF teacher education is called for. By

‘transformative’, I am referring to teachers’ need to confront and change a whole range of long-held viewpoints on many levels concerning: the importance of Standard English, the role of native speakers and the negotiation of non-native speakers’ identities; the imposition of an imperialistic attitude The particular pedagogical decisions.

For such a transformation to occur, mere exposure to and awareness of the relevant literature will not be enough. It should also involve a seriously critical outlook and a reflective overview of past and current learning experiences and situations.

7

Introduction In following a transformative approach to ELF teacher education, I am adopting the

perspective put forward in the framework of Jack Mezirow.

Mezirow’s theory of transformative learning

Boyd’s (1991) analyticalTransformative education perspective.

Freire’s (1970) emancipatory model ofsocial transformation

builds on

8

Introduction Mezirow’s framework brings participants to confront and change their established

viewpoints by asking them to (a) realize and critically examine their assumptions, (b) openly explore new terrains by trying new roles, (c) plan a course of action, (d) acquire knowledge and skills for implementing that plan, (e) build self-confidence in the new roles, and (f) become reintegrated on the basis of conditions dictated by the new perspective.

Such an approach to teacher education can contribute substantial information on teachers’ varied practices in different local contexts, ultimately helping to establish an ELF teacher community of practice.

9

English as a lingua franca basic considerations

ELF refers to the (mainly spoken) English used in communication among the so-called ‘non-native’ users of the language. Such communication raises two categories of issues:

Primary Secondary Those that are immediatelyevident by looking at samples of ELF discourse.

The primary issues raise mainly linguistic and communication concerns that bear upon ELF discourse itself. E.g.,:

• ELF Lexicogrammar, • pragmatics of ELF

Those that require more extensive awareness of communication and attitudinal, cultural, policy-related, history-related and pedagogical concerns.

10

English as a lingua franca basic considerations

The secondary issues raise more general concerns (Seidlhofer 2004; Jenkins 2006a):

• The hegemonic role of the native speaker of English;

• The notion of standard English vis-à-vis the different ‘types’ of English (e.g. Global English,

world Englishes, world English,…).

• The “legitimacy of variation in different communities of use” and the negotiation of language

users’ identities;

• The imperialistic characteristics of ESOL policies and pedagogies

• The widely different ESOL teaching situations (English for testing, ESP)

11

Reflective teaching and transformative learning

Reflective teaching and action research The great advantage of integrating adult education models in ESOL (and ELF) teacher

education is that they prompt us to realize, review and change the uncritically assimilated beliefs, judgments and feelings.

This is the aim of autonomous and reflective teaching grounded in Dewey’s (1933) definition of reflection as the “active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it”.

Dewey: the basic characteristics of the reflective teacher educator are open-mindness, whole-heartedness and responsibility.

In the TESOL field, these processes are integrated in the action research which stresses the importance of active reflection and collaboration, and teacher autonomy.

12


Mezirow’s ‘transformative learning’ This theory was first introduced by Jack Mezirow in 1978:

how learners construe, validate, and reformulate the meaning of their experience” Based partly on psychoanalytic theory and partly on critical social theory, the model

breaks down the adult mind into sets of habits and expectations that have been formed as a result of experience over time.

These habits are of two types. meaning scheme: which are “made up of specific knowledge, beliefs, value judgments,

and feelings that constitute interpretations of experience” and are tangible in the sense that they are “known” to us and can be consciously monitored by us, and are easy to change.

13

Reflective teaching and transformative learning meaning perspectives or frames of reference: which refer to higher-order sets of habitual

expectation . . . created by ideologies, learning styles, neurotic self-deceptions [and] constitute codes that govern the activities of perceiving, comprehending, and remembering [by providing us with] criteria for judging or evaluating right and wrong, …

As meaning perspectives constitute “the structure of assumptions and expectations through which we filter sense impressions” their transformation leads to transformative learning.

Our immediate beliefs and expectations (meaning schemes) can continue to change while our overall worldview (frame of reference) remains unaltered.

14

Reflective teaching and transformative learning For the new schemes and perspectives to emerge, it is necessary for adults to engage in critical

reflection regarding their values, beliefs, and assumptions. Mezirow distinguished between three types of reflection:

Mezirow (1998): it is only by engaging in the latter type of reflection that adult learners foster transformative learning.

Content Reflection

focuses on the actual experience itself, i.e. our very perceptions, thoughts, feelings and actions that bring to life that experience.

