Reni RosariFEB UGM

INFLUENCE, POWERAND POLITICS IN ORGANIZATION

INFLUENCE, POWERAND POLITICS IN ORGANIZATION

• mendefinisikan konsep tentang pengaruh sosial, kekuasaan, dan politik dalam organisasi

• mendeskripsikan berbagai macam tipe utama dari pengaruh sosial yang ada• mengidentifikasi tipe-tipe utama dari kekuasaan individual di dalam organisasi• menjelaskan dua pendekatan utama untuk pengembangan kekuasaan subunit di

dalam organisasi (the resource-dependency model dan the strategic contigencies model)

• menggambarkan kapan dan dimana politik organisasional terjadi dan berbagai macam bentuk perilaku politik yang dilakukan

• mengidentifikasi isu-isu utama yang berkaitan dengan penggunaan perilaku politik di dalam organisasi

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SOCIAL INFLUENCE: A BASIC ORGANIZATIONAL PROCESS

SOCIAL INFLUENCE, POWER, AND POLITICS: THEIR BASIC NATURE

Comparing Social Influence with Power and Politics

SOCIAL INFLUENCE: attempts to affect another in a desired fashion, whether or not these are successful

POWER: the potential to successfully influence another the capacity to change the behavior or attitudes of others in a desired manner

ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS: unauthorized uses of power that enhanced or protect your own (or your group’s) personal interests

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Social Influence, Power & Politics: How They Are Related

When we do something that has an effect on someone else, whether or not it is successful, we exert social influence over that person. Our capacity to exert influence over another is known as power. Unofficial uses of power to enhance or protect our self-interest, which usually are at the expense of organizational goals, are known as organizational politics.

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Social Influence, Power & Politics: How They Are Related

Personal Characteristics

Organizational Position

POWER

Motive: to satisfy personal interests

Organizational politics

Legitimate behavior

Motive: to satisfy organizational goals

Successful influence (had desired

effect)

Unsuccessful influence (did not have

desired effect)

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THE CONCEPT OF POWER

POWER the capability to get

someone to do something

the potential to influence

INFLUENCE the exercise of that

capability power in action

Power is not an attribute of a particular person it is an aspect of relationship that exists between two (or more) people.

No individual or group can have power in isolation; power must exist in relation to some other person or group

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TACTICS OF SOCIAL INFLUENCE:GETTING TO “YES” RATIONAL PERSUASION: using logical arguments and facts to persuade

another that a desired result will occur INSPIRATIONAL APPEAL: arousing enthusiasm by appealing to another’s

values and ideals CONSULTATION: asking for participation in decision making or planning a

change INGRATIATION: the process of getting someone to do what you want by

putting that person in a good mood or getting her/him to like you EXCHANGE: promising some benefits in exchange for compliance with a

request PERSONAL APPEAL: appealing to another’s feelings of loyalty and

friendship before making a request COALITION-BUILDING: seeking the assistance of others, or noting the

support of others LEGITIMATING: pointing out one’s authority to make a request, or verifying it

is consistent with prevailing organizational policies and practices PRESSURE: seeking compliance by using demands, threats, or intimidation

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WHEN ARE THESE TACTICS USED? Social influence depends on organizational levele.g.

Leaders ~ use inspirational appeals or may also use pressure, when necessary to influence their subordinates

Subordinates ~ use consultation or ingratiation to influence their bosses

Peers ~ use both exchange and personal appeal to influence peersGeneral rule open, consultative techniques are believed to be more

appropriate than coercive technology

The most popular techniques used at all levels are: consultation, inspirational appeal and rational persuasion.

The less socially desirable forms of influence: pressure and legitimating – are used much less frequently

Some techniques, such as ingratiation, coalition, personal appeal, and exchange, are more likely to be used in combination with others than to be used alone

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OTHER TACTICS OF INFLUENCE

Compliance: getting other to say “yes” to specific request Friendship/Liking

~ ingratiation and impression management

Commitment/Consistency1) The foot in the door – starting with a small request and, once this is

accepted, escalating to a larger one

2) The lowball – attempting to change a deal or agreement by making it less attractive to the target person after it is negotiated

Scarcity

~ playing hard to get and the fast approaching deadline technique

Reciprocity

~ door in the face tactic

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Protecting yourself from unwanted influence

1. Recognize influence tactics

2. Always question motives

3. Question influence from illegitimate sources

4. View attempts at persuasion as assaults on your personal freedom

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WHERE DOES POWER COME FROM?

