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12/12/14, 11:5he Art Of Plotting Your Story & Screenplay Structure

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12/12/14, 11:5he Five Key Turning Points Of All Successful Movie Scripts

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Sequence-Scene Definitions

Defining the terms: ‘Scene’ and ‘Sequence’

Introduction

The following is a detailed annotated explanation of the definitions of 'Sequence', 'Scene'

and 'Shot', derived from the paper published in the Journal of Screenwriting , Volume 3,

Issue 2, Pages 217-238, (2012): 'Development of a Fundamental 19-Sequence Model of

Screenplay and Film Narrative Structure'.

The most frequent search terms that bring visitors to ScreenWriting Science are:

‘Sequence’

‘Scene’

‘Definition’

‘Screenplay'‘Structure’

‘Analysis’

‘Plot'

'Template’

The purpose of this page is to use the Set-up of Act I of On the Waterfront to provide an

in-depth empirical definition of ‘Sequence’ and ‘Scene’. Then, Acts I and III of Double

Indemnity will be used to show how ScreenWriting Science’s definition of ‘Sequence’

contrasts with the one used in the classic 8-Sequence Structure model template. You will

see that the most crucial factor that defines a ‘Sequence’ is its functional role in telling plot

milestones and generating the structure of the story.

An Excel spreadsheet will soon be available for download that analyzes the

Sequence-Scene composition of over 132 final shooting scripts and movies. This analysis

has been used to generate a ‘Template’ structure of Sequences and Scenes that are

utilized in the Screenplay Sequence-Scene Analyses. These 7-19 page downloadable PDF

documents capture the structural organization and plot milestones of each individual

screenplay.

On the Waterfront

To define 'Sequence', I will use the Set-Up of Act I of On the Waterfront to characterize the

two fundamental construction blocks of sequences, namely ‘Shot’ and ‘Scene’. Please

watch the first 0:37 min of this 1:34 min clip of On the Waterfront, then hit the ‘Pause’ button

and read on. You can also look at Figure 1 below.

On the Waterfront was written by Bud Schulberg, and the film made by: Director Elia Kazan, Editor

Gene Milford, cinematographer Boris Kaufman and Art Director-Set Decorator Richard Day, along with

the memorable performances of Marlon Brando, Eva Marie Saint, Karl Malden, Lee J. Cobb, Rod

Steiger, John Hamilton, Pat Henning and James Westerfield. On the Waterfront won a remarkable eight

Academy Awards and four additional nominations.

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Screenplay Structure

Summaries:

Alphabetical List

quence-Scene Definitions - ScreenWriting Science http://screenwritingscience.com/sequence-scene-defin

of 6 12/12/14, 12:



1. Definition of ‘Shot’

On the Waterfront opens with a daytime waterfront view of a wooden shack (the

Longshoremen’s Union cabin) perched on a wooden wharf with a huge ocean-going liner

docked behind. Five unidentified men emerge from the cabin (Terry Malloy, his older brother

Charlie, Johnny Friendly - the corrupt Longshoremen’s Union boss, and two thugs). The

four men walk up a wooden gangplank towards the shore. All of these images and events

are filmed in a continuous single ‘take’ by the camera. This constitutes 'Shot 1'.

SHOT: ‘An uninterrupted take by the camera’.

The camera perspective cuts to a closer view of the men arriving at the top of the wooden

ramp next to a car. Friendly pushes Terry, who then walks off in another direction with an

expression of resigned reluctance on his face. Clearly, Terry is being sent to do something.

This is 'Shot 2'.

Finally, the camera cuts to a night time view (beginning of 'Shot 3'). At that point (0:37 min)

you will have stopped the movie. This difference between day and night shows us that a

significant amount of time has passed since Terry left Friendly at the wharf. Terry’s location

has changed too.

Figure 1: The ‘Sequence-Scene-Shot’ Composition of the Set-Up of Act I of On the

Waterfront.

2. Definition of ‘Scene’

At the end of Shot 2, we are left with the questions: Where is Terry going and what Hit the

‘Start’ button of the clip above and watch until the end of the clip at 1:34 min.

Shot 3 is a night time view of Terry from above as he walks down a dark alley. The camera

cuts to a closer view of Terry as he stops walking, looks upwards and calls, “Joey,” (Shot 4).

From Terry’s perspective, we look upwards to an tenement building to a dimly-lit window

(Shot 5). In close-up, Terry calls Joey’s name again (Shot 6). The camera looks upwards to

the same window as the silhouette of Joey appears behind the curtain (Shot 7). Joey opens

the window asks Terry what he wants (still Shot 7). In close-up, Terry says he has found

one of Joey’s pigeons and holds out the bird (Shot 8). Back at the window, Joey says that

he had lost one of his pigeons in the last race (Shot 9). Terry listens as Joey says he wants

the bird back and that he has, “To be careful these days” (Shot 10). Terry responds that he

will meet Joey at his pigeon loft on the roof (still Shot 10). After Joey agrees to meet Terry

on the roof, Joey closes his window (Shot 11). The camera pans upwards from Joey’s

window to reveal two men standing on the roof (still Shot 11). Terry continues to lookupwards for a moment, then releases the pigeon (Shot 12). The bird flies upwards as Terry

walks away (Shot 13). The beginning of the next shot occurs later at a different

geographical location, and shows Terry arriving outside of Johnny Friendly’s bar (Shot 14).

Shots 1-2 and Shots 3-13 are two groups of distinct groups of shots that each represents

an essential component of a film’s structure, namely the SCENE. Scene 1 represents

Friendly forcing Terry to leave and go do something. Scene 2 focuses on Terry’s interaction

with Joey.

SCENE: ‘Single or multiple shots edited to present a block of the story’s narrative,

plot and/or character development’ Generally, Scenes occur within a specific time

frame, and focus on a cohesive theme, event or character experience.


of 6 12/12/14, 12:



Scene 3.

If you have the DVD of On the Waterfront, continue watching as described below, or refer to

Figure 1.

After Terry arrives outside of Johnny Friendly’s bar, he announces to his brother Charlie and

the two thugs that Joey is on the roof (Shot 14). Next, Joey cries as he falls (after being

pushed) from the roof (Shot 15) and through a washing line of clothes (Shot 16). One thug

says that someone fell from the roof (Shot 17). The camera cuts to lights being turned on in

the tenement building with people appearing at their windows (Shot 18). One thug says that

Joey, “Thought he was gonna sing for the Crime Commission,” (Shot 19). Terry expresses

shock that Joey was killed and not simply told to, “Dummy up”, and declines an invitation to

join Charlie in Johnny Friendly’s Bar (still Shot 19). Next, is an image of Joey’s body lyingon the ground surrounded by different people (beginning of Shot 20). Shot 19 is the end of

Scene 3.

We learn a great deal in Scene 3. There is not a second wasted. This is writing at its best.

Joey plans to testify to the ‘Crime Commission’.

Joey causes problems for Johnny Friendly.

