Semantics 1:Semantics 1:Lexical SemanticsLexical Semantics

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What is semantics?What is semantics?

• SemanticsSemantics is the study of the linguistic is the study of the linguistic meaning of morphemes, words, meaning of morphemes, words, phrases, sentences.phrases, sentences.

Dictionary definitionsDictionary definitions

• Defining the meaning of a word in terms Defining the meaning of a word in terms of other words (of the same language) of other words (of the same language) is circular and does not answer the is circular and does not answer the following question: What is meaning? following question: What is meaning? How do we learn meaning? How do we learn meaning?

Two types of semantic theoryTwo types of semantic theory

• Referential theoryReferential theory– The meaning of an expression (e.g. word) The meaning of an expression (e.g. word)

is its referent (i.e. what it refers to).is its referent (i.e. what it refers to).• Representational theoryRepresentational theory

– The meaning of an expression (e.g. word) The meaning of an expression (e.g. word) is its image, concept, mental is its image, concept, mental representation, or a bundle of semantic representation, or a bundle of semantic features, etc. (not directly linked to the features, etc. (not directly linked to the outside world)outside world)

The semantics ofThe semantics ofproper namesproper names

• The referential theory works best here.The referential theory works best here.• Noam ChomskyNoam Chomsky means means

• SeattleSeattle means means

But sometimes, you have But sometimes, you have problems with this idea …problems with this idea …

• The Morning starThe Morning star (Greek: (Greek: Phosphorous) means) means

• The evening starThe evening star (Greek: (Greek: Hesperus) means

• Phosphorous is Phosphorous. [trivial]• Phosphorous is Hesperus. [informative]

Frege’s conclusionFrege’s conclusion

• We need to distinguish between We need to distinguish between referencereference (German: Bedeutung) and (German: Bedeutung) and sensesense (German: Sinn) — something (German: Sinn) — something more abstract than reference.more abstract than reference.

• The morning starThe morning star and and the evening starthe evening star have the same reference but have have the same reference but have different senses.different senses.

Count (Common) NounsCount (Common) Nouns

• Let us assume that the meaning of a Let us assume that the meaning of a count noun is the collection of all count noun is the collection of all things/persons that have the things/persons that have the quality/property in question.quality/property in question.

• For exampleFor example, cow, cow means means

HyponymyHyponymy

• dogdog means the collection of means the collection of all dogsall dogs• mammalmammal means the collection means the collection of all mammalsof all mammals

• X is a X is a hyponymhyponym of Y = the meaning of of Y = the meaning of X is contained in the meaning of YX is contained in the meaning of Y

SynonymySynonymy

• A is A is synonymoussynonymous with B = the meaning with B = the meaning of A is the same as the meaning of Bof A is the same as the meaning of B

• couchcouch means means

• sofasofa means means

Antonymy 1 (gradable + Antonymy 1 (gradable + complementary)complementary)

• Suppose that each adjective means “the Suppose that each adjective means “the collection of all things/persons that have collection of all things/persons that have the quality/property in question”the quality/property in question”

• happyhappy then means then means

• unhappyunhappy means means• A and B are antonymous = The meanings A and B are antonymous = The meanings

of A and B do not overlap.of A and B do not overlap.

Complementary vs. gradable Complementary vs. gradable antonymsantonyms

• Complementary (no grey areas)Complementary (no grey areas)married/unmarriedmarried/unmarriedalive/deadalive/dead• Gradable (comparatives are possible; Gradable (comparatives are possible;

intermediate “areas” exist)intermediate “areas” exist)easy/hard, old/youngeasy/hard, old/young

Antonymy 2 Antonymy 2 (converses/relational (converses/relational

opposites)opposites)• Not all anonymous pairs can be Not all anonymous pairs can be

explained in this manner.explained in this manner.• parent vs. childparent vs. child• teacher vs. studentteacher vs. student• They are relational opposites. They are relational opposites. • Informally: For any x and y, whenever x Informally: For any x and y, whenever x

is A of y, y is B of x (and vice versa) = A is A of y, y is B of x (and vice versa) = A and B are (relational) antonymsand B are (relational) antonyms

Antonymy 3 (reverses)Antonymy 3 (reverses)

• right/leftright/left• Inside/outsideInside/outside• put together/take apartput together/take apart• ascent/descentascent/descent

Semantics of pronounsSemantics of pronouns

• Pronouns such as Pronouns such as hehe, , him(self), she, him(self), she, her(self),her(self), etc. stand for other nouns etc. stand for other nouns (NPs, to be more accurate)(NPs, to be more accurate)

• In some cases, a pronoun indicates the In some cases, a pronoun indicates the same object/person as another NP in same object/person as another NP in the same sentence. In this case, these the same sentence. In this case, these two expressions (the NP and the two expressions (the NP and the pronoun) are said to be co-referential.pronoun) are said to be co-referential.

