shleser 1986 aquacultural-engineering

7/28/2019 Shleser 1986 Aquacultural-Engineering

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Aquaculmral Engineering 5 ( 1986 ) 87-101

A q u a c u l t u r e i n H a w a i i , a S o c i a l a n d E c o n o m i cD i l e m m a

Rob ert ShleserAquacultural Concepts. PO Box 560, W aimanalo, Hawaii 9679 5, USA

A B S T R A C TTh i s p a p er w a s d eve lo p ed a s a mea n s o f d is cu s s in g t ech n i ca l a n de c o n o m i c p r o b l e m s in a q u a c ul tu r e t h a t a re c o m m o n t o H a w a i i a n dTa iw a n . In o r d er to u n d e r s ta n d s o m e o f t h e p r o b l em s a n d o p p o r tu n i -t ies fo r de ve lo pm ent in H aw ai i or Ta iwan , it is use fu l to com pare a ndcon tras t these i s lands w i th o ther loca t ions ~4 tere s imi lar oppor tun i t i esex is t. F or exam ple , in Indones ia there are ab un da n t un us ed lands ,m an y wi th huge r ivers runn in g to the sea prov id ing a re l iab le supp ly o ff resh water . In these areas w here labor cos t s are low, land i s abundan t ,and there is an idea l c l imate a nd f resh an d seawater resources , oppo r-tun i ti es are prov ided to deve lop aqua cu l ture o f the sam e spec ies w eh o p e t o g r o w in Ha w a i i a n d Taiw a n. We a re f a ced w i th t h e p r o b l em s o fbe ing economica l ly compet i t i ve .

B A C K G R O U N DI n H a w a i i , w e h a v e a l w a y s b e l i e v e d t h a t a q u a c u l t u r e i s i m p o r t a n t . A sw e l o o k t o w a r d s t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s o f d e v e l o p i n g a q u a c u lt u r e , it m u s tb e r e a l iz e d t h a t w i t h t h e s e o p p o r t u n i t i e s t h e r e a r e a l so a g r e a t n u m b e ro f p r o b l e m s . F i r s t o f al l, o u r i s l a n d s , w h i c h a r e v o l c a n i c i n o r i g in , a r ep r i m a r i l y m o u n t a i n o u s w i t h u s a b l e f l a t l a n d s i n o n l y t h e t h i n c o a s t a la r e a s . A v a i l a b l e l a n d i s l i m i t e d , a n d t h a t w h i c h i s a v a i l a b l e f a c e s at r e m e n d o u s a m o u n t o f p r e s s u r e f or its u se . I n O a h u a l o n e , w e h a v e ap o p u l a t i o n o f n e ar l y o n e m i l l io n p e o p l e , w h i c h is la rg e ly c o n c e n t r a t e do n t h e f l a t c o a s t a l a r e a s , m a k i n g l a n d w h i c h c o u l d b e a v a i l a b l e f o ra g r i c u l t u r e o r a q u a c u l t u r e i n v e ry s h o r t s u p p l y .

87Aquacultural Engineering 01 44 -86 09 /86 /S0 3.5 0 -- Elsevier Applied SciencePublishers Ltd, England, 1986. Printed in Great Britain


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8 8 R. Sh leserW e a r e f a c e d w i t h t h e p r o b l e m s o f a v e r y h i g h c o s t o f l i v i n g . I n

H a w a i i e le c tr i ci ty c o s t s n e a r ly 1 4 c e n t s k w h - t. L a n d c o s t s i n H a w a i ia r e a m o n g t h e h i g h e s t i n t h e w o r l d . L e a s e r e n t s a r e a l s o v e r y e x p e n -s i v e a n d c a n b e a s m u c h a s 5 % o f t h e g r o s s v a l u e o f t h e c r o p . W e a r ea w a r e t h a t T a i w a n f a c e s s i m i la r k i n d s o f p r o b l e m s .Hawai i has a lways be l ieved that there i s a great fu ture for aqua-c u l t u r e . T h e r e i s a S t a t e A q u a c u l t u r e P l a n ( A q u a c u l t u r e P l a n n i n gP r o g r a m , 1 9 7 8 ) a s w e l l a s a c o m p r e h e n s i v e p u b l i c a t i o n d e s c r i b i n g t h eprocess that i s r equired to obta in the var ious permits that are neces -s a r y t o c a r r y o u t a q u a c u l t u r e i n H a w a i i ( A q u a c u l t u r e P l a n n i n gP r o g r a m , 1 9 7 7 ) . I n t h e p l a n , w r i t t e n i n 1 9 7 6 - 7 7 , t h e p r o j e c t i o n s f o ra q u a c u l t u r e w e r e e x t r e m e l y o p t i m i s t ic . I t w a s e x p e c t e d t h a t f r e sh w a t e rp r a w n fa r m i n g w o u l d g r o w t o a lm o s t 6 0 m i ll io n p o u n d s ( 2 7 . 2 m i ll io nk i lo g r a m s ) a n n u a l l y , a n d t h a t o f m a r i n e s h r im p w a s e x p e c t e d t o r e a c ha p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 5 m i l l i o n p o u n d s ( 1 1 - 3 m i l l i o n k i l o g r a m s ) a n n u a l l y

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f a c t o r o f 0 - 4 5 a n d 0 - 4 , r e s p e c t iv e l y . )


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Aquaculture in Hawaii. a social and economic dilemma 89w i t h l a r g e a r e a s i n p r o d u c t i o n ( F i g . 1 ) . L o o k i n g b a c k t o d a y o n t h i sp l a n n i n g e f f o r t , n o t o n l y d o w e r e a l i z e t h a t t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o p u tt h e s e l a rg e a m o u n t s o f l a n d i n t o p r o d u c t i o n o r t o s ta r t b u s i n e s s o f t h isk i n d h a v e n o t b e e n a c h i e v e d , b u t w e a ls o n o w r e c o g n i z e th a t t h ed e v e l o p m e n t o f a q u a c u l t u r e is h a m p e r e d b y a w h o l e v a ri et y o f t ec h -n i c al a n d e c o n o m i c p r o b l e m s w h i c h m u s t b e s o l v e d i f a q u a c u l t u r e i nH a w a i i is go i n g to be p r o f i t ab l e .

