second year module psychology

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UNIT 1: THEORIES OF LEARNING

INTRODUCTION

As human beings we behave the way we do largely because we have learned to act that way as a

result of our experience and practice. Learning therefore, is a life-long process which may take

place intentionally as in what happens in a classroom situation and unintentionally as in what

happens in our daily activities. The purpose of this unit is to define learning and presentdifferent theories of learning.

Definition of learning

Learning can be defined as any relatively peranent !"ange in #e"avior t"at o!!$r% a% a

re%$lt of pra!ti!e or e&perien!e (working definition. !hanges caused by development (such as

natural"biological process of growing older, mature, taller, etc. or characteristics of an

individual present at birth time (such as reflex actions of responding to hunger or pain. The

definition here is restricted to the relatively permanent changes and not temporal ones such asthose that happen due to illness, financial deprivation etc.

Learning t"eory

The problem with educators is not how to get learners to learn but how to help students learn

particular information, skills, and concepts that will be useful in adult life. #n educational

psychology, a learning t"eoryis an attempt to describe how people and animals learn, thereby,helping us understand the inherently complex process of learning.

'a%i! t"eorie% of learning

1. 'e"avio$ri%:$ehavioural learning theories are based on observable changes in behaviour.

$ehaviourism focuses on a new behavioural pattern being arising from stimulation from the

environment and the conse%uences that are repeated until it becomes automatic. These

theories involve the humanistic perspective that explains how full human potential can betapped from all human beings and how they can be self-actualised.

2. Cognitivi%& !ognitive learning theories are based on the thought processes behind the

behaviour. !hanges in behaviour are observed, and used as indicators as to what is happening

inside the learner's mind. These theories focus on explaining the mental processes that lead to

a particular outcome (behaviour or attitude change that an individual experiences.3. So!ial Con%tr$!tivi%& ocial learning theories are based on the premise that we all

construct our own perspective of the world, through individual experiences and schema.

ocial learning theories emphasi)e not only the reinforcement but also the effects of cues on

thought on action. !onstructivism focuses on preparing the learner to problem solving in

ambiguous situations.(chuman, *++.

1(1: THE HU)ANISTIC THEOR* OF LEARNING

This is the school of thought that lays emphasis on human behavior and human centred

education. #t is concerned with the individuals feelings, perceptions, beliefs and purposes.

umanist psychologists believe that human beings determine their own behavior. /ne of the

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main proponents of this theory are !arl 0ogers and Abraham 1aslow. The focus will be on !arl

0ogers.

CARL ROGERS HU)ANISTIC LEARNING +RINCI+LES

1( T"e ,e%ire to learn

uman beings have a natural desire to learn. Therefore, failure to learn is not due to the persons

inability to learn, but rather it is due to problems with the learning situation or environment. #n

the humanistic classroom, learners are given the freedom to satisfy their curiosity, to pursue their

interests and to discover for themselves what is important and meaningful about their

environment. A teacher must therefore, view every learner as having an e%ual chance to succeed.

-( Signifi!ant learning

ignificant or meaningful learning takes place when it is perceived by learners as being relevant

to their own needs and purposes. The humanists regard learning as a dual process that involves

both the ac%uisition of new information and the personali)ation of this information. tudents

learn best when learning is personally significant.

.( Learning /it"o$t t"reat

0ogers argued that learning is best ac%uired and retained in an environment that is free from

threats. The learning process is enhanced when students test their abilities, try new experiences

or even when they make mistakes without experiencing any criticism.

0( Selfinitiate, learning

Learning makes sense when it is self-initiated and when it involves both the feelings and mind of

the learners. !hoosing ones own learning is highly motivating and provides the studentopportunity to learn how to learn and a sense of independence.

2( 3"oleper%on learning

Learning must involve all aspects of the person& the cognitive, practical and affective (emotional

needs aspects. This creates a feeling of total accomplishment or all 2round development.

4( Learning an, !"ange

Learning must be suitable to the changing environment. ince knowledge is in a constant state of

change every day and that yesterdays learning may not enable a person to function successfullyin the modern world, an individual must be capable of learning in a changing environment.

!arl 0ogers identified two categories of learning, namely, meaningless (cognitive and

meaningful (experiential learning.



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)eaningle%% or !ognitive learning

#t involves academic knowledge and there is no personal learning for the individual. ince it only

involves the mind, this type of learning has no relevance for the whole person.

)eaningf$l or Signifi!ant or E&periential Learning

This learning involves applied knowledge, such as how to repair something (e.g. a car. #t is the

learning that addresses the needs and wants of the learner, and thus has the %ualities of personal

involvement, self-initiation, self-evaluation and long 2lasting effects.

To 0ogers, experiential learning is e%uivalent to personal development. #n his view, all human

beings have the natural propensity to learn. Therefore, it is the teachers role to facilitate

effective learning by encouraging, clarifying and organi)ing learning resources, but not to

impose their own view of knowledge on their students. 0ogers suggested that learning is

facilitated&-

*. 3hen the student participates in the learning process, having control over its nature and

direction (students remains at the centre of the teaching-learning process45. 3hen learning is primarily based on confrontation with real problems, whether they are

social, personal, scientific or practical problems4

6. 3hen learners are re%uired to use self-evaluation to assess their progress.

7xperiential education, or learning by doingis the process of actively engaging learners in an

authentic experience that has benefits and conse%uences. Learners make discoveries and

experiment with knowledge themselves, instead of hearing or reading about the experiences of

others. Learners also reflect on their experiences, thus developing new skills, attitudes and ways

of thinking. 7xperiential education also empowers learners to take responsibility for their own

learning.

In%tr$!tional ipli!ation% of "$ani%ti! t"eory

Learning should be person centred. The curriculum, content and teaching methods should be

responsive to the learners feelings and personal development. There must be good interaction

between the learners and teachers during the teaching and learning process. #n order to further

promote humanistic learning, the following instructional strategies and methods may be used&

8rovide learners with a variety of resources that can support and guide their learning

experiences.

1ake use of peer tutoring. This involves learners teaching one another for the mutualbenefit of the student tutor and student tutee.

9se discovery learning to allow learners to seek answers to real %uestions, make their

own discoveries and become involved in self 2 directed learning.

Role of t"e "$ani%ti! tea!"er



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!arl 0ogers made significant contributions to the field of education with his theory of

experiential learning.

7xperiential learnings key idea involves engaging student voice in active roles for the purpose

of learning. The experiential learning mindset changes the way the teachers and students view

knowledge. :nowledge is no longer ;ust some information on paper.

#t becomes active, something that is dealt with in real life situations. #t starts to make teachersbecome experience providers, and not ;ust transmitters of the written word. tudents become

knowledge creators as well as knowledge gatherers.

$esides changing the roles of students, experiential education re%uires a change in the role of

teachers. Teachers become active learners too, experimenting together with their students,

reflecting upon the learning activities they have designed, and responding to their students

reactions to the activities.

#n humanistic education, the teachers role is mainly that of the facilitator. Teachers have to

create a conducive learning atmosphere by encouraging students, clarifying issues and

organi)ing learning resources. They also have to have to demonstrate realness or genuineness,

i.e., to be honest in their relationship with learners.

Teachers also need to be trustworthy so that learners can feel free to explore with support from

teachers. Teachers need to be empathetic to the learners, i.e., to put themselves in the place of

learners and experience the learners perceptions and feelings.

To conclude, it should be noted that the humanistic theory of learning emphasi)es democratic

and discovery methods of teaching and learning. #t encourages the involvement of pupils in the

learning process. There should be unconditional positive regard because people function well

when accepted as they are. Therefore, positive attitudes like love, respect, tolerance andacceptance are important in the learning-teaching process.

1(1(- 'EHA5IOURIST THEORIES OF LEARNING

$ehaviorism focuses only on the ob;ectively observable aspects of learning, and discounts the

internal processing that might be associated with the activity. ?+ - *+6 - !lassical !onditioning

7dward Thorndike(*>@? - *+?+ - Law of 7ffect

ohn $. 3atson(*>@> - *+B> - 7motional !onditioning

$.