INTERPERSONAL • Legitimate power• Reward power• Coercive power• Expert power• Referent power

STRUCTURAL• Resources• Decision making

power• Information power

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INDIVIDUAL POWER: A BASIS FOR INFLUENCE

POWER the potential to influence others successfully – both the things they do and the ways they feel about something

People may influence others because of the jobs they have and their individual characteristics

POSITION POWER: INFLUENCE THAT COMES WITH THE OFFICE power yang mengikuti posisi– Legitimate, Reward, Coercive, Information Power

PERSONAL POWER: INFLUENCE THAT COMES FROM THE INDIVIDUAL power yang mengikuti orangnya– Rational persuasion, Expert, Referent, Charisma

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TYPES OF INDIVIDUAL POWER: A SUMMARY

INDIVIDUAL POWER

POSITION POWER

• LEGITIMATE POWER

• REWARD POWER

• COERCIVE POWER

• INFORMATION POWER

PERSONAL POWER

• RATIONAL PERSUASION

• REFERENT POWER

• EXPERT POWER

• CHARISMA

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TIPE-TIPE POWER• Legitimate power: power yang diperoleh karena diberikan

• Coercive power: kemampuan atau wewenang untuk menghukum baik secara fisik maupun secara psikologis

• Reward power: kemampuan atau wewenang untuk memberikan dan mengontrol reward

• Expert power: kemampuan atau wewenang untuk memberikan atau mengontrol informasi bagi orang lain

• Referent power: mirip karisma karena melibatkan rasa percaya, penerimaan, kasih sayang, kesediaan untuk menjadi pengikut dan keterlibatan emosi

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LEGITIMATE POWER

KOMITMEN KEPATUHAN PENOLAKAN

Mungkin, jika perintah

dilakukan dengan sikap

sopan dan baik hati

Mungkin, jika perintah

dirasakan legitimate

Mungkin, jika bersikap arogan dan isi perintah

tidak pada tempatnya

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Bagaimana sebaiknya menggunakan legitimate power?

• Bersikap ramah dan baik hati• Percaya diri• Membangun understanding• Yakini bahwa perintah yang diberikan cukup pantas• Jelaskan alasan diberikannya perintah• Sensitif terhadap perasaan dan keinginan bawahan

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COERCIVE POWER

KOMITMEN KEPATUHAN PENOLAKAN

Tidak mungkin Mungkin, jika digunakan secara tepat dan dengan sikap penyesalan

Sangat mungkin, jika bersikap

kejam dan manipulatif

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Bagaimana sebaiknya menggunakan coercive power?

• Menginformasikan pada bawahan mengenai peraturan dan hukuman

• Memberi peringatan sebelum menghukum

• Melaksanakan hukuman secara konsisten dan tidak pandang bulu

• Memahami situasi sebelum bertindak

• Menjaga kredibilitas

• Hukuman sesuai dengan pelanggaran

• Menghukum secara tertutup, tidak di depan orang lain

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REWARD POWER

KOMITMEN KEPATUHAN PENOLAKAN

Mungkin, jika digunakan secara pribadi dan tidak

jelas

Sangat mungkin, jika dilakukan secara mekanis dan impersonal

Mungkin, jika bersikap arogan dan manipulatif

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Bagaimana sebaiknya menggunakan reward power?

• Berikan perintah yang masuk akal• Hanya memberikan perintah yang pantas dan etis• Memberikan reward sesuai harapan bawahan• Hanya memberikan reward yang kredibel

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EXPERT POWER

KOMITMEN KEPATUHAN PENOLAKAN

Sangat mungkin, jikapersuasif dan bawahan terlibat

dalam pengambilan

keputusan

Mungkin, jika persuasuif tapi

bawahan kurang cocok dengan

tujuan pimpinan

Mungkin, jika pemimpin

bersikap arogan dan menghina, atau bawahan

menentang tujuan pimpinan

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Bagaimana sebaiknya menggunakan expert power?

• Memperlihatkan kesan kepakaran (expertise)• Mempertahankan kredibilitas• Bertindak dengan percaya diri dan tegas• Selalu menambah informasi (meningkatkan

kepakaran)• Hindari sikap yang merendahkan harga diri

bawahan

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REFERENT POWER

KOMITMEN KEPATUHAN PENOLAKAN

Sangat mungkin, jika perintah

diyakini sebagai sesuatu yang penting bagi

sang pemimpin

Mungkin, jika perintahdiyakini sebagai sesuatu

yang kurang penting bagi

sang pemimpin

Mungkin, jikaperintah atau

kejadian akan berakibat buruk

pada sang pemimpin

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Bagaimana sebaiknya menggunakan referent power?