D u r i n g t h e l a s t t e n y e a r s w e h a v e w i t n e s s e d m a n y v e r y o p t i m i s t i cs t a r t u p s f o r a q u a c u l t u r e . I n 1 9 8 1 , a J a p a n e s e f i r m c a m e t o H a w a i i t ora i se P enaeus j apon i c tt s , t h e K u r u m a p r a w n . A v e r y b r ig h t f u t u re w a sp r e d i c t e d . H o w e v e r , a b r i e f tw o a n d a h a l f y e a r s la te r, t h e c o m p a n yr e a l i z e d t h a t i t w a s n o t g o i n g t o a c h i e v e a p o s i t i v e f i n a n c i a l o u t c o m e ,a n d l e f t H a w a i i . P r o d u c t i o n c o s t s a n d y i e l d s f a i l e d t o m e e t e x p e c t a -t ions .

S i m i la r ly t h e r e w a s g r e a t e x c i t e m e n t w h e n o n e o f o u r l a rg e s t f ir m s ,A M F A C , e n t e r e d i n t o t h e f r e sh w a t e r p ra w n M a c r o b r a c h i u m bus i nes s .A l m o s t t w o y e a r s a f te r t h e y st a rt e d , A M F A C d e c i d e d f o r a v a r ie t y o fr e a s o n s t o g o o u t o f b u s i n e s s .

M o r e r e c en t ly , t h e p e o p l e o f H a w a i i a n d o u r p l a n n e r s h a v e a s k e dt h e i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n , i s a q u a c u l t u r e a f a c t o r f a n t a s y i n H a w a i i ' se c o n o m i c f u t u r e ? W h a t w e h a v e c o m e t o re a l iz e is t h a t th e q u e s t i o n so f e c o n o m i c r e al it y h a v e c a u s e d u s t o r e e x a m i n e th e p o t e n t i a l f o ra q u a c u l t u r e i n H a w a i i 's e c o n o m i c f u tu r e . A b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o ft h e p r o b l e m s o f a q u a c u l t u r e c a n b e d e v e l o p e d b y l o o k i n g a t o u r a g ri-c u l t u r e s i t u a t i o n . S i n c e 1 9 5 5 , w e h a v e c o n t i n u e d t o i m p o r t m o r ec h i c k e n s i n t o H a w a i i t h a n w e p r o d u c e , a n d a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , o u ri m p o r t s o f c h i c k e n s , f o r a c o m p a r i s o n , a r e n e a r l y f o u r t i m e s t h ea m o u n t p r o d u c e d ( F ig . 2). A n a l y s i s o f th i s s i t u a t io n c a n g i v e m a n ye x p l a n a t i o n s f o r t h e p r o b l e m s t o b e e n c o u n t e r e d i n a q u a c u l t u r e . Ino r d e r t o p r o d u c e c h i c k e n s, w e h a v e t o i m p o r t o r g r o w c h i c k e n f e ed .T o g r o w c h i c k e n f e e d , w e h a v e t o i m p o r t f e rt il iz e r . I n m o s t c a s e s it ism o r e e c o n o m i c a l t o i m p o r t t h e p r o c e s s e d c h i c k e n s th a n i t is t o i m p o r tf e rt il iz e r , g r o w t h e f e e d a n d p a y t h e v e r y h i g h l a n d - l e a s e c o s t s t o f a r mc h i c k e n s o r a n y o t h e r c o m m o d i t y i n t h e S ta te o f H a w a ii . T h e f u tu r ef o r a n im a l a g r i c u l tu r e o r a q u a c u l t u r e w ill i n p a r t d e p e n d o n c o s t -e f fe c t iv e f e e d p r o d u c t i o n .

C a r r y i n g t h i s a n a l y s i s f u r t h e r , w e h a v e s e e n t h a t m a n y o f t h ep r o b l e m s w h i c h h a m p e r o u r f u t u r e d e v e l o p m e n t a r e d i re c tl y r e la t e dt o t h e e n e r g y c ris is . C o m p a r i n g t h e p r i c e o f c h i c k e n f e e d w i t h t h e p r ic eo f g a s o l i n e a n d f e rt il iz e r , w e s e e t h a t a s t h e p r i c e o f g a s o l i n e w e n t u p


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90 R. ShleserMIL L~S~

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Fig. 2 . M arket supply: chickens and broi lers , S ta te of Hawaii, 196 0-83 . A nes t ima te o f ch icken impor t s to Hawai i p r epared by Hawai i Agr icu l tu r a l Repor t ingService from Statistics of Hawaiian Agriculture 1982 (Statistics of Hawaiian Agri-culture, 1983).