Joey had not responded to intimidation by Friendly’s men.

Friendly deals with problems ruthlessly.

Friendly’s thugs and Charlie show callous indifference.

Terry is surprised, confused and shocked that Joey had been murdered.

Scene 4.

This next Scene is filmed in the alley below Joey’s apartment and appears to be out of sight

from Terry who is standing outside of Johnny Friendly’s Bar, alone.

Just as Father Barry arrives to give Joey the last rites, the policeman stands and is told by a

woman that her husband had been murdered five years ago (Shot 20). In close-up, the

policeman hears Pop Doyle (Pop Doyle) say he doesn’t know whether Joey was pushed or

fell, and the woman says that Joey was the only one with the guts to talk to, “Them Crime

Investigators,” (Shot 21). Father Barry reads Joey the last rites. Someone in the

background says, “Don't say nothin'. Keep quiet. You'll live longer." (Shot 22). Pop Doyle

listens as someone says that people who talk end up dead like Joey (Shot 23). As Father

Barry lifts Edie up from Joey’s body she asks who’d want to kill Joey (Shot 24). A policeman

covers Joey’s body with a newspaper, but Edie runs to Joey’s body and tears the

newspaper away. In close-up, Father Barry encourages Edie to have, “Time and Faith,” and

that he will be in the church if she needs him (Shot 25). But Edie chastises him by saying:

“Did you ever hear of a saint hiding in a church?” (Shot 26). Edie looks away and cries; “I

wanna know who killed my brother,” (Shot 27). Finally, we see Big Mac walk past Terry still

standing outside of Johnny Friendly’s Bar (Shot 28). Terry pauses, then follows Big Mac into

the bar.

Shots 1- 2 constitute Scene 1.

Shots 3-13 constitute Scene 2.

Shots 14-19 constitute Scene 3.

Shots 20-27 constitute Scene 4.Shot 28 takes us into Scene 5.

Now we are ready to define ‘Sequence’.

3. Definition of ‘Sequence’

If you continue to watch your DVD until the 11:00 min mark, you will see that Shot 28 takes

us into Scene 5, which specifically is what happens in Friendly’s Bar and away from the

murder. It’s a completely different component of the story. Scenes 1 through 4 focus on

Terry’s role in the murder of Joey and the reaction of key witnesses (Edie, Father Barry and

Pop Doyle). In contrast, Scene 5 focuses on Johnny Friendly and his world; Joey’s murder

is barely acknowledged and certainly doesn’t drive the action. Therefore, Scenes 1 through

4 constitute a major building block of screenplay structure, namely the ‘Sequence’. Scene 5

is the beginning of the next Sequence.

SEQUENCE: 'A scene, or a series of connected scenes, that present a succession of

related events that constitute and advance a distinct component of the story

narrative, plot and/or character development'.

SEQUENCES BUILD ACTS

Comparison of ScreenWriting Science’s Definition of ‘Sequence’ to the classic

8-Sequence Model.

Next, I will use Double Indemnity to define by example, how Sequences are used to

construct Act I (Set-up, Inciting Incident, Call to Action and the First Commitment to Act)

and Act III (Climax and Resolution) and compare ScreenWriting Science’s model of how

Sequences construct screenplays with the classic 8-Sequence Structure model. A full

analysis of the film can be found in bother the Journal of Screenwriting paper and the

Sequence-Scene Analysis of Double Indemnity . My conclusion is that the 8-Sequence

model is not supported by a rigorous analysis. I look forward to your opinion on my

assessment below.


of 6 12/12/14, 12:



The 8-Sequence Model

The most long-standing model of Sequences in the structure of a screenplay is the

8-Sequence Structure.

The ‘Eight-Sequence Structure’ is a system developed by Frank Daniel while he was

the head of the Graduate Screenwriting Program at the University of Southern

California. It is based, in part on the fact that, in the early days of cinema, technical

matters forced screenwriters to divide their stories into sequences, each the length of

a reel (about ten minutes). The sequence approach mimics that early style. The story

is broken up into eight 10-15 minute sequences. The sequences serve as "mini-

movies", each with their own compressed three-act structure. The first two sequences

combine to form the film's first act. The next four create the film's second act. The final

two sequences complete the resolution and dénouement of the story. Each sequence's

resolution creates the situation which sets up the next sequence. (From Wikepedia:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screenwriting. See also Gulino, 2005).

The 8-Sequence Structure model seems to be based on the practical requirement from

many years ago that movies be segregated into 10-15 minute segments because of

film-spool size. The assumption appears to be that screenwriters ‘know’ of this film-reel

structure time constraint and still either inherently or deliberately conform to this format. The

conclusion from the analysis presented in the Journal of Screenwriting paper ,

however, is that screenwriters do not.

Act I of Double Indemnity

In Paul Joseph Gulino book: ‘Screenwriting: The Sequence Approach’ (2005), the

8-Sequence model breaks Act I of Double into two Sequences: A and B (see Tavle 1). In

contrast, ScreenWriting Science’s definition of ‘Sequences’ breaks down Act I into four sequences: 1, 2, 3 and 4 (Table 1). These four sequences correspond to the classic Syd

Field model of ‘Set-up’, ‘Inciting Incident’, Call to Action’ and the ‘First Commitment to Act’.

Table 1: Comparison of the 8-Sequence Structure model with ScreenWriting Science’s

Model in Act I of Double Indemnity.

Eight-Sequence

Structure

(Quoted from:

Guliano, 2005)

ScreenWriting Science Sequence

Model

3-Act Structure

Milestones

(Number of

Scenes)

SEQUENCE A:

Neff’s opening

confession and

Phyllis leaving a

message for Neff.

SEQUENCE 1: Walter Neff is an

insurance salesman who enters his

office with a gunshot wound. Neff

begins to record a confession of lust,

money and murder to Barton Keyes.

Set-Up (4)

SEQUENCE 2: In Phyllis’ home, Phyllis

asks Neff about accident insurance for

her husband and asks him to return

the next day. Neff sees how good the

determined Keyes is at detecting

insurance fraud.

Inciting Incident

(4)

SEQUENCE B:

Neff’s second visit to

Phyllis and

agreement to kill

Phyllis’ husband.

SEQUENCE 3: After retuning to Phyllis’

house, Neff refuses to help Phyllis kill

her husband for life insurance money

because of Keyes’ ability to detect

fraud (Refusal of the Call).

Call to Action

(4)

SEQUENCE 4: Phyllis visits Neff’s

apartment and persuades Neff to help

her plan and murder of her husband.

First

Commitment to

Act (1)Double Indemnity was written by Billy Wilder and Raymond Chandler, and derived from a novella written by

James M. Cain. The film received seven Academy Awards nominations.

Sequence 1 (Video 1: 0:00-6:32 min) is set in the present, and focuses on Neff (Fred

MacMurray) with a gunshot wound to his shoulder staggering into his insurance company

office and beginning his confession to insurance fraud investigator Keyes (Edward G.