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Type% of !on,itioning

There are two types of conditioning&

*. Cla%%i!al !on,itioning 6learning #y a%%o!iation7 8 Ivan +avlov!lassical conditioning refers to a process of repeatedly associating a previously neutral stimulus

with an unconditioned stimulus in order to evoke a conditioned response ((lavin, 5CC+.

8avlov a 0ussian physiologist is best known for being the first to have carried out experimentson stimulus substitution. is famous experiment involved food, a dog and a bell.

+avlov9% E&perient

8avlov observed that when food was placed in the dogs mouth, the dog salivated. The food is

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)that elicits unconditioned response(UCR), salivation. 8airing the

neutral stimulus such as the sound of the bell with the food results in conditioning the dog to

salivate at the sound of the bell. The bell is a conditioned stimulus(CS)that has ac%uired the

power to elicit what is now the conditioned response(CR) of salivation. Thus neutral stimuli that

accompany (usually precede unconditioned stimuli often becomes conditioned stimuli.

Hig"erOr,er Con,itioning& /nce the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell with food,

another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may be flashed at the same time that the bell is

rung. 7ventually the dog will salivate at the flash of the light without the sound of the bell.

Cla%%i!al !on,itioning ter%

a timulus 2any aspect of the environment that directly influences our behaviour or conscious

experience (ie environmental condition that activates the senses

b Deutral stimulus (D 2stimulus that has no effect on a particular response.

c 9nconditioned stimulus (9! 2 a stimulus that naturally (inborn evokes a particular

response.

d 9nconditioned response (9!0 2 a behaviour that is prompted automatically by a stimulus

(ie unlearned, inborn reaction to an unconditioned stimulus

e !onditioned stimulus (!- a previously neutral stimulus that evokes a particular response

after having been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

f !onditioned response (!0 2 response that the conditioned stimulus elicits

T"e t"ree p"a%e% of !la%%i!al !on,itioning(

+"a%e 1( 'efore !on,itioning+rep!on,itioning

9nconditioned stimulus (meat leads to 9nconditioned response (salivation

Deutral stimulus (bell leads to no response

+"a%e -: D$ring Con,itioning

Deutral stimulus (sound of bell paired with 9nconditioned stimulus (meat leads to

9nconditioned response (salivation

+"a%e .: After !on,itioningpo%t!on,itioning

!onditioned stimulus (sound of bell triggers conditioned response (salivation

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+rin!iple% in !la%%i!al !on,itioning

$ehaviorists have described a number of different phenomena associated with classical

conditioning. ome of these elements involve the initial establishment of the response, while

others describe the disappearance of a response. These elements are important in understanding

the classical conditioning process.

A!;$i%ition

Ac%uisitionis the initial stage of learning when a response is first established and gradually

strengthened.


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As long as the pairing of school with childs favourite aspects (eg toys is done consistently

and repeatedly, the learner will grow to love school.

A child learns to fear the teacher by associating him with punishment (eg beating. teps

should be taken to remove this childs teacher-fear so that he"she can learn well

A teacher can use classical conditioning principles to extinguish unwanted behaviours in

students.


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#n his experiment, kinner studied the behaviour of rats and pigeons. e placed sub;ects

(rats and pigeons in controlled situations (skinner boxes and observed changes in their

behaviour produced by systematic changes in the conse%uences of their behavior.

The skinner boxes consisted of a bar that was easy for rats to press. /ne being the food

dispenser that could give a rat food pellets and the other a water dispenser that could give arat water, once pressed

After a few trials"incidental presses, the rat would start pressing the bar fre%uently, receiving

food pellets each time The food reward conditioned the rats behaviour, strengthening bar pressing and weakening

all other behaviour (of wandering around the box

Note?

#f our actions result in people getting angry and disliking us, we are being operant

conditioned to believe that the world is a dangerous and threatening place

#f the environment rewards us when we perform certain acts, then we tend to repeat them eg

if you study hard and get a note of praise, you will tend to study hard again


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+$ni%"ent, on the other hand, is the presentation of aversive stimulation following a responseie the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it

follows. 8unishment is a stimulus which diminishes the probability or strength of a response

preceding it. There are two kinds of punishment&

a +o%itive p$ni%"ent, sometimes referred to as punishment by application, involves the

presentation of an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows.

b Negative p$ni%"ent, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when an unfavorable

event or outcome is removed after a behaviuor occurs.

ometimes negative reinfor!eentis often confused with p$ni%"ent(Degative reinforcementincreases the likelihood of the behaviour it follows. 3hereas 8unishment decreases the

likelihood of the behaviour it follows. The following illustrates punishment&

Thus, if a pupil reports late for class, the teacher gives the pupil a stern reprimand, which servesas punishment. The response of reporting late for class was followed by the aversive stimulation

of the teachers disapproval.

A!tivity 1

E&aple% of negative reinfor!eent an, p$ni%"ent(

!lassify the following as an example of negative reinforcement

i. Taking a panadol relieves a headache. Taking a panadol is.........................

ii. $eing slapped by your parent for talking back decreases future talking back. Talkingback is................................................

iii. A prefect booking a pupil for late coming increases future ate coming. Late coming

is........................................

iv. 8retending to be ill to avoid going to school increases future pretence sick days.8retending to be ill is...............................................................

Ho/ !an tea!"er% get p$pil% to e&"i#it #e"avior% t"ey /ant $%ing prin!iple% of operant

!on,itioning@

S"aping

haping is the process of gradually refining a response by successively reinforcing closerapproximations of it. haping is the teaching of a new skill or behaviour by means of reinforcing

Educational Psychology Second Year Module - DALICE Page *

Frequency of

behaviour

decreases+you no

Presentation of an

unpleasant

stimulus +your hand

Behaviour+you

touch a hot iron
http://psychology.about.com/od/operantconditioning/f/punishment.htmhttp://psychology.about.com/od/operantconditioning/f/positive-punishment.htmhttp://psychology.about.com/od/operantconditioning/f/negative-punishment.htmhttp://psychology.about.com/od/operantconditioning/f/punishment.htmhttp://psychology.about.com/od/operantconditioning/f/positive-punishment.htmhttp://psychology.about.com/od/operantconditioning/f/negative-punishment.htm


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for small steps towards the desired goal. haping is an important tool in classroom instructionwhere student behaviours are modified

#f sometimes the desired behaviour is exhibited by the pupils, then teachers can increase

fre%uency through positive or negative reinforcement.


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Differen!e% #et/een !la%%i!al an, operant !on,itioning

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING 6+A5LO57 O+ERANT CONDITIONING 6SINNER7

9nconditioned stimulus(food unconditioned

response (salivation

0esponse (press lever stimulus (reward

#nvolves reflective involuntary behaviours

(salivation, fear

#nvolves more complicated voluntary behaviours

!onditioned stimulus (bell elicits conditioned

response +salivation

!onditioned response (press lever leads to

conditioned stimulus (reward"food

#nvolves the association of two stimuli (eg meat

and bell

#nvolves an association between a response

(studying hard and the resulting conse%uence

(getting an A grade

The unconditioned stimulus is paired with the

conditioned stimulus independent of the

individuals behaviour

The reinforcing conse%uence occurs only if the

response being conditioned has ;ust been emitted

(ie the reinforcing conse%uence is contingent on

the occurrence of the response

Appli!ation of operant !on,itioning

/perant conditioning is more applicable in learning situations than classical conditioning

especially for the fact that it the learner should be actively involved in the learning process(discovery or learning by doing.

1aterial in the course should be divided into small units, so that each of which must bemastered by learners at a high level of proficiency before the next unit is attempted.

Applications of reinforcement principles by the teacher increases students productivity (hard

work ie in teaching a new task, reinforce immediately rather than permit a delay between

responses and reinforcement. #n the early stages of the task reinforce every correct response.

As learning occurs, re%uest for more correct responses prior to reinforcement and graduallyshift to intermittent"partial reinforcement. 0einforce improvement or steps in the right



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direction. Fo not insist on perfect performance on the first try. Fo not reinforce undesirablebehaviour.