a f t e r t h e e n e r g y c r i s i s o f 1 9 7 6 - 7 7 , t h e p r i c e s o f f e e d a n d f e r t i l i z e rwen t up (F ig . 3 ). Th is i s due to the fac t tha t en e rgy (na tu ra l gas ) i s usedt o m a k e a m m o n i a f e r t i l i z e r w h i c h i s r e q u i r e d f o r f e e d p r o d u c t i o n .H a w a i i ' s p r o b l e m i s e v e n m o r e e x t r e m e b e c a u s e m a t e r i a l s m u s t b es h i p p e d n e a r l y 3 0 0 0 m i l e s t o H a w a i i . T h e s e s h i p m e n t c o s ts a re a d d e dto the p r ice pa id fo r ene rgy- re la ted i t ems such as feed and fe r t i l i ze r .T h i s m e a n s t h a t b u i l d i n g a p r o f i t a b l e a n d c o m p e t i t iv e i n d u s t r y w il l b ed i ff icu l t. C lea r ly , t ak ing se l f - su f fi c iency ( supp ly ing loca l m arke t s ) a s anobjec t ive is the f i rs t s tep .M a r i n e s h r i m p i s p r o b a b l y t h e s p e c i e s w h i c h h a s b e e n g i v e n t h em o s t a t t e n t i o n i n t h e l a s t f e w y e a r s . H a w a i i a n d T a i w a n a r e b o t hi n t e r e s t e d i n s h r i m p f a r m i n g . A n u m b e r o f y e a r s a g o a t t h e O c e a n i cI n s t it u t e w e c o n d u c t e d a n e c o n o m i c a n a l y s i s o f a s h r i m p f a r m i nH a w a i i ( S h le s er , 1 9 7 9 ). T h e s t u d y l o o k e d a t p r o d u c t i o n o f a 1 0 0 a c r e(40 hec ta re ) fa rm wi th 5 ac re (2 hec ta re ) d i r t ponds . Shr imp weres t o c k e d a t 3 0 0 0 0 s h r i m p p e r c r o p . S o m e o f t h e f i n d in g s w e r e v e r yi m p o r t a n t i n t e r m s o f s e t t i n g o b j e c t i v e s f o r t h e f u t u r e . T h e a n a l y s i ss h o w e d t h a t n e a r l y 3 5 % o f t h e o p e r a t i n g c o s t s w e r e r e p r e s e n t e d b yf e e d c o s t s . L a b o r c o s t s w e r e a l m o s t t h e s a m e . T h i s e x a m p l e s h o w st h a t i f w e a r e g o i n g to m a k e p r o g r e s s i n d e v e l o p i n g t h e s h r i m p


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70 ~ 1 I' 7 6 ' 7 7 ' 7 8 ' 7 9 3 0YearF i g . 3 . R e l a t i o n s h i p o f f e r ti l iz e r c o m m o d i t i e s a n d m e a t t o e n e rg y c o st s : a n a n al y s is

o f m e a t a n d c o m m o d i t i e s s h o w e d t h a t H a w a i i w o u l d h a v e a d if f ic u l t t i m e c o m p e t i n gw i th m a i n l a n d s o u r c e s o f m e a t w h e n t r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o s t s a r e a d d e d .

b u s i n e s s , r e s e a r c h o n f e e d a n d l a b o r c o s t s s h o u l d b e g i v e n p r io r it y.D e v e l o p i n g r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m s i n t h e s e a r e a s is e s s e n t ia l t o b u i l d ap r o f i t a b l e i n d u s t r y .

D u r i n g t h e l a st si x y ea r s a t t h e O c e a n i c I n s ti tu t e w h e r e I s e r v e d a sD i r e c t o r o f R e s e a r c h D e v e l o p m e n t , w e d e v e l o p e d a c o m p r e h e n s i v ep r o g r a m t h a t w a s i n v o l v e d w i t h a t te m p t i n g t o r e d u c e f e e d c o s t s i n


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92 R. Shleser

Hawaii. A major emphasis of the program was to evaluate usingwastes that are abundant in Hawaii as an alternative for feed. Oneapproach involved evaluation of manure to fertilize production ponds.Hawaii operates major feed lots where cattle that are grazed on manyof the sloping hillsides are fed imported feeds in order to producemeat that has a standard that will compete with the product producedin feedlots on the mainland of the United States. Great amounts ofmanure are produced which create a disposal problem.

ELIMINATING THE NEED FOR FEEDSWe felt that manure might have a potential to be used as fertilizer forthe development of a feed alternative or food chain in a shrimp pond.The basis of this theory came from two pieces of work. The first wasdone by Addison Lawrence at Texas A&M University (AquaculturePlanning Program, 1978). He demonstrated in aquaria that, whenradioactive glucose labeled with C14 was put into the water, it couldbe found in the shrimp after a few days. When he then repeated theexperiment in the presence of the antibiotic chloramphenicol, heobserved that almost none of the radioactivity was incorporated in theshrimp. The antibiotic chloramphenicol inhibits the growth of bacteriawhich take up the sugar. He reached the conclusion that the bacteriawere playing some role in transferring the sugar into the shrimp.Today it is known that shrimp are actually bacterial grazers, a fact thatis not surprising bearing in mind that shrimp have long been con-sidered detritivores.During this same period, the Ralston Purina Company conductedstudies which showed that a short time after feeding with a pelletedfeed the gut of the shrimp was found to contain marine bacteria thatwere typical of the bacteria found at the bottom of the pond. There-fore a theory was developed that, if the ponds could be supplied withnutrients, such as manure, it would be possible to attain growth rateswhich were similar to those which were attained on feeds as a result ofshrimp grazing on the bacteria-rich benthic material.After almost two years of research, the Oceanic Institute developeda technique of putting manure into ponds, through applications onceor twice weekly, that achieved growth rates of shrimp superior tothose of shrimp grown on formulated feeds and with survivals under


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Aquaculture in Hawaii, a social and economic di lemma 93t h e b e s t o f c o n d i t i o n s o f n e a r l y 8 0 % . I n e s s e n c e , t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o fm a n u r e a s a f e r t il i z e r a c h i e v e d t w o t h i n g s: o n e , t h e s h r i m p g r e w f a s t e ra n d m a d e i t p o s s i b l e t o p r o d u c e a m a r k e t a b l e s i z e d c r o p m o r eq u i c k l y , a n d t w o , t h e n e e d f o r f e e d w a s t o t a l l y e l i m i n a t e d . T h e s ee x p e r i m e n t s w e r e d o n e u s i n g Penaeus vannamei a t v a r i o u s s t o c k i n gd e n s i ti e s ( th e m a j o r s to c k i n g d e n s it y u s e d w a s a b o u t 3 0 0 0 0 s h r i m pa c r e - i o n a p r o j e c t e d b a s i s ) . A n a n a l y s i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t p r o d u c t i o nc o s ts u s in g m a n u r e c o u l d b e r e d u c e d b y a l m o s t 2 5 % .