• Memperlakukan bawahan secara adil• Membela kepentingan bawahan• Sensitif terhadap kebutuhan dan perasaan

bawahan menjadi model peran (contoh teladan)

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POWER: HOW IT IS USED?

• The various bases of power are completely separate and distinct. They often are used together in varying combinations.

• WHAT BASES OF POWER DO PEOPLE PREFER TO USE? – People generally prefer using expert power the most and

coercive power the least– Many forms of power tend to be used to influence

subordinates, but expert power is preferred to influence peers and superiors

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American CEOs: What are their power bases?

• Source of power– Personality and leadership skills (83%)– Support of the board of directors (70%)– Support of senior colleagues (64%)– Expertise & knowledge (43%)– Management decision control (28%)– Support of the financial community (9%)

a survey of more than 200 American CEOs revealed that they obtain their power primarily by cultivating the support of others at different levels of the organization (source: based on data appearing in Stewart, 1999)

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EMPOWERMENT:THE SHIFTING BASES POWER IN TODAY’S ORGANIZATION

Empowerment the passing of responsibility and authority from managers to

employees

(Conger and Kanungo) a process of enhancing feelings of self efficacy among

organizational members through the identification of conditions that foster powerless and through their removal by both formal organizational practices and informal techniques of providing efficacy information

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The Empowerment Continuum: Relinquishing Control is a matter of degree

No Empowerment

(workers are not free to make any decisions about how to do their

jobs)

Total Empowerment

(workers are free to do their jobs as

they wish)

POWER GIVEN TO WORKERS

None A great deal

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Empowerment:• The key to empowering people successfully is the sharing of

expert information ( as opposed to the boarding of information that has been popular in the past)

• When employees are empowered, their supervisors are less likely to be “bosses” who push people around (i.e. coercive power) and more likely to serve as teacher or “facilitators” who guide their teams using knowledge and experience (i.e. expert power)

• Most managers are afraid of relinquishing control, so empowered employees remain in the minority of most organization. Experts predict a change in that direction is coming, however, and coming fast

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Empowerment: (Conger and Kanungo)

5 stages: identifying the conditions existing in the organization that lead to feelings

of powerlessness on the part of organizational members the implementation of of empowerment strategies and techniques ~

participative management, establishing goal setting programs, implementing merit based pay systems, job enrichment, etc.

accomplish two objectives: (1) remove the conditions identified in the first stage as contributing to powerlessness, (2) provide self efficacy information to subordinates

enhance empowerment feelings ~ increasing self efficacy strengthens effort performance expectancies

Behavioral consequences of empowerment include increased activity directed toward task accomplishment

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EMPLOYEES’ REACTION TO EMPOWERMENT: ALWAYS POSITIVE?

Empowerment does indeed often confer important benefits both on employees and their organizations. And these beneficial effects have occurred in companies where tall hierarchies of power tend to prevail. If empowerment can be implemented successfully in such organizations, they should be even easier to introduce in “flatter” ones, where people have less formally defined power.

Do employees all over the world react in the same way to empowerment? The answer is “No” Empowerment in low power distance and high power distance

cultures

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GROUP OR SUB UNIT POWER: STRUCTURAL DETERMINANTS

THE RESOURCE-DEPENDENCY MODEL: CONTROLLING CRITICAL RESOURCES

the view that power resides within subunits able to control the greatest share of valued organizational resource

All subunits may contribute to an organization, but the most powerful are those that contribute the most important resources. Controlling the resources other departments need puts a subunit in a better position to bargain for the resources that it requires

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The Resource – Dependency Model: An Example

Important Resources

Unimportant Resources

Production Accounting Marketing

Resources needed

Resources control

The accounting department would be more powerful than the production department or marketing department

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THE STRATEGIC CONTINGENCIES MODEL: POWER THROUGH DEPENDENCE

the view that explains power in terms of a subunit’s capacity to control the activities of other subunits.

A subunit’s power is enhanced when it can reduce the uncertainty experienced by other subunits, it occupies a central position in the organization, and its activities are highly indispensable

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The Strategic Contingencies Model: Power Through Dependence

Capacity to reduce uncertainty

Contingency Examples• Preventing market share decline by product

development

• Providing future based predictions that are accurate

• Absorbing problems from other units

High organizational centrality

Nonsubstitutable and Indispensable

activities

Power acquired by subunit and

power differentials

• Being in an urgent or immediacy position

• Located at center of work flow

• Possessing needed skills or expertise

• Possessing only talents that are available to complete job

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THE ILLUSION OF POWERMilgram’s experiments illusion of power~ indicate that possessing power in a legitimate way is

no the only way power can be exerted. Individuals who are perceived to have power may also be able to significantly influence others

Power is often exerted by individuals who have only minimum or no actual power.