Robinson).

Sequence 2 has two components, both flashbacks, that are thematically linked by

‘insurance’ and ‘fraud’ (Video 1: 6:33-9:51 and Video 2: 0:00-4:22). The first part, Phyllis

(Barbara Stanwyck) asks Neff about insurance for her husband. The second part shows

that Keyes is an expert at detecting insurance fraud, thereby warning Neff (and the

audience) of the huge risk Neff will face when he enters a ‘Double Indemnity’ murder

conspiracy with Phyllis.


of 6 12/12/14, 12:



ABOT ACV G OP COTACT

Narrative Firstwhere story is always king

by Jim Hull

Plot Points and the Inciting Incident

Plot points can sometimes be difficult to pick out, especially

w hen there is conf usion as to the purpose of such a device in a

story. If one accepts the idea that stories are about solving prob-

lems, the reason for Inciting Incidents and Act Turns becomes all

too clear.

Every problem has its ow n genesis, a moment at w hich the balance is tipped

and the previous sense of oneness is lost. With separation comes the aw are-

ness of an inequity, and a desire to return back to a state of parity.Every

problem has a solution, and a story explores that process of trying to at-

tain resolution.

In a story, this Opening Event–or beginning of a story–is commonly referred

to as the Inciting Incident.

TheExciting IncidentThe Inciting Incident (or “exciting incident” as someone once referred to it)

is the event or decision that begins a story’s problem.Everything up and un-

til that moment is Backstory; everything after is “the story.” Before this mo-

ment there is an equilibrium, a relative peace that the characters in a story

have grow n accustomed to. This incisive moment, or plot point occurs and

upsets the balance of things. Suddenly there is a problem to be solved.

The Weekend of Dramatica

returns Ma rch 21-22, 2015. Learn this revolu-

tionary story theory ! Learn more!

Points and the Inciting Incident | Narrative First http://narrativefirst.com/articles/plot-points-and-the-inciting

7 12/12/14, 1



Stories a re about solving problems. Sometimes they are solved, as is the

case w ith Star Wars, Casablanca or I nception. Other times, as w ith stories

like H amlet , Amad eus or Se7en, they aren’t. Regardless of outcome, this

Inciting Incident gets the ball rolling by introducing an inequity into the

lives of the characters that inhabit the story. The Protagonist seeks the solu-

tion, the Antagonist seeks to prevent it.

E very story w orks this w ay.

The Reason for Plot Points

The tw o central objective characters, Protagonist and Antagonist, battle it

out until approximately one-quarter of a w ay into a story, some other event

or decision occurs that spins the story into a brand new direction. This sec-

ond plot point is referred to as the First Act Turn as it t ur ns the story f rom

the First Act into the Second. This is a f urther development of the problem,

not the beginning of a problem.

Other plot points–the Mid-Point and Second Act Turn–continue to escalate

the issues surrounding the efforts to resolve the problem until finally, the

Concluding E vent, or Final Plot Point, ends the story. A s mentioned above,

this does not necessarily mean the problem has been solved. It simply means

that the efforts that w ere undertaken by the Protagonist have come to their

natural end as every resource has been exhausted.


7 12/12/14, 1



These plot points naturally split a story into four parts. For fans of A ristotle,

the first part is the Beginning, the second tw o are the Middle and the third is

the Ending. There is a meaningf ul rea son why there a re four pa rts. In

short, for every problem there are four basic contexts f romw hich you can

explore the w ay to solve a problem. Once you have explored all four contexts,

the story is over. Any continuation w ould simply be a rehash of something

that has already been investigated.

The most important thing to take aw ay f rom all of this is that the First Act

Turn is NOT the Inciting Incident. This is a common mistake by many first

time writers, and is generally caused by a lack of understanding exactly w hy

these plot points exist in the first place. One plot point starts the problems,

the other f urthers the complications of said problem.

Inciting Incidents and First Act Turns

The follow ing is a list of great stories w ith their corresponding Inciting Inci-

dents and First Act Turning Points. The numbers provided are either basedon page numbers, Kindle percentages or minutes depending on w hat source

material w as easily accessible.

For those w ho don’t know , the general idea is that one page of a screenplay

generally lines up w ith one minute of screen time. A 120 page screenplay of-

ten lasts tw o hours on screen. or 120 minutes. Thus, the Inciting Incident

w ould occur on or near page 0, w hile the First Act Turn w ould happen some-

w here near page 30 (out of 120 ). If w e’re talking percentages, that w ould be

about one-quarter of the w ay into a story.

Star Wars

The Inciting Incident of Star Wars is Darth Vader’s attack on Princess Leia’s

ship ( 1/ 120 ). While there w as a civil w ar going on prior to this event, it isn’t

until the Empire shows its true colors by illegally boarding a ship purported

to be on a “diplomatic mission” that the real problems of the story begin.

The Empire has grow n ruthless in its efforts to contain any rebellion, this in-

citing event is only the beginning of many more to come.

The First Act Turn begins w ith the Empire’s sinister agents attack on peace-

f ul Jaw as and ends w ith their barbeque of Uncle Ow en and A unt Beru

( 30

-31

/ 120

). Sudd

enly,w

hat began as

as

imple conflict over

jur

isd

iction has

now turned into an all-out rampage that affects even the most remote and

more importantly, innocent, members of the galaxy. The problem has grow n

in its potential for even greater conflict.

The Matrix

The Inciting Incident of The Mat r ix is Morpheus’ decision that Mr. Andersen

is the One they have been looking for ( 2/ 130 ). This one decision drives the

entire rest of the story, for if he hadn’t picked Tom the rest of the w orld

w ould have stayed comfortably numb in their battery pods. Without the


7 12/12/14, 1



Inciting Incident, there would be no stor y.

The First Act Turn begins w ith Neo’s decision to come in off the ledge

( 21/ 130 ). It isn’t until this true sign of character that Morpheus is forced into

taking even greater strides to break poor Mr. Andersen out of the Matrix. Th-

ese deliberations byNeo–continuing w ith his “giving the finger” scene,

choosingw hether or not to stay in the car, and culminatingw ith his decision

to take the red pill–all create resistance to Morpheus’ initial selection. It

isn’t untilNeo finally decides that he is the One ( 121/ 130 ) that the problems

in the story come to a successf ul resolution.

Unforgiven

The Inciting Incident of Unfor given is Little Bill’s leniency tow ards Quick

Mike ( 5/ 120 ). Little Bill is know n for dealingw ith criminals in his ow n spe-

cial w ay,w hy the sudden change of heart?His ref usal to respond in kind cre-

ates a rift w ithin the story at large, and forces the w hores to seek out their

ow n justice. The first Act Turning Point only makes matters w orse w ith the

arrival of English Bob and his ref usal to surrender his sidearms to

“proper authority”( 33/ 120 ).