D E V E L O P I N G N E W C O M M O D I T I E SU s i n g a q u a c u l t u r e a s a m e a n s o f p r o d u c i n g a l t e r n a t i v e f e e d i n g r e -d i e n t s w a s a n o t h e r a p p r o a c h t o r e d u c i n g f e e d c o st s. F r o m t hi s s t a n d -p o i n t, w e t o o k a b r o a d e r v i e w o f a q u a c u l tu r e ; r a t h e r t h a n c u l tu r in gp r o d u c t s s u c h a s f i s h , s h r i m p , o y s t e r s o r c l a m s f o r h u m a n c o n s u m p -t io n , a q u a c u l t u r e m i g h t b e u s e d a s a m e a n s o f g r o w i n g n e w c o m m o d i -t i e s o r i n g r e d i e n t s t o b e u s e d i n t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f f e e d s f o r a n i m a l sa n d a q u a t i c s p e c i e s . E s s e n t ia l l y w e w e r e i n t e r e s t e d t o s e e i f w e c o u l dg r o w a q u a t i c s p e c i e s i n H a w a i i t h a t c o u l d b e s u b s t i t u t e d f o r i m p o r t e df e e d e l e m e n t s . T h i s w o u l d c r e a t e s e v e r a l l e v el s o f o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r an e w i n d u s tr y t o g r o w f e e d i n g r e d i e n t s a n d a n e c o n o m i c a d v a n t a g e i ne x p a n d i n g t h e a q u a c u l t u r e a n d a g r i c u l tu r e p r o d u c t i o n s e c to r .

T h e p r o g r a m t h at w e d e v e l o p e d l o o k e d a t t h e b a si c c o m m o d i t i e st h a t w e r e c u r r e n t l y b e i n g u s e d s u c h a s c o r n , w h e a t , b a r l e y , a l f a l f a ,s o y b e a n m e a l a n d m e a t a n d b o n e m e a l. W e f o u n d t h at t h e r e w e r e tw op r o d u c t s t h a t c o u l d b e c u l t u re d i n a n a q u a t ic e n v i r o n m e n t w i t h sig n if i-c a n t p r o t e i n c o n t e n t s a n d w h i c h m i g h t, if g r o w n e c o n o m i c a ll y , b e u s e da s a s u b s t i tu t e f o r i m p o r t e d i n g r e d i e n t s . T h e t w o s p e c i e s w h i c hs e e m e d q u i te p r o m i s in g w e r e b r i n e s h r i m p Artemia, w h i c h i s 5 5 % i np r o t e i n , a n d Spirulina, w h i c h is n e a r l y 7 5 % i n p r o t e i n c o n t e n t , o n t h eb a si s o f d r y w e ig h t. T h e s e s p e c ie s h a v e b e e n g r o w n c o m m e r c i a l ly el se -w h e r e a t o t h e r t i m e s , s o p r o d u c t i o n m e t h o d s w e r e u n d e r s t o o d . T h ec h a l l e n g e w a s t o g r o w t h e s e ' c r o p s ' a t a c o s t th a t w a s c o m p e t i t i v e w i thi m p o r t e d c o m m o d i t i e s . It h a d b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t it w a s p o s si b let o p r o d u c e 9 t o n s d ry w e i g h t s u r fa c e a c r e -~ y e a r - I o f b r i n e sh r i m p( C o h l a n , 1 9 7 6 ) , a n d n e a r l y 2 0 t o n s d r y w e i g h t s u r fa c e a r e a - ~ y e a r - jo f Spirz,lina ( H i l l s & N a k a m u r a , 1 9 7 8 ) . I n c o m p a r i s o n , s o y b e a n o i lm e a l , w h i c h i s 4 0 % p r o t e i n , h a s a y i e l d o f o n l y 5 t o n s o f m e a l a c r e - ~.


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94 R. Shleser

I t is p o s s i b le a n n u a l l y to p r o d u c e n e a r l y s e v e n t im e s t h e a m o u n t o fp r o t e i n g r o w i n g Spirul ina t h a n c a n b e a c h i e v e d g r o w i n g s o y b e a n o i lmea l .W e recogn ized tha t the l eve l o f p rod uc t ion was no t su f f ic ien t jus ti f i-c a t i o n t o p r o d u c e a n e w c r o p . T h e c h a l l e n g e w a s to f in d a w a y t o g r o wSpirul ina in a co s t -e f fec t ive fash ion . Spirul ina i s wel l known in i t s usein the hea l th food indus t ry , where i t s r e ta i l va lue can be as h igh asU S S 2 0 l b - t . O u r o b j e c t i v e w a s t o g r o w Spirul ina a t l e ss than USS1l b - t . I n o r d e r t o d o t h is , w e o b t a i n e d s t o c k s o f Spirul ina f rom a l l overt h e w o r l d , a n d e v a l u a t e d v a r i o u s c u l t u r e s o b t a i n e d i n o r d e r t od e t e r m i n e :(1 ) w h i c h g r e w fa s t e st u n d e r H a w a i i a n c o n d i t io n s , a n d( 2 ) w h i c h s h o w e d a p o t e n t i a l t o g r o w w e l l w h e n s u p p l i e d w i t hn u t r i e n t s o b t a i n e d f r o m w a s t e w a t e r s , w h i c h w e r e a b u n d a n t .Ul t ima te ly , severa l s t ra ins were i so la ted tha t showed promis ingcharac te r i s t i c s .