/perant conditioning helps in behavior therapy ie helps in eliminating bad habits by

applying negative punishments

.7( T"e la/ of effe!t 6la/ of !onne!tioni%7 E,/ar, T"orn,i=e

T"orn,i=e>% e&perient

7dward Thorndike did research in animal behaviour before becoming interested in human

8sychology. e used cats as his sub;ects that he placed in a pu))le box (a small cage with a door

that would open if the cat pulled a string hanging inside. #n his experiment, Thorndike put ahungry cat inside the box with a closed door, placed food outside and the cats effort to escape to

get the food were observed. The cats task was to get out of the cage to obtain food (reward

placed outside the cage. #t went through the process of walking around, clawing at the floor,

;umping at the sides of the cage until by chance it pulled the string opening the cage door. 3itheach trial, the cat became more efficient at opening the door of the box.


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he soon became conditioned to fear and avoid the rat. The fear was generali)ed to other small

animals. 3atson then HextinguishedH the fear by presenting the rat without the loud noise. ome

accounts of the study suggest that the conditioned fear was more powerful and permanent than it

really was. (arris, *+@+4 amelson, *+>C, in $rophy, *++C. ere is the situation4

Loud sound (9!


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!ognitive learning is learning that takes place as a result of changes in cognition (Louw K7dwards, *++@&5B@. !ognition includes our thoughts, ideas, beliefs, understanding and

knowledge.

!ognitive 8sychologists have developed information-processing models to identify how humanobtain information, store and apply information.

T"e inforation pro!e%%ing %y%te(

Three-tage #nformation 8rocessing 1odel - input first enters a sensory register, then is

processed in short-term memory, and then is transferred to long-term memory for storage and

retrieval.

*. Sensory egister- receives input from senses which lasts from less than a second to four

seconds and then disappears through decay or replacement. 1uch of the information never

reaches short term memory but all information is monitored at some level and acted upon if

necessary.5. Short#$erm %emory (S$%!- sensory input that is important or interesting is transferred from

the sensory register to the T1. 1emory can be retained here for up to 5C seconds or more ifrehearsed repeatedly. hort-term memory can hold up to @ plus or minus 5 items. T1

capacity can be increased if material is chunked into meaningful parts.

6. &ong#$erm %emory and Storage (&$%!- stores information from T1 for long term use.

Long-term memory has unlimited capacity. ome materials are HforcedH into LT1 by rote

memori)ation and over learning. Feeper levels of processing such as generating linkages

between old and new information are much better for successful retention of material.

A%pe!t% of t"e o,el to note

%eaning'l ''ects- 1eaningful information is easier to learn and remember. #f a learner linksrelatively meaningless information with prior schema it will be easier to retain.

Serial )osition ''ects- #t is easier to remember items from the beginning or end of a list rather

than those in the middle of the list, unless that item is distinctly different.

)ractice ''ects- 8racticing or rehearsing improves retention especially when it is distributed

practice. $y distributing practices the learner associates the material with many different contexts

rather than the one context afforded by mass practice.

$rans'er ''ects#The effects of prior learning on learning new tasks or material. #nterference

7ffects - /ccurs when prior learning interferes with the learning of new material.

*rgani+ation ''ects- 3hen a learner categori)es input such as a grocery list, it is easier to

remember.

&evels o' )rocessing ''ects- 3ords may be processed at a low-level sensory analysis of their

physical characteristics to high-level semantic analysis of their meaning. The more deeply a

word is processed the easier it will be to remember.



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State ,ependent ''ects ##f learning takes place within a certain context it will

be easier to remember within that context rather than in a new context.

%nemonic ''ects- 1nemonics are strategies used by learners to organi)e relatively meaningless

input into more meaningful images or semantic contexts. % So!ial Learning T"eory

ntroduction

$andura's social learning theory emphasi)es the iportan!e of o#%ervingand modeling the

behaviours, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. ocial learning focuses on learning that

occurs within a social context. #t argues that people learn from one another through

o#%ervational learning o,elling an, vi!ario$% e&perien!e. )o,ellingis the imitation ofothers behaviour while vi!ario$% e&perien!eis learning from others successes or failures and

o#%ervational learningis learning by observation and imitation of others.

$andura (*+> described the following four processes of social cognitive theory& attention

processes, retention process, motor reproduction processes and motivational&

a Attention p"a%e2 it is the first phase and it involves paying attention to the model. 3hat a

learner observes or attends depends on characteristics of the model and character. tudents

pay attention to role models who are attractive, successful, interesting and popular. Thus, thestudent who performs well in college academic activities is more likely to be observed. The

leader of the gang is much more likely to be watched and imitated than someone who is not

respected by gang members.

b Retention p"a%e2 the observer must be able to remember the behaviour that has been

observed. /nce the teacher has the learners attention, it is time to model the behaviour they

want learners to imitate and then give learners a chance to practice or rehearse. Thusprocesses, such as imagery and rehearsal that enhance memory are mediators of

observational learning e.g. a teacher must show how to write the letter A.

c Repro,$!tion p"a%e2 is the ability to replicate what the model has ;ust demonstrated.Learners try to match their behaviour to the models (after practicing several times, can the

learners reproduce what the teacher had modelled=.

d )otivational p"a%e2 learners must want to demonstrate what they have learnt. Learners

will imitate the model because they believe that doing so will increase their own chances to



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be reinforced (#n a classroom situation, this often entails praise, good grades given formatching the teachers model.

5i!ario$% learningis an important concept in observational learning where individuals(learners learn by seeing others reinforced or punished for engaging in certain behaviours e.g. in

class when one pupil is fooling around, teachers often single out others who are working very

well and reinforce them for the good ;ob. The misbehaving student sees that working hard is

reinforced and gets back to work.

Selfreg$lation learning is an important concept in social learning theory. elf-regulation iswhen individuals have their own ideas about what is appropriate or inappropriate behaviour and

chooses action accordingly orrewarding or punishing ones own behaviour.

Appli!ation of t"e So!ial Learning t"eory to tea!"ing an, learning

#n applying $anduras ocial Learning theory, the following principles should be kept in minds&

*. The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organi)ing and rehearsing the

modelled behaviour symbolically and then enacting it overtly. !oding modelled behaviourinto words, labels, or images results in better retention than simply observing.

5. #ndividuals are more likely to adopt a modelled behaviour if it results in outcomes they value.

6. #ndividuals are more likely to adopt a modelled behaviour if the model is similar to the

observer and has admired status and the behaviour has functional value.

E,$!ational ipli!ation%

Teachers fall in the category of the significant others to be modelled and therefore, must

strive to be exemplary in their conduct.

Fescribing the conse%uences of behaviour can effectively increase appropriate behaviours

and decrease inappropriate ones.

1odelling can provide a faster and more efficient means of teaching new behaviour (a

teacher must ensure that the four essential conditions prevail& attention, retention,

reproduction and motivation.

Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviours and take care that they do not

model inappropriate behaviours.

Learners often learn a great deal simply by o#%ervingother people. Teachers should expose

learners to a variety of models, this techni%ue is important to break down traditional

stereotypes. A teacher can invite respectable people (eg professors, female doctors etc to theclass as a way of inspiring the students

Learners must believe that they are capable of accomplishing school tasks. Teacher can

promote such by having learners watch others be successful and experience success on theirown.

Teachers should help students make realistic expectations for their academic

accomplishments.

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elf-regulation techni%ues provide an effective method for improving student behaviour

Teachers need to be consistent when applying reinforcement or punishment.

UNIT -: ASSESS)ENT AND E5ALUATION

Teachers view assessment and evaluation as an important part of their teaching profession. They

need to know something about pupils attainment and achievement because parents, otherteachers, school authority, education authority, employers 2 the list is endless, would like to

know how pupils are performing (!hild, *++>.

The pupils also like to know how they are performing and their progress.


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6. To locate particular difficulties in the ac%uisition of knowledge and skills. Fiagnostic or

remedial assessment is %uite effective in this area.

?. To measure the outcome of learning. ummative assessment plays a ma;or role in this

direction.

B. /ne of the teachers ob;ectives in his"her teaching, amongst others, is to stimulate the

ac%uisition, understanding and application of knowledge. #t therefore seems perfectly

reasonable and desirable that the teacher should also want to explore the extent to which

these ob;ectives have been achieved.. $eyond the classroom there are employers and professions who re%uire some assurances

about the level of competences reached by prospective students or pupils. These assurances

must be expressed as accurately as possible and in terms which are readily and easily

understood by all the people concerned. . To motivate the learners and learning process.