The Sixth Sense

The Inciting Incident of The Sixth Sense is Vincent’s attack on Malcom

( 8/ 109 ). Without this gunshot, there w ould be no story and no compulsion

for Malcom to meet w ith Cole. The First Act Turning Point comes w ith

Cole’s revelation that he might suffer f rom the same violent tendencies that

Vincent did. His steps back and his conclusion that Malcom can’t help him

only f urthers the problems caused by the perception that Cole is merely a

“disturbed” child ( 22/ 109 ).

CasablancaThe Inciting Incident of Casablanca is Ugarte’s decision to give Rick the let-

ters of transit ( 15/ 127). While the murder of the tw o couriers seems to get

things rolling, problems don’t really start until Ugartedecides to give them

to Rick. After all, people get murdered in Casablanca all the time. But give

them to someonew hose allegiances are in question? Now w e’ve got a prob-

lem.

More than just a “Macguffin”, these papers and the efforts to retrieve be-

come the major source of conflict for everyone involved in the story. This is

w hy Rick’

s d

eliber

ations

over

w

hat tod

ow

ith them, includ

ing his

r

ef us

al tohelp out Ugarte (“I stick my neck out for nobody”), propel the First Act into

the Second ( 30-45/ 127). With Rick in charge of w ho gets them and w hen,

Laszlo’s mission becomes that much more difficult.

The Lives of Others

The Inciting Incident of The Lives of Others is Minister’s Hempf’s decision to

have Georg Dreyman “w atched.” ( 10/ 135 ). Without this bigw ig’s desire for

Dreyman’s girlf riend, Wiesler w ould have continued his life as he alw ay s

had, and quite possibly w ould never have crossed paths w ith this writer and


7 12/12/14, 1



his f riends.

Like Casablanca, the First Act Turn comes more as a w ave than an actual

singular event. This time it is Dreyman’s best f riend, the director Albert Jer-

ska, and his constant ruminations over the purpose of his life that progres-

sively complicate a simple spy operation into something far more reaching

and grander in scope. Jerska’s dark contemplations of suicide inspire Drey-

man to write and give reason for Wiesler to better understand the kind of

struggles and torment these artists go through as a result of the state’s ac-

tions.

The Incredibles

And finally, the Inciting Incident of The I ncr ed ibles occurs w ith the over-

w helming flood of lawsuits stemming f rom Mr. Incredible’s loss in court

against Oliver Sansw eet, the man he rescued f rom suicide ( 14/ 127). This rush

to sue forces the Supers into hiding, promising “to never again resume hero

w ork.” These previously costumed guy s (and girls ) now can’t be w ho they

w ant to be, and thus yet another story inequity has been created. If it had

just been Sansw eet, then perhaps things w ould have simmered dow n. Theflood of lawsuits tipped the scales.

Problems escalatew hen Bob and Frozone almost get caught during the fire

in the apartment building sequence ( 32/ 127). Before, Bob had found a w ay to

deal w ith the initial problem by moonlighting w ith his best f riend. This

event, and their near apprehension by local authorities, forces Frozone to

decide that this night w as the last one. What w as once a manageable problem

has now become an even bigger one, and eventually provides the motivation

for Bob to accept the my sterious invitation f rom Mirage.

Plot points drive a stor y towa rds the resolution of its problem.

Not Just About Movies

But w hat about other forms of narrative fiction? Surely this is just a “for-

mula” for Holly w ood-w annabes to follow …

Stor y is stor y rega rdless of the deliver y device.

TheI

ncitingI

ncid

ent of Shakes

pear

e’s

H amlet

is

thed

eath ofH

amlet’s

fa-ther. A s w ith The Mat r ix , w here the actual inciting event happens

“off-screen”, the story immediately opens up w ith the characters plagued by

the problem’s effects:

H AMLE T:

Let me not think on’t! F r ailty, thy name is woman–

A little month, or er e those shoes wer e old

With which she follow’ d my poor father ’ s body

Like Niobe, all tears–why she, even she –


7 12/12/14, 1



O God! a beast that wants discourse of r eason

Would have mour n’ d longer –

Quick tranlsation:Hamlet has been throw n into great despair because of his

mother’s impulsive move to quickly marry his father’s brother, Claudius

( 10%). The fact that she couldn’t evenw ait a month drives Hamlet mad, thus

creating a problem in Elsinore that calls for some sort of resolution. This

problem grows in importancew hen the Ghost of Hamlet’s father informs his

son of w hat really happened:

GHOST: A ser pent stung me. So the whole ear of Denmar k

Is by a for ged pr ocess of my death

Rankly abused. But know , thou noble youth,

The ser pent that did sting thy father ’ s life

Now wears his cr own.

H AMLE T: O my pr ophetic soul! My uncle!

No longer an inequity that must be suffered, the death of Hamlet’s father

now becomes something that must be avenged ( 20%). The dramatic energy

produced by the news of his father’s passing has w aned to the point w here

something new must come along and drive the story f urther tow ards its in-

evitable conclusion. This revelation of a “murder most foul” is that event,

and can be considered the First Act Turning Point of the play.

Problems, Energy, and Plot Points

Determining the events or decisions that escalate a story’s problem should

be Job One for thew orking dramatist. It is one thing to create an opening

scene that wrecks havoc on the characters in the film and forces them to dealw ith this new problem, quite another to ensure that the inequity persists un-

til the closing curtain.

Eventually, as w ith H amlet , the potential for dramatic conflict w ill decline

throughout the course of an Act. It is the same drop in potential that one

feels as the pain f rom a pinch or slap in the face subsides over time. In order

for the problem of a story to continue to drive the characters tow ards an

eventual solution, a new potential must be introduced. These new dramatic

forces, escalating the problem beyond that initial blast, drive the story for-

w ard in such a w ay that the characters themselves could never return to w ho

they w ere or w hat they did during that first initial response. There can be no

turning back.

Act turns exist to re-energize the potential of a stor y’s problem, not to

satisfy page-counting readers or paradigm-happy script gurus. Connecting

the tw o first plot points to this problem, and making sure that they aren’t

simply the same event,w ill give an audience something to engage in and

something to become invested in. The fact of the matter is that no audience

member can resist the draw of the problem solving process as it unfolds on

the big screen; it’s human nature to seew hat greater meaning can be gained


7 12/12/14, 1



f rom how the resolution play s out.

A dvanced Story Theory for this A rticle

Structurally, Dramatica calls for four Acts, or Signposts, in every complete

story.Experientially (f rom the audience’s view point), the Journey s betw een

these Signposts are the Three Acts that most people (A ristotle included ) feel

w hen they w atch or read a story. The Inciting Incident and First Act Turn

surround that First Signpost on either side. Dramatica smartly calls these

plot points Stor y Drivers.

The problem w ith forcing the Inciting Incident closer to the 20 or 25 per-

cent mark is that, f rom a dramatic perspective, there is little energy being

spent during that first act. Typically, stories w ithout a strong Inciting Inci-

dent also, by matter of definition, have no definable problem in place for the

characters to deal w ith. Thus, no conflict and little for the audience to be

concerned w ith. Waiting until the quarter mark to get things going is a sure-

fire w ay tow ards creating a storytelling disaster.