O n c e a g a i n , a s w i t h t h e s h r i m p p r o d u c t i o n e x a m p l e , i n o r d e r t op r o v i d e a p e r s p e c t i v e f o r o u r r e s e a r c h , w e d i d a n a n a l y s is o f t h e c o s tso f p rod uc t ion . In pa r t icu la r , i t was c lea r ly dem on s t ra ted tha t the ma jorc o s ts o f p r o d u c t i o n w e r e c h e m i c a l s a n d e n e rg y , w i th l a b o r c o s ts r e l a-t ive ly ins ignif ica nt in th is cas e (Fig . 4) .A n an a lys i s o f the chem ica l cos ts (Tab le 1 ) sho w ed tha t the cos t o fc a r b o n , n i t r o g e n a n d p h o s p h o r u s r e p r e s e n t e d t h e m a j o r c o s t s i nSpirul ina produc t ion (Margare l l i & Sh lese r , 1984) . Tha t i s , the cos t o fs u p p l y i n g th e s e c h e m i c a l s u s in g c a r b o n a t e f o r c a r b o n is 2 2 %, n i tr a t es a l t s f o r n i t r o g e n i s 1 4 % a n d p h o s p h a t e s a l t s f o r p h o s p h o r u s i s 4 %,r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e m a j o r c o s t s. T h e r e f o r e , w e s e t o u t t o d e v is e a s y s te mw h i c h w a s c a p a b l e o f p r o v i d i n g t h e s e e l e m e n t s i n a l e s s e x p e n s i v efash ion .E a r l y i n t h e p r o g r a m , t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l w o r k c a r r i e d o u t s h o w e dt h a t t h e e l u t r i a t e s o f d i g e s t e d m a n u r e ( c o m p o s e d o f o r g a n i c c a r b o n ,n i t r o g e n a n d p h o s p h o r u s w h i c h h a d b e e n s o l u b i l i z e d ) w e r e , w i t h v e r ym i n o r a d j u s t m e n t s t o t h e n u t r i e n t c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e m e d i a , v i r t u a l l yc a p a b l e o f s u p p o r t i n g a Spirul ina cu l tu re .

F E R T I L I Z E R A N D E N E R G YR e c o g n i z i n g t h a t t h e m a j o r c o s t s i n Spirul ina p r o d u c t i o n a r e c h e m i c a ln u t r i e n t s a n d e n e r g y t o t u r n t h e p a d d l e w h e e l s t o k e e p t h e a l g a e i n


9/15

Aquaculture in Hawaii, a social and economic dilernma 95

Energy (35.36)

1 0 0 a c r e s p m ul i n a f a r m - c o nt r o l m o d e lO l ~ e r a t i n g c o s t s

D e e ( 3 0 6 )

t h e m : a l 8 6 )

. /Rent (3 5 6 ) " ' - . .~ /Fig. 4. Perc entag edistribution of operating costs for 100 acre Spindimt farm usinginorganic chemicals as sources of nutrients. From A nimal Fe ed s Research Program1983 at the O ceanic Institute sup por ted by the Aquaculture Planning Program (Stateof H awaii). (Margarelli & Sh leser, 1984)

s u s p e n s i o n , w e w i s h e d to d e v e l o p an a p p r o a c h t o p r o d u c t i o n t ha tw o u l d s i g n i fi c a n tl y d i m i n i s h t h e s e c o s t s . F r o m a t h e o r e t i c a l p o i n t o fv ie w , t h e s o l u t i o n t h a t w a s e n v i s i o n e d w a s t h e f o l lo w i n g : m a n u r ew o u l d b e a n a e r o b i c a l l y d i g e s t e d i n a b a g f e r m e n t a t i o n s y s t e m t op r o d u c e m e t h a n e ; t h e m e t h a n e g a s w o u l d b e u s e d t o r u n a m o t o r t h a tw o u l d p o w e r t h e p a d d l e w h e e ls ; t h e c a r b o n d i o x i d e p r o d u c e d in th ee x h a u s t w o u l d b e d i f f u s e d i n t o t h e c u l t u r e t o p a r t l y s u p p l y c a r b o n t ot h e s y s t e m ; a n d t h e e l u t r i a t e f r o m t h e d i g e s t e r c o n t a i n i n g t h e s o l u -b i l i z e d n i t r o g e n a n d p h o s p h o r u s w o u l d b e f i l t e r e d a n d p u m p e d t o ar e s e r v o i r , w h e r e t h e m i x t u r e w o u l d b e a n a l y z e d a n d s u p p l e m e n t e dw i th s m a ll c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f i n o rg a n i c n i t ra t e a n d p h o s p h a t e top r o v i d e t h e p r o p e r b a l a n c e o f n u t r i e n ts r e q u i r e d to s u p p o r t t h eg r o w t h o f t h e c u l t u r e . T h e s e s t u d i e s a r e n o w i n p r o g r e s s a t t h eO c e a n i c I n s ti t ut e .


