Limitation of Humans in giving InformationSelective information is given depending upon

the importance he attaches to various parts of his requirements

User bias – Users generally have short term memory and tend to give requirement to solve problems faced very recently.

Limited capability, training and prejudices of user results in incomplete information.

Difficulties in RequirementAnalysisInaccurate definition of requirements because of

different perceptions of user and analyst.Analyst is generally overwhelmed by business

and technical details.Narration in English language can be vague.Existing system flow is physically implemented

already without proper analysis.Making a single change in the system generally

requires many other related changesInformation available from records may be

redundant and conflicting (e.g. in judiciary systems)

Strategies for determining Information RequirementAsking

Open ended or closed QuestionsBrain-stormingGroup consensus – Group is given a questionnaire. Each

one fills. It is summarized and replies are shared. A group discussion starts and consensus is reached.

From Existing SystemForward Analysis - Existing Reports and FormsBackward Analysis (Decision Analysis)

PrototypingA working system is developed which covers main

features (may have bugs) and I/O.

Observation MethodsObtrusive or Non-Obtrusive

Observer is observing directly or behind one-way mirror. Here the observer can change the observation points.

Direct or IndirectObserving by sitting personally or through fixed

cameras. Fixed cameras can help to observe routine processes for a long time. Generally used to find faults in the existing processes.

Structured or Unstructured In structured method, planned measurements or

counting of input/output is done whereas in unstructured method, observer records whatever he feels is pertinent.

Types of QuestionnairesFill-in-the-blanks

The respondent may write anything in the space provided. This will result in varied responses which need to be examined very closely. May take lot of time for filling.

Yes-No type Exact answers are received. Fast response.

Ranking scales Generally used for identifying a phenomenon by giving the

respondents weighted choices of multiple descriptions.Multiple Choice

Multiple options are given to the responder. Exact answers are ticked by respondents which can be analyzed statistically.

Rating ScalesRespondent is asked to rate the answer on a scale

(e.g. 1 to 5)

Questionnaire ConstructionFor each question take the following into account:Content

Is the question necessary and covers the information required?

Is the respondent likely to have answer?Wording

Is it worded properly according to the ability and level of respondent?

Is it clear and unambiguous? Is it unbiased

Format Is it in the best format (yes/no, multiple-choice etc.) for the

purpose? Is the questionnaire easy to read and use? (Not

complicated and not congested)

InterviewingSet the stageEstablish rapportFrame questions clearlyBe a good listenerEvaluate outcome

Mock InterviewsSix interviews will be conducted by a committee of 3 persons

in each group. Interviews will be held for developing a Library Management System. Others will appear in interviews in groups. Interviewed persons will be at the following levels:LibrarianTeacherOffice StaffTechnical StaffPG StudentsUG Students

Interviewing groups and interviewed groups will prepare themselves and discuss it with the teacher in advance.

Fact FindingReview of written documentsOn-Site Observation

Analyst has to be non-obtrusive and inconspicuousHe should not point out faults in the existing systemHe should not give advice or get into controversiesOn-site observation should be used only to understand

the flow of information and to find facts which cannot be done otherwise

Interviews and QuestionnairesReliability of InformationValidation of Information

Fact AnalysisInput and Output AnalysisData Flow DiagramsDecision Tables

Feasibility StudyAfter the user’s requirements have been

understood completely, there is need to establish whether the required performance can be achieved within the financial and technical constraints.

This is Feasibility Study and entails detailed identification, description and evaluation of proposed system.

Steps in Feasibility Analysis -IForm a project team and appoint a project leader

A senior system analyst is appointed as a project leader. He is responsible for guiding his team and completing the project in all respects.

Prepare system flow chartComplete flow of system and preparation of DFD.

Enumerate potential candidate systemsSelection of appropriate equipment and software from

those available in the market.Describe and identify characteristics of candidate

systemFixing the specifications of the candidate system vis-à-

vis the requirement of the project.

Steps in Feasibility Analysis -IIDetermine and evaluate performance and cost

effectiveness of each system Performance of the system in terms of speed, efficiency,

reliability and seamless integration with the existing system Cost/Benefit Analysis

Select best candidate system The above evaluation is done for all candidate systems and the

best one meeting all requirements is selected.Weigh System Performance and Cost data

If candidate systems cannot be compared straight-away, then weight should be attached to each performance criteria and then the comparison made.