+. To evaluate the teaching and learning process.*C. To help build a positive and realistic self-image.

**. To provide information to parents about the achievements of their children.

A!tivity

Fistinguish clearly between Assessment and 7valuation.

T*+ES OF ASSESS)ENTS

A( Forative A%%e%%ent

This is when assessment gives information and evidence about learners learning.


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This sums up progress and achievement of the learners. ummative Assessment consists of both

continuous assessment and formal assessment.

C( CriterionReferen!e, A%%e%%ent

This type of assessment gives specific information about what an individual learner knows,

understands and can do regardless of the performance of others. #n short, it measures the

learners performance against pre-determined expectations. #t focuses on what a learner can do ornot do in relation to a given ob;ective.

The diploma programme stresses the use of criterion-referenced level of achievement in relation

to the basic competencies.

8ercentage marks must be related to criteria for assessing a learners achievement. These criteria

are meant to measure the learners performance clearly. 7xample& BCI is passing mark for

primary schools and ?CI is a passing mark for Tertiary.

D( NorReferen!e A%%e%%ent

This is when you compare a learners performance against the performance of the class as a

whole. !ertain MnormsN are established and the learners are ;udged against those norms and

classified according to the set norm or the performance as MpassN or MfailN.

N('& The grade seven external examinations for instance are both summative and norm-

referenced.

The performance of each candidate is ;udged against those who take the examination that year.

The average performance of the pupils is taken into account. !ut off points can be determined by

each province.

E( Inforal Contin$o$% A%%e%%ent

This is when you assess and record the progress of the learners as you teach. This is normally

structured in a sub;ective way. 3hat this means is that the progress can be gathered from a

number of situations in the classroom.

F( Foral Contin$o$% A%%e%%ent

#n this case an assessment situation is set up. An activity is organi)ed to specifically assess

certain competences in the learners. This can be done through pro;ects, presentations, tests,

pu))les, etc.

+rin!iple% of Contin$o$% A%%e%%ent

*. #t should be based on the basic competences contained in the syllabus and should relate to the

real life of the learners.5. #t should go beyond the recall of knowledge

6. #t should monitor progress in relation to the learning outcomes.

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A!tivity

Fiscuss merits and demerits of !ontinuous Assessment.

EDUCATIONAL )EASURE)ENT AND E5ALUATION

According to :akkar (*++6 the terms MmeasurementN and MevaluationN represent concepts that

are often used by educational workers while studying children and also while studying individual

differences involving academic achievement and aptitude, special abilities, emotional and social

ad;ustment, as well as physical strength and skill.

1easurement involves the gathering of descriptive date that can be related to an appropriate

standard of norm.

7valuation and measurement are not the same, although evaluation involves measurement.

7xample, if we assess students knowledge and understanding in a sub;ect by means of an essay

of ob;ective type of test, which is measurement. #f on the other hand the teacher puts a value on

the students work, example talents, attitudes and other characteristics of behavior, that is

evaluation. 7valuation should in part involve testing that is non-sub;ective on the part of theteacher4 otherwise, it is likely to be erratic and not reliable.

7valuation, on the other hand, consists of much more than mere collection and recording of data

and is more comprehensive than measurement.

#t includes informal and intuitive ;udgment about pupils progress as well as the act of MvaluingN

which means expressing what kind of behavior is desirable and good. Thorndike and agen

(*+BB are the opinion that good measurement techni%ues provide the solid foundation for sound

evaluation.

3"y Eval$ate

7valuation, like assessment, has many purposes. #t can be used in the following ways&

1( Eval$ation a% #a%i% for %!"ool ar=% or gra,e%:

The educational system re%uires that teachers occasionally submit marks or grades for

students. These marks or grades can be arrived at through formal examinations, regular

tests, assignments, laboratory work, observational data or a combination of these.

-( Eval$ation a% ean% of inforing parent%:

tudents parents want and have the right to know how their children are progressing in

school. tudent evaluation is the most important way of providing them with thisinformation.

.( Eval$ation for prootion to "ig"er gra,e%:

tudents evaluation is sometimes used to determine whether a student has made enough

progress to be in the next grade or class in the school.

0( Eval$ation for St$,ent )otivation:

Educational Psychology Second Year Module - DALICE Page 2.


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uccess in the test and examinations as well as other school activities can give great

encouragement to students. imilarly, failure to do well can make students work harder or

strive to do better. Teachers should try to give their students feedback on the evaluation of

all aspects of their learning and behavior so that both those who do well and those who

do not do well be motivated to improve on their performance.

2( Eval$ation for g$i,an!e an, !o$n%eling p$rpo%e%:

All students need to be advised to help them solve their own personal problems, whether

academic or emotional. o evaluation is needed in this direction.

4( Eval$ation to a%%e%% t"e effe!tivene%% of tea!"ing:

#f the teacher does not in some way assess the students knowledge and skills, she"he will

not be able to evaluate the success of her"his teaching.


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A!tivity

/utline some methods of evaluation. 3hich ones are often used by teachers and why=

-(1: TESTS

3"at i% a te%t@

A test is an instrument or tool that is used to assess or measure the learners progress and

achievement in terms of knowledge, skills, values and attitudes.

3"at i% te%ting@

Testing refers to a systematic procedure of measuring or assessing the learners progress and

achievement. #n other words, testing refers to the administration of a test.

T*+ES OF TESTS

The tests are in various types. ome of the types include ob;ectives tests, sub;ective tests,

aptitude tests, achievement tests, diagnostic tests, etc.

*. O'BECTI5E TESTS

These are tests whose answers can be scored more ob;ectively. /b;ective tests can be divided

into three main groups as follows&

(a upply item tests.

(b election-item tests.(c 0ank-order item tests

(a S$pply ite te%t%

The aim of this form of test is to determine the learners ability to recall or recogni)e the

appropriate term, concept or phrase to complete a given statement. The learner is presented

with incomplete statements and has to supply a term/ word/ name/ date or phrasewhich

either completes the statement or answers the %uestion. uch test items are also call fill initems. 7xample& TheOOOOOO.of ambia is over *C million people. #n this example, the

correct term would bepoplation.

(b Sele!tionite te%t%

The learner is re%uired to select the most suitable response from several alternatives

provided. The selection-item tests can be divided into the following sub-groups&

True"


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This re%uired the learner to match the corresponding options or make a choice from

corresponding options. 9sually, this test has two columns of items which are to be associated

directly. !onsider the following example&

(AThe capital city of outh Africa *. 9..A($ $arak /bama is president of this country 5. chool

(! A place where learning takes place 6. 8retoria

#n the example above, the correct answer would be to match (a with 6, (b with * and (c

with 5 sot that in the blank spaces there is $, !, A.

-ultiple coice items test

The learner chooses the best answer out of several alternatives. A multiple choice item may

be in the form of a %uestion or an incomplete statement (known as astem. 7xamples&

3hich of the following cities is the capital city of ambia=

(A Lilongwe

($ 1babane(! arare

(F Lusaka

The first president of ambia was OOOOOO.

(A :enneth :aunda

($ arry Dkumbula(! imon :apwepwe

(FLevy 1wanawasa

ictorial#test items

These are pictures or drawings. They are very suitable for learners with difficulties in reading

ability. They test such abilities as to recall information, to complete parts missing in a picture

or drawing or to interpret the picture or drawing.

(c Ran=or,er ite te%t%

The learner is re%uired to indicate the appropriate order of items presented, e.g., in

chronological order, alphabetical order, ascending order or descending order. A learner may

be asked to arrange the following dates in a chronological order or happening&

(A5CC@($*+?

(!*>CC

(F*+C5

#n the task above, the correct way to arrange these dates in chronological order (from theearliest to the latest would be like this&

(! *>CC

(F *+C5

($ *+?

(A 5CC@

A learner may also be asked to arrange the names of countries in alphabetical order&



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They present a problem of content validity. An ade%uate sampling of the content and

ob;ectives of a topic by essay %uestions is very difficult. The essay %uestions take more time

to answer than ob;ective %uestions, thus limiting the number of %uestions that can be asked

and also the topics that can be examined.