10/15

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11/15

A q u a c u l t u r e i n H a w a i i. a s o ci a l a n d e c o n o m i c d i l e m m a 97A n o t h e r p a r t o f t he p r o g r a m i n v o lv e d e v al u a ti n g t he p e r f o r m a n c e

o f Spirul ina a n d o t h e r p r o d u c t s a s f e e d in g r e d i e n ts . T e s t e d f e e d s w e r ef o r m u l a t e d , s u b s t i t u t i n g Spirul ina f o r s o m e o f t h e h i g h p r o t e i ne l e m e n t s s u c h a s s o y b e a n o i l m e a l a n d m e a t a n d b o n e m e a l . A f e e dm i l l w a s b u i l t a t t h e O c e a n i c I n s t i tu t e . A v a r i e ty o f f e e d s w e r e f o r m u -l a te d a n d t e st e d . U s i n g a c o m m e r c i a l s te a m e x t r u d e r , f ee d s for a q u a t i ca n d t e r r e s t r i a l s p e c i e s w e r e e v a l u a t e d . 'Spirulina-substi tuted f e e d ' w a sc o m p a r e d w i t h f e e d s n o w b e i n g u s e d i n t h e i n d u s t r y . W e w e r e f o r t u -n a t e t o h a v e f e e d s t h at w e r e p r o d u c e d f o r t h e in d u s t r y f o r u s e in in t e n -s i v e s y s t e m s f o r c o m p a r i s o n . T h e t e s t i n g l a b w a s d e s i g n e d a s a t o t a l l yc o n t r o l l e d s y s t e m w h i c h e li m i n a t e d t h e g r o w t h o f a q u a t i c o r g a n i s m s int h e e n v i r o n m e n t w h i c h m i g h t c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e n u t ri t i o n o f th e s h r i m p .T h e p r e l im i n a r y w o r k s h o w e d t h at s o m e o f th e Spirulina-substi tutedf e e d s d i d v e r y w e l l, a n d i n f a c t d i d n e a r l y a s w e l l a s s o m e o f t h e f e e d sc u r r e n t l y i n c o m m e r c i a l u s e ( M a r g a r e ll i & S h l e s e r, 1 9 8 4) .

A G R I C U L T U R A L F E E D SA r e a l c h a l l e n g e w a s t h e n t o u s e Spirul ina-based f e e d s i n c h i c k e ns t u d i e s . C h i c k e n f e e d w a s f o r m u l a t e d s u b s t i t u t i n g Spirul ina f o rs o y b e a n o i l m e a l a n d s o m e o f t h e o t h e r m e a t a n d b o n e m e a l s t h a tw e r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y u s e d i n c h i c k e n f e e d s . T h e s e s t u d i e s ,c o n d u c t e d b y D r R o s s o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f A n i m a l S c i e n c e o f t h eU n i v e r s it y o f H a w a i i , w e r e p r o m i s i n g . T h e Spirulina-substi tuted f e e d ss h o w e d t h e s a m e o r b e t t e r s u r v i v a l , a n d a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e d g r o w t hr a te s t h a t w e r e s i m i la r to t h o s e p r o d u c e d b y t h e c o m m e r c i a l l y a v a il -a b l e r a t i o n s ( M a r g a r e l l i & S h l e se r , 1 9 8 4 ) .

U S E F U L B Y - P R O D U C T SS e v e r a l o f t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s m a d e w e r e v e r y i m p o r t a n t . S t u d i e s w e r ec a r r i e d o u t w i t h e g g p r o d u c t i o n i n q u a i l s f e d o n d i e t s c o m p o s e d w i t hSpirul ina. I t w a s o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e y o lk o f th e e g gs t h a t w e r e p r o d u c e dw e r e m u c h b r i g h t e r i n c o lo r . Q u a i l e gg s a re a p r o d u c t w h i c h is h i g h lyc h e r i s h e d b y o u r O r i e n t a l p o p u l a t i o n . I t w a s o b s e r v e d t h a t p u t t i n g as m a l l a m o u n t o f Spiruli t ta i n t h e d i e t m a d e i t u n n e c e s s a r y t o a d d t h e


12/15

98 R. Shleser

a m o u n t s o f very , e x p e n s i v e s o u r c e s o f c a r o t e n e t h a t w e r e n o rm a l .l ,,r e q u i r e d t o p r o d u c e b r i g h tl y c o l o r e d e g g y o lk . T o d a y t h e r e is g r e a ti n t e r e s t i n c u l t i v a t i n g b l u e - g r e e n a l g a e f o r f e r t i l i z e r a n d v a l u a b l e b i o -c h e m i c a l s . S e v e r a l f i r m s h a v e b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d i n H a w a i i w i t h t h e s eob j e c t i ve s .

H a w a i i c o n t i n u e s t o l o o k h o p e f u l l y at o t h e r a q u a c u l t u r e p o s s ib i li -t i e s s u c h a s c u l t u r i n g c a t f i s h , w h i c h d r a w a v e r y g o o d p r i c e i n H a w a i i .B u t o n c e a g a i n , t h e m a j o r e c o n o m i c p r o b l e m s s u c h a s f e e d , l a b o r a n dl a n d c o s t s m u s t b e s o l v e d b e f o r e w e c a n e x p e c t v e r y m u c h f r o m t h ei ndus t r y .