Process Reflection

addresses the ways in which an experience is worked upon in our mind and involves examining our perceptions, thoughts, feelings and actions.

Premise Reflection

involves careful reviewing of the foundations of our perceptions, thoughts, feelings and actions by referring to long-held, socially constructed assumptions and beliefs.

15

Reflective teaching and transformative learning For transformative learning to occur, participants should engage in rational and reflective

discourse. Rational discourse is that specialized use of dialogue devoted to searching for an

understanding and assessment of an interpretation or belief. Reflective discourse involves a critical assessment of assumptions. It leads toward a

clearer understanding.

Studies indicate the importance of the group’s cohesion in prompting participants to fully engage in rational and reflective discourse.

The role of the educator as facilitator is also central, including in helping participants “break down the hegemony of dominant interests”.

16


Transformative learning and ELF teacher education What makes Mezirow’s paradigm an interesting suggestion for ELF teacher education is

that it identifies effective learning not merely with using reflective practice and action research in order to improve one’s efficiency, but with engaging with it in a way that will change one’s perspectives.

The transformative approach raises the following points: The engagement of participants with real problems in real time The combination of theoretical and practical knowledge with an aim The combination of personal and collective knowledge The development of a democratic and participatory environment The essential autonomy of participants and the transformation of their teaching and learning

17

A preliminary framework of ELF teacher education

Throughout all phases of this process, participants are prompted to critically analyse and reflect, and to become skilful participants in open and uncensored communication, dialogue, deep listening with their colleagues.

Phase 1: Preparation First, participants are asked to respond to some questions concerning their own

professional background, studies and interests. They are also asked to briefly sketch how they use English, which skills are usually

involved, who they use it with and for what reasons. Their purpose is to help the educator form a comprehensive idea not only of individual

participants but of how coherent participant groups can be formed.

18


Phase 2: Identifying the primary issues of ELF discourse At this stage, educators get to know one another and engage in content reflection, i.e.

slowly become aware of both (a) what is involved in ELF communication and (b) their own interpretations of and reactions to it.

Aims: involving participants in the discovery of ELF, sensitizing them about the primary issues involved and preparing them for the more extensive, secondary issues that it raises.

Participants are exposed to extensive excerpts of authentic spoken ELF discourse. The idea here is to integrate elements of the international character of English usage,

which involves examples of NNS–NNS communication.

19


Phase 2: Contd. Once the material is collected, it is distributed to groups of participants, who must listen

to or view different sections of it and transcribe them.

The following questions can be set at this stage: On first hearing the discourse, what was your initial reaction to such communication? What problems did you have in transcribing the discourse? Which strengths and weaknesses did you find in the communication? Did you consider the communication successful? To what extent do you think that such discourse deviates from a certain norm? How would you improve that discourse?

20


Phase 2: Contd. Participants are expected to realize how ELF works by carrying out a form of discourse analysis

of these excerpts. There are three steps:

It is expected that they will initially have a lot more to say about the linguistics-specific characteristics of a discourse excerpt

Next they should be prompted to look deeper into the pragmatics of each excerpt.

Finally, participants will focus on noting down their own reactions, attitudes or judgments regarding all the above characteristics of each discourse excerpt.

21


Phase 3: Raising awareness of secondary issues in ELF discourse In this stage, participants are asked to read selected articles or chapters on ELF that

(a) problematize the primary elements involved and (b) debate the ELF case for the secondary elements.

Group work here is extremely important.

If properly administered, this phase is very likely to result in making participants realize, probably for the first time in their professional lives, the true dimensions of the matter at hand (this would correspond to Mezirow’s ‘disorienting dilemma’ stage).

22


Phase 4: ELF and pedagogy As the sessions progress, the issues discussed will start to become more centered around

participants’ individual teaching situations, and influences and choices that have formed their professional identity.

Questions to pose include: What made me choose this profession? What are its rewards and difficulties? How autonomous have I been/am I in what I do? What are my aspirations for the future? What kind of learners have I taught?

Participants are expected to become fully aware of their own meaning perspectives about English and ESOL pedagogy and engage in process and premise reflection.

23


Phase 5: Formulating an ELF action plan

Once participants are aware of all the major issues involved in ELF discourse and pedagogy and have grasped the implications for their own teaching context, they should be ready to put that knowledge into practice by designing, implementing and evaluating an ELF action plan.

Such a plan would integrate instruments from current ESOL research with the difference that the basis for action would be the ELF principles as participants understand them.