There is the problem ofsb2ective scoring. ub;ectivity makes essay test results lower in

reliability than ob;ective tests. 7xtraneous factors can influence a teachers scoring or making

of an essay, e.g., poor handwriting, grammatical, spelling errors, teachers mood, etc. Theteachers first impression of the learner (known as hallo e''ect affects the marking either

positively or negatively.

They re%uire a lot of time and concentration when marking. This tends to limit essay testing

to very specific ob;ectives where a teacher is handling large classes.

A!tivity

Eive some suggestions of how essay testing can be improved to minimi)e its disadvantages.

6. A+TITUDE TEST

An aptitude test is a one that is designed to measure what a person can learn to perform orwhether he"she can perform the ;ob after training.

An aptitude test predicts future ability on the basis of present ability.

Attitude is the ability to ac%uire knowledge and skills.

?. ACHIE5E)ENT TEST

A test designed to measure what an individual has mastered or achieved

#t measures the extent to which a person has ac%uired certain information or mastered

certain skills, usually as a result of specific instruction.

#n other words, an achievement test measures the effects of learning or training.

B. DIAGNOSTIC TEST

A test which is used to identify or detect weaknesses or strengths of the learner in specific

areas of achievement in order to put corrective measures.

A!tivity

(a 3hat functions do tests perform=

(b Mometimes pupils are taught to merely pass tests and examinationsN. Fiscuss.

+LANNING A TEST

#n order to measure the learners skill, ability or knowledge, test %uestions, exercises or practicalactivities can be administered.

+UR+OSE OF TESTS

*. Tests play a very important role in evaluating pupils learning and also the teachers

teaching.



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5. Tests provide relevant measures of learning outcomes and direct evidence concerning

learners achievement

6. A test can be used as a continuous assessment strategy.

?. Tests are used to reinforce learning.

B. Tests are a powerful source of student motivation.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN TEST DESIGNING AND I)+LE)ENTATION

Test scores are always and in some degree sub;ect to error caused by poor measuringinstruments, lack of skill in using these tools or recording the results. To minimi)e errors, certain

factors should be considered&

*. !onsider the pupils abilities when designing the tests. A good number of tests are beyond

pupils comprehension.

5. Language use the language should not be too hard or too simple. 9se your vocabulary

properly.

6. !onsider the work covered (syllabus. Fo not test pupils out of the syllabus.

?. 0eadability 2 Puestion should be easy to read. A typed test is far much better than a hand-

written one.

B. The test should be well timed. #n other words pupils should be given enough time to answerthe %uestions. Fo not give pupils too much time or too little time.

. !heck also the siting arrangement in your class. 7nough space should be created between

candidates.@. #t is important to inform pupils in good time as to when the test will be given and the place

where it will be written.

>. !heck the room where the test will be conducted to ensure that the lighting system and

ventilation are good.

TA'LE OF TEST S+ECIFICATIONS

3hen setting test %uestions, you need to come up with a test plan or table of specifications.1aking a table of test specifications re%uires that you first of all identify the outcomes or skills

to be measured by the test. Take into account $looms Taxonomy of 7ducational ob;ectives

(cognitive domain when identifying these outcomes.

Iportan!e of a ta#le of %pe!ifi!ation(

The table of test specifications allows you to widely spread the learning outcomes or skills to

the test %uestions so that your learners are tested on various learning outcomes.

The table of test specifications ensures that the teacher does not only stick to the testing of

instructional outcomes based on the knowledge level but includes other outcomes as well. #t

also ensures that the teacher sets %uestions drawn from different topics.

A test specification prioriti)es the ob;ectives, indicating the relative importance of the

different areas of the syllabus and describes the way the %uestions on the test will be matched

to the instructional ob;ectives. The amount of detail in the table of test specification isdetermined by the type of test, purpose of test or examination and coverage of content.



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S TAONO)* 6!ognitive ,oain7

The table of specification uses the $looms taxonomy to indicate the levels of test items.

According to $loom, cognitive skills are arranged in order of increasing degree of complexity

and comprises six levels..


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material, facts and figures. explain, interpret, summari)e.

A++LICATION& The ability to apply ac%uiredknowledge, understanding and skills to new

situation or problem.

Apply, construct, discover, operate,prepare, relate, solve, calculate,

demonstrate, modify, predict, produce,

show, use.

ANAL*SIS& The ability to identify and

understand the component parts and structure ofmaterials.

Analy)e, determine, discriminate, infer,

differentiate, distinguish, outline.

S*NTHESIS& The ability to use ac%uired,

knowledge, understanding and skills to develop

new ideas, techni%ues or situations.

/rgani)e, compile, develop, modify, plan,

revise, combine, compose, design,

integrate

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST

!haracteristics that a test should have if it is to be real trustworthy and informative are.

(a Relia#ility

0eliability is defined as an indication of the consistency of assessment scores acrossevaluators over time. This means that the test should give similar results even though

different testers administer it. A reliable test should be able to give a consistent score from

one occasion to another for the individual or group irrespective of the person whoadministers it.

(b 5ali,ity

Test Jalidity is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure.

#f the test achieves what the originators intended it to achieve, it is a valid test.

Type% of vali,ity

i. content validity 2 measures the degree to which the content of a test samples

broadly across the domain of interest

ii. predictive validity 2 measures the degree to which the test can predict some futureoutcome, such as ;ob performance or school success eg high student grade can

predict future good performance

iii. construct validity 2 measures how well the test applies to particular theoreticalscheme or construct.

iv. !riterion validity - measures the how well test scores correlate with an

independent measure (criterion of whatever the test is supposed to assess

A!tivity

#f the test is unreliable then it cannot be valid for any purpose. Fiscuss by giving examples.

(c Di%!riination

Fiscrimination is the drawing of distinctions between levels of attainment. A good test

should be able to discriminate good pupils from the bad ones in terms of performance.

Educational Psychology Second Year Module - DALICE Page 2#


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(d Copara#ilityThe test should be able to compare the achievement of one pupil to another.

The comparability of standards in examinations is very important. This would bring

consistency in examination results and hence instill public confidence

(e Nor%tan,ar,

#n addition to reliability and validity, good tests need norms. Dorms are sets of scores or

standards obtained by representative groups of people for whom the test is intended.These should be the same eg everyone who takes the test receives the same instructions,

uses the same answer sheet, and has to complete the test within the same specified period

of time.

UNIT . EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS

Definition%

Stati%ti!%is the study of the collection, organi)ation, analysis, and interpretation of data and

drawing conclusions from it.

/0

Stati%ti!% is the application of mathematical principles to the collection, analysis, and

presentation of data.

Data - information, especially facts or numbers that are collected to be examined or processed or

are the values (measurements or observations that the variables can assume. 3hen data is

collected in its original form, it is called raw data or unprocessed information. 3hen data is

ordered, it is called a data arrayThere are two basic types of statistics4 descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.

De%!riptive %tati%ti!% are used to summari)e results of research or to help the teacher give thebest description of examination results in the school.


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An in,epen,ent varia#le is one that can be manipulated by the researcher during the

experiment while the ,epen,ent varia#le is the factor that is expected to be affected or

influenced by the independent variable. QA reward might be considered as an independent

variable while behaviour could be considered as a dependent variable. The more one behaviour is

being rewarded, the more that behaviour would recur. #f the reward is withheld the said

behaviour will extinctR.

+op$lation consist of all sub;ects (human or otherwise that are being studied or a universal set

of sub;ects (human or otherwise under consideration.


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9nder descriptive statistics, the focus will be mainly on )ea%$re% of Central Ten,en!y and

)ea%$re% of 5aria#ility(

)ea%$re% of Central Ten,en!y

These measures describe the trend or tendency of scores or data in a fre%uency distribution to

cluster around a central value. After giving assessments, often teachers or educators want to find

out about the central tendency of the examination results or what is commonly known as the

average score. The three most commonly used measures of central tendency are& the arithmetic

mean, the median and the mode.

T"e arit"eti! )ean

#t is the number you arrive at when you add up all scores and divide by the number of scores. To

arrive at this number, you will need to be introduced to some elementary statistical symbols.