Prepare and submit project report

Feasibility ConsiderationsEconomic Feasibility. This a very important consideration

and has to be done in depth. This is generally done through a detailed Cost and Benefit Analysis.

Technical Feasibility: The feasibility from technical angle requires study, whether the existing technology and know-how can support the proposed system.

Behavioral Feasibility: There is general resistance for the new systems. The feasibility study from this angle requires whether the proposed system will be accepted by the staff. Sometimes people have resistance to proposed system when they fear that the new system will affect their retention and/or growth and importance in the organization.

Classifications of Costs & BenefitsTangible Costs and Benefits

Costs which can be directly calculated in terms of money Example: Costs like Machines, Salaries, Building Etc. Benefits like Reduced staff, Increase in Income

Intangible Costs and BenefitsCosts and benefits which cannot be directly calculated in

terms of money Example: Morale of Staff Efficiency Company Image Customer Satisfaction

Cost Benefit AnalysisCost Categories

Hardware CostsPersonnel CostsFacilities Costs

Lighting/Air conditioning Furniture & flooring

Operating Costs Electrical consumption Security

Supplies Costs Paper, Ink etc

Cost Benefit AnalysisCosts

Hardware Computers, Network

Hardware, Peripherals etc

Software System Software,

Application Software Staff

Salaries Other Benefits

Facilities Building

Operating Costs Electricity Security Petrol Office Expenses (Paper

etc)

Benefits Improved EfficiencyReduction in staff Improved Corporate

ImageReliability of Outputs Improved customer

relationshipProper maintenance of

Accounts resulting in less losses and better revenue collection

In-time payment of Creditors and Govt. levies

Procedure for Cost/Benefit DeterminationIdentify Costs/BenefitsCategorize costs and benefits for analysisSelect method for evaluationInterpret resultsTake action

Classification of Costsand BenefitsTangibles/Intangible CostsTangible/Intangible BenefitsDirect Costs/BenefitsIndirect Costs/BenefitsFixed Costs/BenefitsVariable Costs/BenefitsOne-time Costs

TangibleCosts

In-tangibleBenefits

In-tangibleCosts

ClassificationOf Costs & Benefits

TangibleBenefits

Various Types of Costs & Benefits

Probability

Evaluation Methods -INet Benefit Analysis

Benefits - cost = Net BenefitMust consider time value of money because the

money invested now will incur interest and future value will be more

Present Value AnalysisBased on present value (Discounted) of Benefits

in comparison with investments on other projects (including bank deposits)

Evaluation Methods -IINet Present Value

Net present value is the accumulated discounted value of benefits minus the investment.

Payback Analysis Evaluation based on calculating the time by which the money

invested will be recovered. Costs will include Fixed and all running costs. Return will include all Tangible Benefits.

Break-Even Analysis: May be defined as Time by which the returns from proposed

project are equal to returns from the existing project. Break-Even Point is defined to be the point (in terms of time) at

which the costs and benefits are equal.Cash Flow Analysis

Accumulated costs and benefits calculated on regular intervals

Break-Even Chart

Break EvenPoint

FixedCosts

VariableCosts

InvestmentRange

ReturnRange

VolumeOr Time

Costs

Interpretation of AnalysisDifferent methods of analysis (described earlier)

will give results in various forms. The analyst has to interpret each result and decide which method is best suited for the project under evaluation. Generally methods which see the project more comprehensively and consider all types of costs and methods are more likely to give results which are more convincing.

Intangible costs and benefits are difficult to quantify.

Analysis may not give proper results if the data is incomplete or faulty.

Outline of Feasibility ReportI. Title PageII. Table of contentsIII. Scope/BoundariesIV. Statement of problemV. AbstractVI. Cost/Benefit statementVII. Implementation ScheduleVIII. Appendix

Mini Project- Office Automation

Class is divided into 5 groupsGroup-1 studies what areas of

office automation can be undertaken.

Group-2 studies the financial feasibility under the constraint of Rs. 25,000/-

Group-3 analyses the reports and prepares analysis report.

Group -4 studies the analysis reports and makes recommendations

Final discussion with the teacher of all the groups