TheI

ncitingI

ncid

ent exis

ts

, not becaus

e McKee calls

for

it, bu

t becaus

e itcreates that inequity in the lives of the characters w ithin a story. There has

to be some impetus for all that follows, some problem that needs to be

solved. The Story Driver manufactures this problem.

Concepts covered: Closing Event, Inciting Incident, Plot Progression, Signposts &

Story Driver.

This article is part of a series entitled "Plot."

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by Jim Hull

The Rea son for Acts

When tackling the immense project that is a w ork of narrative fic-

tion, many writers begin by dividing up the events that occur in

their story into separate general areas commonly referred to as

Acts. Whether done instinctively or because of something once

read, most agree that this practice is both universal and helpf ul.

But w hat is left out of many of the discussions concerning Acts is w hy they

even exist in the first place. Is it really simply a w ay of dividing a story up

into Beginning, Middle and End as A ristotle believed thousands of years ago?

Or could there possibly be a more meaningf ul reason w hy stories naturally

move through four distinct areas? If one accepts the idea that stories are

about solving problems, then the reason for Act divisions becomes clear.

Problem-Solving and Act Turns

TheI

ncitingI

ncid

ent occurs

, intr

odu

cing a pr

oblem into the lives

of thecharacters w ho inhabit a story. In order to resolve it, a certain approach is

taken–some characters w ork for the eventual resolution of the problem, oth-

ers are firmly against such an endeavor. The tw o forces battle it out until all

the dramatic conflicts w ithin that one particular approach are exhausted. If

the problem continues to exist, a new approach must be taken, and thus, a

brand new Act is required.

This is w hy Acts exist w ithin a story. They signify the change in dramatic

focus the cha racters take in order to solve the problems within a stor y.

The Weekend of Dramatica

returns Ma rch 21-22, 2015. Learn this revolu-

tionary story theory ! Learn more!

Reason for Acts | Narrative First http://narrativefirst.com/articles/the-reason

6 12/12/14, 1



The reason there are only four acts in every complete story is because for ev-

ery problemw e can experience in our lives, there are four major contexts, or

dramatic approaches, w e can take in order to go about effective problem-

solving.

Four Acts, Four Contexts

Let’s say, for example, that w e are writing a story about a group of boxers and

the challenges they face rising up through the amateur circuit. Their strug-

gles come because they simply aren’t very skilled boxers. Sure, they might

have mental blocks or doubts about their abilities, but the true focus of this

particular story is their prow ess w ithin the ring.

Wew ant to write a complete story , and thus w ant to make sure that w e cover

all four contexts f romw hich to examine this particular problem. When it

comes to phy sical activities like this, the four basic contexts are DO IN G ,

OBTA ININ G , U N D E RSTA N D IN G and L E AR NIN G . Once our boxers have

moved through these four areas they w ill have explored every aspect of box-ing f rom a phy sical standpoint and w ill have either found a w ay to solve their

problem, or not.

The first, and probably most easy context to “get” is the context of actually

DOING something. In this act, our group of boxers w ould explore the diffi-

culties and conflicts created by body blows and uppercuts. The older more

experienced boxers w ould challenge the younger ones and individual skill

levels w ould be brought to test. There w ould be a lot of pain in this Act.

The second context w ould concern itself w ithOBTA INING something.Here,

the group of boxers w ould perhaps duke it out to see w ho w ill end up on the

final team and w ho w ill go home w ith their tail tucked betw een their legs.

There could be lives taken in this Act, if not arms broken, and falls taken for

money. Anything and everything to do w ith achieving or losing something

w ould fall into this category.

The third context deviates f rom the first tw o in that, at first glance, it seems

to delve into more of a mental context. How ever, this is not so, as the strug-

gle tow ards UNDERSTA NDING something is truly a phy sical problem. In

this act, the boxers w ould battle against their previous training, perhaps

fighting their

ins

tincts

to cover

-u

pw

hen their

tr

ainer

w

ants

them to openup instead. There w ould be accusations of cheating and conf usion over one

boxer’s proclivity to feint at the sight of blood.

See how our story is suddenly beginning to feel mor e f ull ?

Proponents of a three Act story structure w ould tell you that that is it, you’ve

covered the three basic movements–Beginning, Middle and End–and now

it’s time to wrap things up. But you know that feeling you’re experiencing

right now ? That feeling that something is missing, or has yet to be covered?


6 12/12/14, 1



That is the same feeling an audience experiences w hen a writer has failed to

cover all four contexts. This is a feeling that should be avoided at all costs.

The fourth and final context of solving the phy sical problem of boxing comes

w ithLE AR NING something. Initially, it may be difficult to see the difference

betw een this and the previous context, but if you think of Lear ning as the ac-

tual collecting of information and Und erstand ing the act of making sense of

it all, the differences should become apparent.

In this fourth Act, the boxers w ould learn new techniques, analy ze film

footage of previous bouts, and argue over w hat the line-up might be for the

next tournament. They might discover one of them needs special treatment

and spend late nights in the ring helping him out. They might even spy on

the other group of amateurs across tow n. Anything to do w ith the struggles

involved in the gathering of information w ould find a home in this Act.

And w ith that, the story w ould now be complete. There w ould be no need to

go back and show more scenes of fighting, or have yet another scene of some-

one losing their house because of their dedication to the sport. Those strug-gles, those contexts, have already been explored and movement has been

made forw ard tow ards the ultimate resolution of the initial problem created

by the Inciting Incident. To go back w ould be redundant, and completely un-

necessary.

Problem-Solving At the Movies

A s w ith the previous example regarding the group of boxers and the amateur

circuit, the follow ing film examples w ill focus primarily on the problems ex-

perienced by ever yone in the story. Complete stories, especially films as w on-

derf ul as those below , are complex thematic explorations of different prob-

lems seen f rom many different points-of-view . In order to keep this article

as focused and as simple as it can be, much of the more personal and heart-

felt moments of each individual story w ill be left for another time. For now ,

w e w ill hone in on the major problems that affect every character in

the story.

Star Wars

The major problem of Star Wars revolves around an Empire that has grow n

ruthle

ss in it

s effo

rts

to contain anyr

ebellion. This

pr

oblem begins

w

ithDarth Vader’s attack on Princess Leia’s ship and continues until the eventual

destruction of the Death Star.

The First Act explores the fallout f rom Vader’s attack and the Rebel’s new

Und erstand ing of w hat it is they are dealing w ith now . The Act culminates

w ith the Empire’s attack on the Jaw as and Luke’s A unt and Uncle. The Se-

cond Act finds the Rebels Lear ning the true destructive pow er of the Empire

w hen the evil baddies test their w eapon out on Alderaan. The Third Act has

Luke and Co. Doing w hat they can to fight the Empire as it hunts dow n the


6 12/12/14, 1



hidden Rebel Base. And finally, the Fourth Act finds both good guy s and bad

guy s fighting it out over w ho can destroy the other one first.