A score for a sub;ect is called S or G, this could be the test score, height or weight. igma ( is a

short hand symbol for Madd up these scoresN. Therefore, S means add up the S scores or G

means add up the G scores. D symboli)es the number of score. 1ean of x UX

N.

% Nae 6te%t S!ore7

)$l$l/e BC

)/an?

)$%i/e +C

)$%$=$ B

)$=$y$ BB

The mean of S scores is x UX

N S U ?*?

x= 414

6=69

After giving back the test papers, 1ululwe and 1waan)a asked the teacher how the group

performed as a whole on the Eeography test. The teacher simply reported using the value of the

x . #t was much simpler than listing all the scores of the group and it helped 1ululwe and

1waan)a to know the general ability of the group.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descriptive_statisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descriptive_statistics


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O#%ervation%

Eenerally, mean gives the best average of test scores. owever, it is easily affected by very high

or very low values (called outliers and it cannot be measured or checked graphically. #t may

also not correspond to any actual value in the distribution (as in the above example.

)ean For Gro$pe, Data

i #n a fre%uency distribution, the mean

3where'

'33

=

is the middle point of the class

interval.

3e construct the following table for calculation of the mean

Age No( of St$,ent% 6f7 )i,!la%% point(3 '3

*B-*+

5C-5?

5B-5+6C-6?

6B-6+

6

*B

6C?B

>

*@

55

5@65

6@

B*

66C

>*C*??C

5+

Total% 11 -J-

ere == *C*5+5@ 'and'3

,Therefore, mean number of ages&



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+>.5>

*C*

5+5@

=

=

=

'

'33

T"e )e,ian

The median is the middle most score in a group of test scores. The scores are ordered from

smallest to the largest. 1edian is also called the BCthpercentile because BCI of the scores are

under or above it. #t should divide the distribution such that BCI have higher and BCI have

lower scores. #n the distribution with an odd number of scores, there is one middle value,

whereas, in a distribution with an even number of score, there are two middle values. To find the

middle value, add the two middle scores and divide them by 5.

, *C, *5, *6, *, 56, 65, 1edian is 1.since it is a distribution

with an odd number.

The table below however, shows a distribution with an even number of Eeography test scores

(figure 5.

Fig$re -

Learner>% Nae 6te%t S!ore7

)$l$l/e BC

)/aan?

)$%i/e +C

)$%$=$ B

)$=$y$ BB

% Nae 6te%t S!ore7

)$l$l/e BC

)$=$y$ BB

)$%$=$ B the middle is between B and @C

)/aan


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)$p$langa >?

)$%i/e +C

The median is the mean of the two test scores nearest to the middle point. These are B and @C.

x U65+70

2 U135

2 U @.B

O#%ervation%

The median is less affected than the mean by extremely high or extremely low values. The mean

and the median are usually close in value. Like in the example involving the test scores in

geography, the mean was + while the median rounded off to the nearest whole number was >.

T"e )o,e

The mode is the most fre%uently occurring score. , *C, *5, *6,

*, *, and 56. 1ode is *. The data must firstly be ordered.

3hen a distribution has two most fre%uency occurring scores, it is a bimodal distribution. ,>,>,+,*C,*C,*C, the values > and *C have the same fre%uency

and therefore is a bimodal distribution.

3hen the data has more than two values that occur with the same fre%uency it is called

multimodal.

O#%ervation%

The mode is often used when there are many identical scores. #t is the easiest average to

compute.

The mean and the median will be the same if the distribution of scores is symmetrical orbalanced around the mean.

The diagram below shows a %yetri! ,i%tri#$tionof scores with the mean, median and mode

at the centre of the distribution.

Fig$re 0 1ode

1edian 1ean



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ymmetrical

3hen the mean is different from the median due to the effect of outliers, the distribution of

scores or values is asymmetrical or skewed.


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information, not easily assimilated. #n this type of situation, a grouped fre%uencydistribution is used. An example of a grouped distribution is given below.

S!ore% o#taine, in RE

Te%t

No( of St$,ent%

B and


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ere, a set of items values is listed (normally the class Mupper boundariesN, witheach one showing the number of items in the distribution having values less than

this item value.

ii ere, a set of item values is listed (normally the class Mlower boundariesN with

each one showing the number of items in the distribution having values greater

than this item value. ee the table below.

S!ore% o#taine,

in RE Te%t

No( of

%t$,ent%

S!ore% No( of %t$,ent%

6!$$lative7

B and *B

>5C

55

*@

**

6

( ie 55 minus BU*@, *@minus U**, **minus >U6

Re%$lt% +re%entation

/ne of the most effective ways of presenting information, particularly numerical information, is

to construct a chart or a graph.The choice depends on the type of data. A set of data is discrete if we only need to make a count,

like the number of customers entering a shop. A set of data is continuous if measurement is

made on a continuous scale, such as time, weight etc.5

>*>C

>5

.-2

@>

>*>>

>C

.-

?B

?>?@

?B

12

how this as a bar chart.

#n a simple bar chart, the number observed (counts whether by Vgeographical segmentN, or

VyearsN or some other category can be represented as vertical bars. The height of each bar is

Educational Psychology Second Year Module - DALICE Page 3*


40/74

drawn in proportion to the number (amounts by a vertical ruler scale.


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6C

5C*C 5C** 5C*5Gears

Erade + Erade *C Erade ** Erade *5

Hi%togra

A istogram is a graph that displays the data by using contiguous vertical bars (unless the

fre%uency of a class is C of various heights to represent the fre%uencies of classes.This is appropriate where there is need to show grouped data which is continuous. There are no

gaps between the bars. The total area of each bar represents the fre%uency of the event.

E&apleThe marks obtained by students in an 7ducational 8sychology paper were as follows&

how this as a histogram

5CDo of students

*

*5

>

?

C 5B - 5+ 6C 2 6? 6B 2 6+ ?C - ?? ?B - ?+

1arks

T"e Differen!e #et/een 'ar C"art% an, Hi%togra%

ere is the main difference between bar charts and histograms.


+er!entage 6K7 No( of St$,ent%

5B 2 5+

6C 2 6?

6B 2 6+?C 2 ??

?B - ?+

*C

*B

*55C

6


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d .e *C .

n

t Bs .

x

- .- . 0- 0

St$,ent perforan!e 6K7

C$$lative fre;$en!y polygon%

A cumulative fre%uency polygon (or ogive is a graph that represents the cumulative fre%uencies

fort the classes in a fre%uency distribution. The cumulative fre%uency is the sum of thefre%uencies accumulated up to the upper boundary of a class in the distribution. !umulative

fre%uency graphs are used to visually represent how many values are below a certain upper class

boundary.


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A pie chart is a circle or Vpie, divided radically into sectors which represent component parts ofthe total. The 6Coat the centre of the circle are divided in proportion to the data thus giving

sectors with areas proportional to the values of the components parts.

8ie charts can be used to show changes in components where the number of components is too

great for a bar chart, though a pie chart with more than seven or eight components would become

too clouded for ready interpretation.

E&aple

hupikai is a trainee teacher at FAL#!7 and obtained the following marks in respective sub;ects&

9$7!T /!#L/E

G

8G!/L/EG 7DEL# 0L#E#/9

7F9!AT#/D (07

1A0: *I >5I ?*I 5CI

!onstruct a pie chart to represent the above information.

#2

41

2.

!1

Student Performance

5=

o

ociology*CC

.5*+6C* oo

=



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0eligious 7ducation

.*?@6C*CC

?*=

o

7nglish

oo @56C*CC

5C=

ACTI5IT*

*. The data below give the scores obtained in an aptitude test by a group of ?C applicants for

a particular post in a company

> + + *C ** + *C > + ***5 + *5 > + > *C + >

*5 > + ** + *5 @ ** + >

+ > *C + > *C + > + *C

!onstruct a fre%uency distribution from this information.

5. hown below are marks obtained by students from an 7ducation test conducted and a mi-term assessment. !onstruct a histogram of this distribution.

1arks *-*C **-5C 5*-6C 6*-?C ?*-BC B*-C

Do. of tudents 5? 5> 55 * ?

6. Fraw a multiple bar chart to illustrate the performances of three !olleges in terms ofgraduating students over a four year period.

NO( OF GRADUANDS

- -1 -- -.