The “eye of the beholder” plays an important role in the exercise of power

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ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS: POWER IN ACTION

Organizational Politics Actions by individuals that are directed toward the goal of

furthering their own self-interest without regard for the well-being of others or their organizations

all about actions not officially approved by an organization that are taken to influence others to meet one’s personal goals

Political Behavior behavior outside the normal power system, designed to benefit an individual or a sub unit

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THE ANTECEDENTS OF POLITICS: WHY AND WHEN IT OCCURS

Personal and Organizational variablesPersonal Characteristics: high Machiavellianism, high self-

monitoring, ambition, extraversion, popularity

Organizational Factors: ambiguous roles, goals, scare resources, history of political behavior, high centralization, conflicting goals across units or subunits, organizational maturity or complexity

Politics in Human Resource Management such as performance appraisal, personnel selection, and compensation

decisions

Politics and the Organizational Life Span the use of political practices in organizations is likely to be affected by its

degree of maturity

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Gaining control over and selective use of information

Cultivating a favorable impression image building ~ (1) dressing for success, (2) associating oneself with the successful accomplishments of others, (3) simply calling attention to one’s own successes and positive characteristics

Building powerful coalitions Blaming and Attacking other: finding a scapegoat Associating with powerful others Creating obligations and using reciprocity

POLITICAL TACTICS: WHAT FORMS DO THEY TAKE?

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ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS: ITS EFFECTS

Adverse Effects of Organizational Politics

when the level of political behavior is high in organization, job satisfaction and organizational commitment may suffer – with the result that good people decide to leave and seek employment elsewhere. Clearly this is a very negative effect of organizational politics.

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THE ETHICS OF ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS

Political Antics Top the “Most Unethical List” • Hiring, training, or promoting based on favouritism• Allowing differences in pay due to friendships• Sexual harassment• Gender discrimination in promotion• Using discipline in consistently• Not maintaining confidentiality• Gender discrimination in compensation• Non-performance factors used in appraisals• Arrangement with vendors leading to personal gain• Gender discrimination in recruitment or hiring

potentially political behaviour

WHAT, IF ANYTHING, IS UNETHICAL ABOUT ORGANIZATIONAL POLITIS?

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ASSESSING THE ETHICS OF POLITICAL BEHAVIOR

The more power an individual has, the more tempted s/he is to use that power toward immoral or unethical purpose

The ethics of organizational politics must satisfy three moral principles

1. Utilitarian outcomes ~ are only selfish interests promoted?

2. Individual rights ~ are privacy rights respected?3. Distributive justice ~ is it fair?

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Guidelines for Determining Ethical Action

Unethical

Ethical

Question 1

Will the political tactics promote purely selfish interests (as opposed to also promoting organizational goals?)

Question 2

Does the political activity respect the rights of the individual affected?

Question 2

Does the activity conform to standards of equity and justice; is it fair?

Yes No No Yes

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How to combat Organizational PoliticsAbolishing organizational politics completely may be impossible but managers can limit

its effect. Some of the most successful tactics are summarized here

SUGESSTION DESCRIPTION

• Clarify job expectation

• Open the communication process

• Be a good role model

• Do not turn a blind eye to game players

• Political behavior is nurtured by highly ambiguous conditions. To the extent managers help reduce uncertainty (e.g. by giving precise work assignments), they can minimize the likelihood of political behavior

• People have difficulty fostering their own goals at the expense of organizational goals when the communication process is open to scrutiny. It is hard to “get away with anything” when the system is open for all to examine

• Employees model the behavior of higher ranking officials. Accordingly, an openly political manager may encourage subordinates to behave in the same way

• Immediately confront an employee who attempts to take credit for another’s work. Managers who do not do so send a message that kind of behavior is acceptable

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CONTROLLING POLITICAL BEHAVIOR

Several strategies that should keep dysfunctional politics in check:1. Ensure that there is a sufficient supply of critical resources2. When resources are scare, introduce clear rules and regulations to

specify the use of these resources3. Establish a free flow information so that the organization is less

dependent on a few people at the center of a communication wheel4. Use effective organizational change management practices5. Restructure team and organizational norms to reject political tactics

that appear to interfere with the organization’s goals6. Select people who have a moderately strong socialized need for power

and a relatively low level of Machiavellianism7. Provide opportunities for open and candid dialogue to resolve

conflicts between employees and work units8. Get employees to monitor the workplace and actively discourage

coworkers who engage in political tactics