With this last Act, the story can end. Every context f romw hich to examine

an out-of-control governing body has been explored. They first tried to un-

derstand, then they w ere forced to learn, follow ed by actuallydoing some-

thing about it, and finally ending w ith w inning and losing. Any f urther un-

derstanding or fighting w ould have required an entirely new story. Jumping

f rom the Und erstand ing to the Doing w ould have left the story feeling empty

and hollow .

Four acts, four contexts f romw hich to examine a problem.

Unforgiven

The major problem ofUnfor given surrounds a group of no-good assassins

and their attempts to collect rew ard money for w hat many deem a reprehen-

sible act. The problem begins w ith the Sheriff’s less-than-equitable punish-

ment for the abuse of an innocent w oman and ends w ith William Munny ex-

acting revenge for those w ho decided to decorate their saloonw ithhis f riend.

The First Act finds the w hores Und erstand ing Little Bill’s w arped sense of

justice and their solution of offering up a rew ard for revenge. The Second Act

turns w ith the arrival of English Bob and forces the Sheriff into teaching ev-

eryonew hat happens to killers and villains w ho come to Big Whiskey in

search of the w hore’s gold (Lear ning). The Third Act has William Munny and

f riends hunting dow n those responsible and Doing w hat they have to in or-

der to collect the rew ard, especiallyw hen others can’t. And finally, the

Fourth Act forces Munny into exacting revengeupon his f riend’s killers,

killing w hoever stands in his w ay (Obtaining).

Once again, w e have that feeling of completeness that comes f rom f ully ex-

ploring every w ay to solve the problem at hand. If for some reason David

Webb Peoples (the screenwriter of Unfor given ) had left out the conflict that

comes w hen Ned can’t Do w hat they came to do, the film w ould have felt less

complete. It w ould have been similar to those times w hen someone leaves

out a key portion of their argument, if only because it bolsters their position.

The audience knows w hen a story “skips” over a key context in solving a

problem.Exploring all four insures that the audience w ill leave satisfied.

Meaningf ul Plot Progression

Note that the Act order of this Academy-A w ard w inning Western is exactly

the same as that of the popcorn science-fiction classic, Star Wars. It starts

w ith an Und erstand ing that moves into Lear ning, then turns to Doing w hich

eventually slides into Obtaining. Yet, is there anyone out there w how ould

contend that these tw o films are the same?


6 12/12/14, 1



Story structure doesn’t and shouldn’t dictatew hat kinds of scenes should

show up in a story.It shouldn’t require a “Call to A dventure” or a “Dark

Night of the Soul” or any other simplistic interpretation of story structure

that has no real meaning or hampers writers w ith the same kinds of scenes

over and over again. It should, how ever, provide the necessary order of

events needed to produce the kind of meaning an A uthor hopes to instill in

the audience, leaving them plenty of room to write w hatever their heart tells

them. That is w hat happens w hen Acts are seen as progressive contexts for

examining a problem. This is the w ay complete stories are written.

Both Star Wars and Unfor given called for this plot progression of Acts be-

cause of the story they w ere trying to tell. Different stories call for different

plot development depending upon the A uthor’s choice of certain structural

and dynamic choices. In next w eek’s article w e w ill cover other films that, al-

though they explore the same four contexts of Und erstand ing, Doing, Lear n-

ing, and Obtaining, do so in a different order, thus producing a completely

different kind of meaning.


Dramatica refers to these different contexts as Signposts. While the above

explanation focused its attention on the Objective Story Throughline (the

throughline that considers everyone in the story, regardless of personal is-

sues ), there are other Signposts for each of the remaining three Through-

lines (Main Character, Impact Character, and Relationship Story Through-

line). In this w ay, the problem that sits at the center of the story can be ex-

plored f rom every single perspective. This is w hat gives a story meaning.

Star Wars and Unfor given have Objective Stories that reside in the Phy sics

Domain, thus the reason w hy the four Signposts are Understanding, Doing,

Learning, and Obtaining. These are the four contexts f rom w hich problem-

atic activities can be explored. The other Throughlines w ould have com-

pletely different contexts depending on w here they resided w ithin the

structural chart.

Concepts covered: Objective Story Throughline, Plot Progression & Signposts.

This article is part of a series entitled "Plot."

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by Jim Hull

Ar ticles cover ing the concept of plot points

When Failure Becomes a Good Thing

Not every story needs tow ork out for the best. In fact, one could

argue that greater truth can be found in stories that closer ap-

proximate the bittersw eet moments in life.

In H ow To T r ain Your Dr agon, things don’t quite w ork out the w ay Hiccup

had intended. While smiles abound and the music sw ells, there still seems to

be a sense of loss. The reason w hy this is goes far beyond the obvious phy si-

cal changes: something quite meaningf ul has transpired.

Protagonist v s. Antagonist

A s mentioned in the previous article on How to Train Your Inciting Incident,

the Goal of this film w as to T r ain the next gener ation of dr agon killers. Stoick,

as Protagonist, pursues this Goal w ith unrelenting courage and steadfast-

ness. His sonHiccup, as Antagonist,w orks to prevent this f rom happening,

balancing the years of tradition he w ishes to honor w ith his instinct to pro-

tect the very same beasts he has been tasked w ith killing.

Major Plot Points develop the original problem

Hiccup’s interference in the opening sequence upsets the balance of things

on Berk. With this Inciting Incident creating the central inequity of the

story,w hat f urther events develop it and propel the story tow ards its even-

tual resolution?

First Act T ur n: Hiccup cuts Toothless free

Points | Narrative First http://narrativefirst.com/articles/concepts/pl

12 12/12/14, 1



Midpoint: Astrid discovers Toothless, Giant dragon revealed

Second Act T ur n: Stoick forces Toothless into revealing the dragon’s nest

While Hiccup’s ref usal to kill the Monstrous Nightmare is the larger event of

the Second Act, that shift f rom the first half of this act into the second is

more a series of actions that drive the story forw ard thematically rather than

one central sequence. These actions alter the exploration of one w ay to solve

the story’s central problem to another. Plot Points don’t alway s have to be

one sing ula r event. In fact, thinking of plot events this w ay almost certainly

guarantees that a story w ill come off mechanical and plodding, and some-

times episodic. Instead, plot points should be seen as forces that shift the

dramatic focus of each structural act into a new area.

The Four Acts of Dragons

A s revealed in the article on The Reason for Acts, there are four major con-

texts f romw hich every problem can be appreciated. Taking the above assess-

ment of the Stor

y Goal and

Plot Points

fou

nd

in H

ow

to T r

ain Your

Dr

agon,the Act order becomes readily apparent:

Follow ing Hiccup’s initial blunder, the Vikings continue to Do w hat they

have alw ay s done, namely mounting excursions into the unknow n and train-

ing new recruits.