FAL#!7 ?CC 6>C 6B 6BC

19!7 5>B 6?C 6BB 6?C

!L!7 *>C 5CC 55C 56C

)i,range

This is a rough estimate of the middle and it is found by adding the lowest and the highest values

in the data set and dividing by 5. , *C, *5, *6, *, *, 561idrange U >W56 U B.B

5

ACTI5IT*

*. C, CC

b >.>, +.6, +.>, @.+, *C.5, >.B

5. The following marks were obtained by students during a 8sychology test& 6, ?B, B5,

@, 6@, 5>, *?, >5, 6, ?B, 6@ and *>.

7stimate&



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i The averageii The median

iii The mode.

?. 9sing the graphical method, estimate&

i The median

ii The mode of the distribution given below.,

x C * 5 6 ?

f 5B 5> 6 6

B. The total price of units ordered from a warehouse of a certain commodity is shown in the

distribution below.

!ost of units ordered per day (:wacha Do. of days

C and under BC

BC and under *CC

*CC and under *BC

*BC and under 5CC5CC and under 5BC

5BC and under 6CC

6

>

+

*@*C

+

a !ompute the mean

b 9sing both the graphical and formula method, estimate&

i the medianii the mode

. 3hich measure of central tendency would most effectively describe=

a The weight of a person=b The most popular make of television set=

c 7arnings of part time workers in ambia=

d !ost of typical food item at a market=e oliday destinations=

f Learning days lost through class boycotts

)ea%$re% of 5ariationDi%per%ion

Jariability"Fispersion is way of describing the spread of the scores.

aving obtained a measure of location or position of a distribution, we need to know how the

data is spread about that point. #nformation about the spread can be given by one or more

measures of dispersion.

T"e Range

This is the simplest measure of dispersion available in statistical analysis. #t uses only twoextreme values. The range is defined as the difference between the maximum and minimum

values of a given data set. The range of the interval between the highest and the lowest scores,

gives a rough idea of the spread of measures.



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#ts advantage lies in its simplicity and its independence of the measure of position. owever, itis distorted by the extreme values and tells us nothing between the maximum and minimum

values.

E&aple


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??, @, ?+, B5, B5, ?>, B*.

3e first arrange the data set in ascending order& ??, ?>, ?+, B*, B5, B5, @.

*4

is the value of the

=+

th?

*@

5nditem, which is ?>.

64is the value of the

=+ th*@(

?

6

thitem, which is B5.

Dotice that if there had been, say, more items in the set, the values of (nW*"? and 6(nW*"?

would not have been whole numbers, which would have necessitated some sort of interpolation

formula to obtain (untypical values. This is beyond this manual.

E&aple

!ompute the inter%uartile range and the %uartile deviation in previous example.

#nter%uartile range U

??>B5*6 ==44

The %uartile

Feviation U

.55?

5

*6 ==44

5arian!e

The variance is the average of the se%uence of s%uares of the distance each value is from the

mean

5

33 55

( =

3here xU individual value -

S U sample mean DU population si)e

E&aple

tep *. U B U >

@ @

tep 5. ubtract the mean from each value and place the result in column $

tep 6. %uare each result and place the s%uares in column !

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tep ?.

-?

-65B

*

-*C

*

+?5B

*

*C

5( 33

U2 4

tep B. Fivide the sum by5to get the variance

ie

>@

B,(5

5==

=

5

33

T"e Stan,ar, Deviation

The standard deviation is the most widely used measure of dispersion, since it is directly related

to the mean. #f you chose the mean as the most appropriate measure of central location, then thestandard deviation would be the natural choice for a measure of dispersion.

The standard deviation measures the differences from the mean4 a larger value indicates largevariation. The standard deviation is in the same units as the actual observations.


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5. The number of new orders received by a company over the past 6C working days wasrecorded as follows4

? C 5 * 5 6

B 6 * * ? B

B 6 5 ?? C ? 6 6 5

B 6 5 ? B

Fetermine the range, %uartile deviation, variance and standard deviation.

6. B +C +B ++ *C

C

Do. of students B *C 5C ?B ?C *>

?. 9sing the figures given below, calculate&

a The rangeb The arithmetic mean

c The median

d The lower %uartilee The upper %uartile

f The Jariance

g The standard deviation

6 78 9 ;< ;= >?

8 7= 67 ;7 >9 87

= 7? 66 ;; >; 8>? 96 6 ;8 >8 8

79

B.

f * 6 ? > B



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. 7xplain the term Vmeasure of dispersion and state briefly the advantages of using the

following measures of dispersion.h 0ange

ii Puartile deviation

iii Jarianceiv tandard Feviation

CORRELATION

!orrelation refers to a co-relationship between two sets of value.


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futile exercise if the products of learning are not utili)ed by us soon after or at a later stage.


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7ncoding is the process of receiving sensory input and transforming it into a form, or code,

which can be stored4 torage is the process of actually putting coded information into memory4

and 0etrieval is the process of gaining access to stored, coded information when is needed.

7D!/F#DEOOOOOOOOOOOOOO..T/0AE7OOOOOOOOOOOOOO.

07T0#7JAL

(#nput to memory (eld in memory (Take

from memory

ENCODING

The stimuli we receive from our surroundings are in the form of sight, sound, tactile (or touch,

taste and smell sensations. #n memory research, the most common has been sight and sound

giving rise to visual and phonological coding. 3e certainly have memories for touch, taste and

smell4 particular materials have a definite VfeelY to them which we could identify while blind

folded. 3e do not have to be told what they are and so we obviously have firm established

memories of these in our brains.

The most popular theory is that by rehearsing the sound (phonological code or looking at the

same scene repeatedly (visual code, we in some way implant in the brain tissue a trace which

when triggered will be retrieved. $ut we must first attend to stimulus we want remember. That is

why we repeat things so that the trace becomes established.

STORAGE

T#19L9O.7D/0G 07E#T70O3/0:#DE 171/0GOL/DE T701

171/0G (T/07

(hort- Term 1emory

SENSOR* REGISTER

3hen our sense organs pick up a signal from the environment, there is a momentary image

registration. perling (*+C describes research into visual registry and decay of information as

follows&

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The storage capacity for long-term memory must be enormous when one considers the amount of

information we use each day. 1emories from long ago can be recalled, in some cases in great

detail probably through constant repetition. The %uestion of whether we completely forget

anything once it has been transferred satisfactorily to LT1 is problematic. #t raises the %uestion

of whether forgetting is complete loss from storage or an inability to retrieve what is there.

7S8L#!#T ADF #18L#!#T 171/0G

1uch of what teachers do in school work is %uite explicit. Teachers work with a syllabus

re%uiring knowledge of specified areas, they encourage pupils to ac%uire knowledge and then

assess what they know.

#n explicit or declarative memory, two kinds of learning have been postulated. They involve

semantic and episodic memory. emantic memory is the capacity to recall facts and knowledge

about the environment established in the memory using, for example, letters, numbers and

musical notation codes. 7pisodic memory, as the word implies, is the capacity to collect past

experiences in time and space-events or episodes in ones life. $oth re%uire the recall of

information which has meaning.

There is another kind of memory which does not appear to depend on actively recalling earlier

learning. This is called implicit memory (sometimes referred to as non declarative or procedural

memory. These memories re%uire no conscious awareness. everal kinds have been postulated

of which three are of interest-skill ac%uisition, verbal perceptual priming and conditioning

(classical.

07T0#7JAL

0etrieval is the process of recovering information from memory. The term is used synonymously

with recall and remembering. #t is applied to either the short or long-term memory. 0etrieval

from the LT1 consists of returning information to the T1 from the LT1 store i.e. into the

working memory. To initiate retrieval, a cue is needed, either from an external stimulus or by a

persons conscious effort to VsearchY through the memory store for a link with material already in

the working memory.

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Three ways in which we can recover information have been described and they are re!all

re!ognitionan, relearning. 0ecall depends upon the active remembering of performance

learnt previously. #n the case of recognition, we need a clue or there should be information from

which we can remember something learned on a previous occasion.

0elearning simply means repeating what was learned earlier. Dote that relearning something

which has been forgotten gets easier on each successive occasion, and this is why regular

revision is a vital aspect of studying. 0etrieval is aided where the original learning has been

systematic, thorough and understood by the learner.