Pronouns and coreferentialityPronouns and coreferentiality• Having the same “index” (subscripted letter) Having the same “index” (subscripted letter)

indicates “sameness” of some sort. Often indicates “sameness” of some sort. Often this means co-reference.this means co-reference.

• JohnJohnii said that he said that heii was happy. was happy.

• *John*Johnii blames him blames himii..

• JohnJohnii blames himself blames himselfii..

• JohnJohnii blames him blames himkk

• *John*Johnii blames himself blames himselfkk..

The use of pronounsThe use of pronouns

• Non-reflexive pronouns: Non-reflexive pronouns: I, you, he, she, I, you, he, she, theythey

• Reflexive pronouns: Reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, myself, yourself, himself, herself, ourselveshimself, herself, ourselves

• Miss Jones invited ______ to the party.Miss Jones invited ______ to the party.• Mary asked if John could excuse Mary asked if John could excuse

_____._____.

The use of pronounsThe use of pronouns• Miss Marple invited ______ to the partyMiss Marple invited ______ to the party..

– me, *myself, *Ime, *myself, *I– her, herself, him, *himselfher, herself, him, *himself– you, *yourselfyou, *yourself

• Mary asked Mary asked if John could excuse if John could excuse __________..– me, *myself, *Ime, *myself, *I– her, *herself, him, himselfher, *herself, him, himself– you, *yourselfyou, *yourself

Reflexive pronouns do not Reflexive pronouns do not always mean “co-reference”always mean “co-reference”

In some cases, reflexive pronouns are used when the In some cases, reflexive pronouns are used when the “sameness” cannot be captured in terms of “co-reference”.“sameness” cannot be captured in terms of “co-reference”.

Every boy likes himself.Every boy likes himself.Every boy thinks that he is smart. Every boy thinks that he is smart. (one of the two readings)(one of the two readings)

Himself does not denote the same object as every boy.Himself does not denote the same object as every boy.

Intersective adjectivesIntersective adjectives• The text calls this “pure intersection”: not a The text calls this “pure intersection”: not a

good term from the viewpoint of Set Theorygood term from the viewpoint of Set Theory• Examples: color terms (blue, yellow, etc.) Examples: color terms (blue, yellow, etc.)

Adjectives such as nice arguably receive Adjectives such as nice arguably receive intersective interpretations at least in some intersective interpretations at least in some cases (e.g. Mary is a nice person.)cases (e.g. Mary is a nice person.)

• Most adjectives are not really intersective.Most adjectives are not really intersective.

““subsective” adjectivessubsective” adjectives

• The textbook uses the term The textbook uses the term “subsective”.“subsective”.

• Adjectives like big, small, competent, Adjectives like big, small, competent, fast, etc. They take the meaning (a set) fast, etc. They take the meaning (a set) of a noun and yields its of a noun and yields its subsetsubset. So I . So I would call them would call them subset-yielding subset-yielding adjectivesadjectives..

Intensional adjectives (part1)Intensional adjectives (part1)

• Our text uses two non-standard terms (Our text uses two non-standard terms (non-non-intersection/anti-intersectionintersection/anti-intersection). Formal ). Formal semanticists use the term semanticists use the term intensional intensional adjective for both.adjective for both.

• E.g. alleged (non-intersective), fake (anti-E.g. alleged (non-intersective), fake (anti-intersective), etc.intersective), etc.

• Definition: non-insersective (can include Definition: non-insersective (can include members of the original set) anti-intersective members of the original set) anti-intersective (must not include members of the original set)(must not include members of the original set)

Intensional adjectives (part 2)Intensional adjectives (part 2)

• Intensional adjectives (semanticists’ Intensional adjectives (semanticists’ term)term)

• Their crucial characteristic: “Adj CN” Their crucial characteristic: “Adj CN” and “CN” and “CN” may notmay not have anything in have anything in common: consider examples like common: consider examples like fake fake gungun, , alleged criminal, prospective alleged criminal, prospective student.student.