U S I N G M U N I C I P A L W A S T E W A T E RW h e n w e c o n s i d e r g r o w i n g f e e d s i n H a w a i i w e c a n n o t c o n s i d e rp r o t e i n a l o n e . W e m u s t l o o k a t a ll o f t h e f e e d c o m p o n e n t s . W e h a v e t ol o o k a t t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o p r o d u c e t h e fi be r, c a r b o h y d r a t e , fa ts .m i n e r a l s a n d p r o t e i n r e q u i r e d t o f o r m u l a t e fe e d s. O n c e a g a in I f ee lt h at o u r w a s t e p r o d u c t s p r o v i d e m u c h o f th e s o lu t io n . W e h a v e j u str e c o v e r e d f r o m a p e r i o d o f n e a r ly t w o y e a r s o f d r o u g h t ; le a r n in g h o wt o e x p a n d o u r u s a b l e w a t e r w i ll b e v i ta ll y i m p o r t a n t t o H a w a i i 'sf u t u r e . S p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e l o c a t i o n f o r n e w o p p o r t u n i t i e s i s t h e w a s t e -w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t. A l m o s t a ll o f o u r w a s t e d n u t r i e n t s p a s s th isp o i n t . W e s p e n d a g r e a t d e a l o f m o n e y t r e a t i n g t h e w a t e r , o n l y t ot h r o w it a w a y . I f w e w e r e t o u s e w a s t e w a t e r a s a s o u r c e w a t e r f o ri r r i g a t i n g c e r t a i n c r o p s ( w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e t e c h n o l o g y t o m a i n t a i nh e a l t h s t a n d a r d s ) , w e w o u l d e x p e r i e n c e s i g n i f i c a n t o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o rf u t u r e e c o n o m i c d e ` , ' el o p m e n t . I b e g a n r e s e a r c h i n t hi s a r e a in th e l a tes ix tie s . A p r o g r a m t h a t w e s t a r t e d a t U C L A p r o v i d e d t h e b as is f o r ac o n s u l t in g c o n t r a c t w i th t h e D i s n e y C o r p o r a t i o n a n d r e s u lt e d in th eb u i l d i n g o f a w a t e r - h y a c i n t h w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m a t D i s n e yW o r l d in O r l a n d o , F l o r i d a . T h i s s y s t e m is n o w i n o p e r a t i o n a t E P C O ' : fi n O r l a n d o . T h e m a i n a c t i v i t y i n v o l v e s c u l t i v a t i n g w a t e r - h y a c i n t h sw h i c h a r e u s e d t o c le a n t h e w a s t e w a t e r o f d i s so l v e d n u t r ie n t s. T h eb i o m a s s p r o d u c e d i s t h e n f e r m e n t e d t o p r o d u c e m e t h a n e a s a s o u r c eo f e n e r g y . T h e r e s i d u a l m a t e r i a l , r ic h i n n u t r i e n t s , is p l o w e d b a c k i n t ot h e s o i l a s a m e a n s o f i m p r o v i n g t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e s o i l f o r c r o pp r o d u c t i o n . T h e r e a r e n u m e r o u s o t h e r o p p o r t u n i t ie s f o r t h e d i re c t u seo f w a s t e w a t e r . T h e d i r e c t u s e o f t r e a t e d w a s t e w a t e r t o i r r i g a t e g r a s s


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Aquaculture in HawaiL a social and economic dilemma 99c r o p s , w h i c h c a n b e f e d t o b e e f c at tl e o r u s e d i n f e e d f o r m u l a t i o n a n df o r a g e c r o p s s u c h a s a l f a l f a o r s o r g u m , i s a n o t h e r a r e a f o r e c o n o m i cd e v e l o p m e n t p o te n t i al . A ~ e a t d e a l o f w o r k h a s b e e n d o n e o n t e c h -n o l o g y f o r u si n g w a s t e w a t e r i n I s ra e l, C h i n a , I n d i a a n d E u r o p e . W eh a v e b e e n s l o w t o t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e s e o p p o r t u n i t i e s i n H a w a i iw h e r e w e n e e d t h e m t h e m o st .

A p r o g r a m r u n b y D r T c h o b a n o g l o u s a t t h e U n i v e rs i ty o f C a l if o rn i aa t D a v i s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e u s e o f w a s t e w a t e r f o r t h e o v e r l a n d i r r i g a -t io n o f c r o p s . T h e r e su l ts h a v e b e e n v e r y f a v o ra b l e. D r T c h o b a n a -g l o u s ' e x p e r i m e n t h a s b e e n i m p l e m e n t e d n e x t t o t h e D a v i s s e w a g et r e a t m e n t p l a n t w h e r e l a r g e f i el d s o f f o r a g e g r a s s a r e c u l t i v a t e d u s i n go v e r l a n d w a s t e w a t e r f l o w . H e h a s a l s o s h o w n t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e t oc u l t i v a t e o t h e r c r o p s s u c h a s l o n g - s t e m c r o p s t h a t c a n b e u s e d f o rp a p e r p r o d u c t i o n a n d o t h e r u s e s . I t i s n o t s o f a r - f e t c h e d t o r e c o g n i z et h a t t h e n u t r i e n t s c o n t a i n e d i n w a s t e w a t e r , i f t h e p r o p e r s y s t e m i su t i l i z e d , c a n b e u s e d i n h y d r o p o n i c s y s t e m s t o p r o d u c e l e t t u c e ,t o m a t o e s a n d o t h e r c r o p s w h i l e s a v i n g t h e c o s t s o f w a t e r a n d f e r ti li z er ,r e d u c i n g i m p o r t s a n d c r e a t in g n e w jo b s i n a g r i c u l tu r e i n H a w a i i.