T0A#D#DE #D 171/0G

3hether memory can be improved by training or not is a controversial issue. $ut its

improvement or training is a commonly expressed desire on the part of every individual. 7very

human being is keen to improve his"her sense organs or muscles etc. $ut the improvement of

memory as such is not possible. #n this connection, the advice given by 1organ and Eilliland

seems to be %uite valuable. They write& M1emory training is not like muscle training. Gou can

make a muscle develop by any kind of exercise4 memory is not helped by any kind of exerciseN

(*+?5.

Therefore, mere repetition of material for the sake of memori)ation in the form of mental

exercise does not yield enduring and effective results. The %uestion is, is it possible through any

means to have some improvement in our memory= #f possible, what are the specific points

which should be kept in mind in order to achieve best results in the task of memori)ation=

As emphasi)ed earlier, memory consists of four factors-learning, retention, recognition and

recall. #mprovement in any one or more of these constituents is likely to improve the memory as

a whole. Therefore, the %uestion regarding the improvement of memory, for its logical answer,

can be broken into the following four %uestions4

!an learning be improved=

!an the power of retention be improved=

!an recall be improved=

!an recognition be improved=

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(b #nterest and attention

#nterest as well as close attention, are essential for effective learning and memori)ation.

(c Adopting proper methods of memori)ation

There are so many economical methods of memori)ation but all are not suitable on all occasions

for all individuals. Therefore, a ;udicious selection should be made in choosing a particular

method in a given situation.

(d


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(i 8rovision for change and proper rest

Ade%uate provision for change of task, rest and sleep should be made as it helps in removing

fatigue and monotony. A fresh mind is able to learn more and retain more for a long time than a

tired one.

(; 0epetition and practice

0epetition and continuous practice promote effective memori)ation. An intelligent repetition

with full understanding always helps in making learning effective and enduring. The things

repeated and practiced fre%uently are remembered for a long time.


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The studies made by the 8sychologist 7bbinghaus (*>>B present the earliest systematic work in

studying the phenomenon of forgetting. e himself worked as a sub;ect for studies and

described his results by sketching a curve of forgetting. The results were as follows&

Time elapsed Amount of

information forgotten

5C minutes ?@I

/ne day I

Two days @5I

ix days

@BI

Thirty one days @+I

Activity

9se the information above and draw the curve of forgetting.

TG87 /<


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UNIT 0: )E)OR*

Intro,$!tion

Learning occupies a very important place in ones life. #t is the basis of our survival as well as

the development and progress of society. owever, our best effort in learning may turn into a

futile exercise if the products of learning are not utili)ed by us soon after or at a later stage.


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/ur mind possesses a special ability by virtue of which every experience or learning leaves

behind memory images or traces which are conserved in the form of Vengrams. Thus, what is

learned leaves its after-effect which is conserved in the form of engrams composed of memory

traces. This preservation of the memory traces by our central nervous system or brain is known

as retaining (or retention of the learned or experienced act. The length of the retention of the

learned material depends upon the strength and %uality of the memory traces. 3hen individuals

try to recollect or repeat our past experiences or learning, we make use of the memory traces.

#f we are successful in the retrieval of our memory traces, our memory is said to be good. $ut if,

somehow, the memory traces have died out, we will not be able to reproduce or make use of our

past experiences or learning. #n this case, it is said that we are not able to retain what has been

learned or in other words we have forgotten.

THEOR* OF GENERAL )E)OR* FUNCTIONS

/ne theory, a simple one agreed on by most psychologists, was used in the explanation of

memory. Three distinct processes of memory have been identified. These are an encoding

process, storage process, and a retrieval process.

7ncoding is the process of receiving sensory input and transforming it into a form, or code,

which can be stored4 torage is the process of actually putting coded information into memory4

and 0etrieval is the process of gaining access to stored, coded information when is needed.

7D!/F#DEOOOOOOOOOOOOOO..T/0AE7OOOOOOOOOOOOOO.

07T0#7JAL

(#nput to memory (eld in memory (Take

from memory

ENCODING

The stimuli we receive from our surroundings are in the form of sight, sound, tactile (or touch,

taste and smell sensations. #n memory research, the most common has been sight and sound

giving rise to visual and phonological coding. 3e certainly have memories for touch, taste and

smell4 particular materials have a definite VfeelY to them which we could identify while blind

Educational Psychology Second Year Module - DALICE Page !


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folded. 3e do not have to be told what they are and so we obviously have firm established

memories of these in our brains.

The most popular theory is that by rehearsing the sound (phonological code or looking at the

same scene repeatedly (visual code, we in some way implant in the brain tissue a trace which

when triggered will be retrieved. $ut we must first attend to stimulus we want remember. That is

why we repeat things so that the trace becomes established.

STORAGE

T#19L9O.7D/0G 07E#T70O3/0:#DE 171/0GOL/DE T701

171/0G (T/07

(hort- Term 1emory

SENSOR* REGISTER

3hen our sense organs pick up a signal from the environment, there is a momentary image

registration. perling (*+C describes research into visual registry and decay of information as

follows&

MThe corresponding process of attention and selective perception ensures that only particular

stimulation is conveyed to the next structure, the hort- Term or 3orking 1emory. The

remaining patterns of stimulation are thought to die away from the register. The period over

which the image is registered is very short (a few hundred milli-seconds before completely

decayedN.

/0T-T701 171/0G (T1 /0 3/0:#DE 171/0G

#nformation entering hort-term memory also decays rapidly, but in seconds rather than in milli-

seconds as with the ensory register. #f information is not selectively attended to and encoded so

as to pass to the long-term store, it decays.

The hort- term memory is seen as a temporary store for a limited amount of information.

9nattended information occurring simultaneously with that to which we are attending can be

retrieved with diminishing accuracy as time goes by.

Educational Psychology Second Year Module - DALICE Page !!


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A number of studies have suggested that the 3orking memory (T1 has a limited capacity.


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experiences in time and space-events or episodes in ones life. $oth re%uire the recall of

information which has meaning.

There is another kind of memory which does not appear to depend on actively recalling earlier

learning. This is called implicit memory (sometimes referred to as non declarative or procedural

memory. These memories re%uire no conscious awareness. everal kinds have been postulated

of which three are of interest-skill ac%uisition, verbal perceptual priming and conditioning

(classical.

07T0#7JAL

0etrieval is the process of recovering information from memory. The term is used synonymously

with recall and remembering. #t is applied to either the short or long-term memory. 0etrieval

from the LT1 consists of returning information to the T1 from the LT1 store i.e. into the

working memory. To initiate retrieval, a cue is needed, either from an external stimulus or by a

persons conscious effort to VsearchY through the memory store for a link with material already in

the working memory.

Three ways in which we can recover information have been described and they are re!all

re!ognitionan, relearning. 0ecall depends upon the active remembering of performance

learnt previously. #n the case of recognition, we need a clue or there should be information from

which we can remember something learned on a previous occasion.

0elearning simply means repeating what was learned earlier. Dote that relearning something

which has been forgotten gets easier on each successive occasion, and this is why regular

revision is a vital aspect of studying. 0etrieval is aided where the original learning has been

systematic, thorough and understood by the learner.

T0A#D#DE #D 171/0G

3hether memory can be improved by training or not is a controversial issue. $ut its

improvement or training is a commonly expressed desire on the part of every individual. 7very

human being is keen to improve his"her sense organs or muscles etc. $ut the improvement of

memory as such is not possible. #n this connection, the advice given by 1organ and Eilliland

seems to be %uite valuable. They write& M1emory training is not like muscle training. Gou can

Educational Psychology Second Year Module - DALICE Page !#


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make a muscle develop by any kind of exercise4 memory is not helped by any kind of exerciseN

(*+?5.

Therefore, mere repetition of material for the sake of memori)ation in the form of mental

exercise does not yield enduring and effective results. The %uestion is, is it possible through any

means to have some improvement in our memory= #f possible, what are the specific points

which should be kept in mind in order to achieve best results in the task of memori)ation=

As emphasi)ed earlier, memory consists of four factors-learning, retention, recognition and

second year module psychology

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