12 12/12/14, 1



The Second Act turns w ith Hiccup’s act of defiance against his heritage and

begins w hat Sny der w ould lovingly call the “Fun and Games” moment — the

montage of young Vikings Lear ning their trade. This is the Act w here Hiccup

asks all his questions, f urther complicating the young one’s training and in-

creasing the tension formed by the original inequity.

The multi-layered approach to the Midpoint slides the story into the struc-

tural Third Act, forcing the characters to come to a better Und erstand ing of

w hat is really going on. Beginning w ith A strid’s understanding of w hyHic-

cup has been acting so strangely and culminatingw ith the revelation of the

dragon’s unholy alliance w ith an even bigger dragon, the second act flows

f rom Learning to Understanding. It peaks w ith Hiccup’s decision not to kill

the Monstrous Nightmare, a decision that leads the Vikings (particularly

Hiccup’s father Stoick) to mistakingly view Hiccup as a traitor.

Finally, the fourth and final structural act begins w ith Stoick’s demand that

Toothless reveal the hiding place of the dragons. This action forces Hiccup

and the others to decide to do something really crazy. A s w ith Star Wars, this

final act is all about tw o forces trying to achieve victory over the other.


12 12/12/14, 1



Only things don’tw ork out quite thew ay they did in that seminal sci-fi clas-

sic.

Hiccup’s Failure

Why is it that the ending of this animated “kid’s” film has such a bittersw eet

feeling to it? Even though they defeated the giant dragon, it still doesn’t have

that same overw helming victorious feeling that Han and Luke experienced

w ay back w hen. Is it simply the phy sical changes that came as a result or

could it be there w as something else more meaningf ul going on? Examining

the structural fallout f rom the attempts to resolve the story’s central prob-

lem grants one the answ er.

Hiccup’s personal issues revolve around his diminutive appearance and his

relatively unimportant place among the other Vikings. In other w ords, he

doesn’t fit in. In fact, people refer to his phy sicality as the reasonw hy they

can’t take him seriously (“You just pointed to all of me.”) The resolution of

this angst comes w ith his father’s admittance that they w ere wrong all along,Hiccup w as exactly w hat they needed.

But at w hat cost?

Hiccup’s resolution came only as the result of his father’s failure to train the

next generation of dragon killers. This is w hy it looks like a victoryw hen the

kids come riding in on dragons and defeat the big bad guy.Hiccup, as Antago-

nist, has w on.He has prevented the Protagonist f rom achieving the Story

Goal. Sure, it comes as a result of killing an even bigger dragon, but the story

w as about learning to kill the very beasts they came riding in on.

The film feel s bittersw eet because of thew ay the story is constructed. A Per-

sonal Triumph story is defined as one w here the main Overall Story ends in

Failure yet the Main Character resolves their personal issues. H ow to T r ain

Your Dr agon fits this description perfectly. Personal Triumphs feel bitter-

sw eet because the dividends of such an experience outw eigh the failure of

achieving the original goal.Not every failure can be seen as a loss.

The Consequences of Failing

When failure is met, consequences must be dealtw ith. Without conse-

quences, there can be no motivation towa rds solving the problem. Con-

sequences though, as can be seen in this film, are not alw ay s negative. While

the structure of a story is both objective and logistically sensible, how it is

portrayed and w oven into the fabric of the story can be tempered w ith the

subjective artistry of the writer.

Driven to prevent the original Goal f rom succeeding,Hiccup manages to

comeup w ith something even better–adopting the dragons as pets.His new


12 12/12/14, 1



idea resolves the tenuous situation betw een the dragons and Vikings (at

least these dragons ), but only as a consequence of failing to resolve the

story’s original problem. The audience can sense this innately and explains

clearly w hile the film doesn’t have that overw helming triumphant feeling

that Star Wars had.

Plot points that ser ve the story’s messageMajor story events are more than simply progressive complications that in-

crease tension. They drive a story forw ard, increasing the central inequity to

its eventual breaking point, and eventually end up forcing the Main Charac-

ter to deal w ith his or her ow n personal issues. When the efforts to resolve

the story’s problem ends in failure, the Protagonist by definition loses, the

Antagonist w ins. How the Main Character ends up emotionally though de-

termines w hether the film is an all-out Tragedy or simply another case of

Personal Triumph.

H ow To T r ain Your Dr agon f ulfills the tenants of the latter, establishing itself as something quite special among the typically upbeat companions in the

animated film genre.


H ow To T r ain Your Dr agon is a w onderf ul example of a story w ith an Out-

come of Failure and a Story Judgment of Good. With f urther clarity in its de-

piction of a Steadfast Main Character and an Overall Story Concern of

Learning ( w hat else w ould a film w ith that kind of title be! ), the storyform

presents itself w ith appreciations that resonate strongly.

The Consequence of Conceiving–coming up w ith the idea of adopting the

dragons as pets–shines as a meaningf ul result of failing to achieve the origi-

nal Story Goal. Stoick’s problem of Non-Acceptance, Hiccup and his drive to

Protect, and the Issue betw een the tw o of them revolving around Deficiency

(certainly there is a feeling that someone is lacking! ) all add up to a film that

is much more than w onderf ul art direction and sincere character animation.

Stead fast, Stop, Do-er , Male, Action, Optionlock, Fail ur e, Good , Physics ,

Lear ning, P r econd itions , N on-acceptance

Concepts covered: personal triumph, plot points, signposts, story drivers, story

judgment & story outcome.

Four Acts, Not Three

From A ristotle to McKee, stories have alw ay s been seen as having three


12 12/12/14, 1



movements, or Acts. How can there be anything more to a story than the

Beginning, the Middle, and the End?

For the longest time, writers every w here have struggled w ith the elusive tra-

ditional Second Act. They often know how they w ant to start things out, and

they’ve usually got a great idea for a killer ending, but w hen it comes to all

that stuff in the Middle, they can find themselves feeling a bit lost or con-

f used. How do they keep the energy level up for such an extended period

of time?

Sy d Field made things easier w ith his recognition of the Midpoint, an event

that happens directly in the middle of a screenplay. This discovery effec-

tively divided the traditional Second Act into tw o parts and gave writers w el-

come relief f rom narrative exasperation. Blake Sny der reiterated as much in

his Save the Cat ! series, as did many other experts in story.

With the previously insurmountable traditional Second Act divided into tw o

manageable chunks, writers every w here rejoiced. They finally had a w ay of

trudging through that first draft. But w hat most failed to see w as that theirnew found ease of movement came more as a result of aligning their writing

process w ith the natural structure of a complete story rather than simply

breaking a larger piece into manageable chunks.

Rather, writing f rom the perspective of four movements is closer to w hat re-

ally goes on in the human mind w hen it attempts to solve a problem. If sto-

ries are about solving problems, it only follows that the w ords w ill flow ef-

fortlessly w hen brought into line w ith the natural process of problem-solv-

ing.