L O O K I N G A T T H E T O T A L S Y S T E MT h o u g h t h e f u t u r e is s ti ll a h e a d o f u s , I w o u l d l ik e to s u m u p t h e s it u a -t io n b y d e s c r i b i n g a n i n t e g r a t e d s y s t e m t h a t is b a s e d o n e n e r g y c o n -s e r v a t i o n a n d u t i li z a ti o n o f w a s t e p r o d u c t s ( F i g . 5 ). T h e s c e n a r i ob e g in s w h e n p u r e r a in w a t e r fa lls o n t h e m o u n t a i n s a n d f i lt er s th r o u g hl av a to b e t r a p p e d i n o u r a q u i f e rs , t h e s o u r c e o f o u r v e r y h i g h q u a l it yf r e sh w a t e r s u p p ly . T h i s w a t e r su p p l ie s o u r h o u s e h o l d s , w h e r e w e n o to n l y c o n s u m e i t , b u t u s e i t t o r e m o v e o u r s e w a g e a n d f o r o t h e rp u r p o s e s . T h e n w e t h r o w t h e w a t e r a w a y ! T h e w a t e r all g o e s to t h es e w a g e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t w h e r e w e s p e n d m o n e y t o c l ea n it a n d t h r o w iti n t h e o c e a n . I n s t e a d o f h a v i n g f i v e o r s i x t i m e s m o r e w a t e r t o u s e f o rm a n y p u r p o s e s i n H a w a i i, h u n d r e d s o f m i ll io n s o f g a ll o n s p e r y e a r a r ew a s t e d . H o w e v e r , w e c o u l d c o n s i d e r t h e s e w a g e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t a s ac e n t e r o f e c o n o m i c o p p o r t u n i t y . S o m e o f th e p o t e n t i a l us e s i n c l u d e ac u t - f l o w e r i n d u s t r y , g r a s s c r o p s , w a t e r - h y a c i n t h s f o r m e t h a n er e c o v e r y a n d e n e r g y a n d g r a i n c r o p s f o r a n i m a l fe e d . A s s h o w n i n F i g.5 , if t h e a n i m a l s a r e f e d o n p r o d u c t s t h a t a r e g r o w n , t h e m a n u r e s t h a ta r e p r o d u c e d c a n b e u s e d a s s o u r c e s o f b o t h n u t r ie n t s a n d e n e r g y f o r


14/15

1O 0 R . S h l e s e r

I ~ I t T - ~ ~ .r~ '3 0 H A ~ A I | ~ S E H O I . D S

I = " : l I % !

T U N A B O A T S~ I S H W A S T E S

F i g . 5 . I n t e g r a t e d f o o d p r o d u c t i o n f o r H a w a i i. H a w a i i i m p o r t s all i ts b a s i c m a t e r -ia ls inc l ud i ng an i m a l f eeds an d f e r ti li z e r. I f w a s t ed nu t r i en t s and w a t e r w e re r ec l a i m eda t t h e w a s t e w a t e r t r e a tm e n t p la n t, m a n y e c o n o m i c o p p o r t u n i t ie s c o u l d b e d e v e l o p e d .

t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f c r o p s s u c h a s Spimlina, b r i n e s h r i m p a n d o t h e ra q u a t i c s p e c i e s , o r a s f e r t il i z e r f o r p r o d u c i n g m a r i n e s h r i m p o r t i la p ia .

C o n s i d e r t h e e c o n o m i c c o n s e q u e n c e s o f g ro w i n g e n o u g h fe e d t op r o d u c e a ll t h e c h i c k e n s w e c o n s u m e i n H a w a ii , t h u s p r o d u c i n g 1 0 0 %o f o u r c h i c k e n r e q u i r e m e n t s i n st e a d o f im p o r t in g 8 0 % o f t h e c h i c k en s(Fig. 2) .

V i s u a l i z i n g th i s p i c t u r e is t h e f ir st s te p . A l t h o u g h w e c e r t a i n ly h a v en o t y e t a c h i e v e d o u r o b j e c t i v e , u n l e s s w e u n d e r s t a n d o u r f u t u r eo p t i o n s a n d o p p o r t u n i t ie s , w e c a n n o t c r e a t e o u r f u tu r e.T h e d i l e m m a t h at w e a r e f a c in g is th a t f u tu r e d e v e l o p m e n t o fa g r ic u lt u re a n d a q u a c u l t u re is h i n d e r e d b y e c o n o m i c p r o b l e m s w h i c hh a v e s o l u t i o n s , y e t w e , a s a s o c i e t y , h a v e n o t y e t b e e n a b l e t o f i n d aw a y t o c o n d u c t t h e r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t a c ti vi ti es t h a t w i ll s o lv et h e s e p r o b l e m s .


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Aquaculture in Haw aii, a social and econom ic dilemma 101ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to recognize the participation of the staff of the University ofCalifornia at Davis, Bodega Bay and UCLA in the wastewater activi-ties and the staff of the Oceanic Institute of Hawaii, especially DrChen Sheng Lee, Dr Paul Magarelli, Mr Mike Hites, Billy Richardsand Jim Sweeney for their contributions to this paper. This workwould not have been possible without financial support from SeaGrant, USDA, EPA and Alu Like of Hawaii, the Hawaii State Le~sla-ture, the Aquaculture Development Project of the State of Hawaii andthe Disney Corporation.

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHYAquaculture Planning Program. (1978). Aq u a cu l tu re Deve lo p men t orHawaii , Assessm ents and Reco mm endat ions , Center for Science Policyand Technology Assessment, Department of Planning and EconomicDevelopment, State of Hawaii.Aquaculture Planning Program. (1977). Permits and Environmental Require-

me nts fo r Aq uacu l ture in Hawaii , Center for Technology Assessment,Department of Planning and Economic Development, State of Hawaii.Statist ics of Hawaiian Agriculture. (1983). Hawaiian agriculture reportingservice, Hawaii Department of Agriculture.Shleser, R. (1979). Eco nom ics o f Shrim p Farming in Hawai i, Oceanic Ins ti tu te(unpublished).Cohlan, B. (1976). Experiments conducted at Bolsa Chica, California (un-published).Hills, C. & Nakamura, H. (1978). Fo o d f ro m S u n lig ht , World HungerResearch Project, University of Trees Press.Margarelli, E & Shleser, R. (1984). Fin a l Rep o r t o n Aq u a cu l tu re a n d L ive -stoc k Feeds, The Oceanic Institute.Developed from data contained in statistics of Hawaiian Agriculture1977-1983, Hawaiian agriculture reporting service, Hawaii Departmentof Agriculture.Castille, F. L. Jr & Lawrence, A. L. (1979). The role of bacteria in the uptakeof hexoses from seawater by posflarval penaeid shrimp, Co mp . B io ch em. /Physio., 64A, 41-8.

shleser 1986 aquacultural-engineering

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