Further explanation requires a journey to murkier and deadlier depths.

A Simple Story Told Well

For millions of avid fans, the first w eek in A ugust reignites the primal fears

of being eaten alive by a remorseless killing machine know n as the Great

White shark. At the StoryFanatic household, this w eek long study of deadly

dorsal fins and serrated teeth–know n affectionately elsew here as “Shark

Week”–culminates w ith a screening of Steven Spielberg’s 1975 classic, Jaws.

What a better

w

ay to celebr

ate terr

or

thanw

ith a film that is

ar

gu

ably theSummer’s first-ever blockbuster hit.

But does it rate story-w ise?

While the film is expertly told, it does lack the thematic complexity of say,

H amlet or Amad eus. The shark certainly forces Brody to deal w ith his per-

sonal issues, but is hardly the kind of character the Sheriff can develop a

meaningf ul relationship w ith, one he can battle on a subjective level. Thus,

no real emotional argument is made and the film comes up just short of


12 12/12/14, 1



claiming the label of a complete story.

That being said, the purpose of Jaws w as to entertain and excite and almost

certainly, terrify. For that it w as extremely successf ul (at least in the

mid-70s ), and w hether or not it w as told completely pales in comparison to

its undeniable success. When all is said and done, Jaws tells the simple story

of a man w ho overcomes his fear of w ater by having to deal w ith a shark.

There really isn’t much more to it than that.

What it does provide, how ever, is an excellent example of how the problem-

solving process moves through four separate Acts.

Plot Points

Picking up on last w eek’s article regarding Plot Points and the Inciting Inci-dent, it is easy to see the partitions separating each Act. The Inciting Inci-

dent of Jaws comes w ith the brutal devouring of “Chrissie” Watkins. That

first attack upsets the balance of things in Amityville, thus creating the need

for a story. Destroying the shark resolves the problem and ends the story.

The three Plot Points betw een these events amplify the original problem, in-

creasing the inequity caused by the Inciting Incident w hile simulatenously

shifting the focus of the story.


12 12/12/14, 1



What is most interesting about this is not so much how the Plot Points divide

the story up equally, as it is about how these events shift the dramatic focus

of the film and the intentions of the characters into a new and as of yet, un-

charted area. The Plot Points are more than simple markers to keep the

script reader interested. They are a changing of the tide and a call for

new grow th.

Development of Character

A s mentioned previously, Sheriff Brody (Roy Scheider ) has a personal issue

w ith going into the w ater–he’s terrified of it. He spends a good portion of the

story avoiding this fear, doingw hatever he can to keep f rom facing it regard-

less of the problems it creates for him and those around him. The story, and

the Plot Points that propel it forw ard, move Brody to a point w here he can fi-

nally overcome that fear by having to face them head-on.

Driven by this fear, Brody takes several approaches to dealingw ith this prob-

lem externally.His approach changes w ith each Act Turn, as it should in re-sponse to the shiftingdramatic tides going on w ithin the story.

It should be noted that the follow ing four stages of approach are NOT in ev-

ery story, nor do they necessarily reflect accuratelyw hat Brody is dealing

w ith personally. The four listed below are merely the different approaches

one can take w hen determining how to dealw ith a man-eating shark. It is

one w ay to look at the problem-solving process, how ever one complete w ay.

The follow ing sequence is simply provided as an example of the natural pro-

gression that comes w hen a writer begins to think in terms of four , rather

than three.

Preservation

Follow ing the aw f ul demise of Chrissie, Brody is forced into pr otection mode.

In this First Act, he endeavors to safeguard the people of Amity f rom any f ur-

ther attacks. A character stuck in preservation mode w on’t do anything more

or less than w hat it w ould take to put things back the w ay theyw ere, almost

as if nothing had happened at all. This is reflected in his efforts to make

w arning signs and his desire to close the beaches.

Only problem is, Amity has a Mayor and several city fathers w how ould

rathe

r s

ee their

tow

n thr

ive as

it alw

ay s

has

on the 4th of Ju

ly.

Inaction

Having failed to resolve the problem w ith protection, Brody tries doing

nothing in the Second Act. Sure, he argues w ith the Mayor at the council

meeting and at the dock w ith the captured tiger shark, but w hen it comes

dow n to it, he spends most of this Act reamining relatively ineffectual. The

Kitner kid gets it and Brody responds by getting drunk on w ine.

This approach of inaction carries itselfup to the apparent third “shark” at-


12 12/12/14, 1



tack, w herein Brody stands shoreline as dozens and dozens of panicked

sw immers rush past him. He can’t step into the w ater, can’t help anyone and

evenw hen the real shark threatens his ow n son, all he can do is stand by and

w atch. He does nothing to f urther or hinder the progress of the problem.

Reaction

The severed leg of the poor fisherman falls to the ocean floor and Brody has

to change his approach yet again. No longer able to hide behind the guise of

protecting, and no longer content w ith standing idly by at the w ater’s edge,

Brody spends the majority of the Third Act r eacting. This is different f rom

preser vation in that,w hen something negative happens, the reactive person

attacks the source of the problems rather than try to bring things back to an

equitable state regardless of source.

When Quint destroy s the radio, Brody responds by yelling at him, challeng-

ing him to the point of being overreactive. If this had been the Brody of the

First Act, he w ould have tried putting the radio back together. If instead this

had been the Brody of the previous act, he w ouldn’t have done a thing. But he

didn’t because this is the Brody of the Thi rd Act ; there is no going back toprevious Acts when it comes to cha racter development and plot pro-

g ression. The human mind doesn’t backtrack w hen solving problems, and

neither should a story.

Brody moves into this Third Act focused on responding to the shark as his

new approach. The reactive person attacks the source of the problem that at-

tacks them, reacting to w hat has happened. There is no looking forw ard, and

no anticipation.

Proaction

The shark attacks the boat, chomps dow n on Quint, and suddenly Brody

finds himself propelled into his Fourth and Final Act. Having tried every

other approach one can w hen dealing w ith a killer shark, Brody is left w ith

one final method: Proaction. This is different f rom Reaction in that a charac-

ter w on’t’tw ait for something negative to happen first, instead they initiate

the action. Sheriff Brody doesn’t w ait for the shark to attack first, as Hooper

did in the cage, or as Quint did trying to punch his w ay f ree of those mas-

sive teeth.

Instead, the man w how as once af raid ofw ater, grabs the gun, climbs the

mas

thead

and

tells

G.W. to flas

h thos

e pear

lyw

hites

.

The Completeness of Four Movements

It is a natural progression, w hen trying to determine how to effectively deal

w ith a menacing shark, to move f rom a point of preser vation to inaction to

reaction, and finally, to proaction. Whether or not Brody’s final shot rang

true or not, every tactical aspect of fighting a monster of the sea had been

covered. A completely new story w ould have to be created to f urther deal


12 12/12/14, 1



w ith the problem if the menace had somehow survived. There w as now here

else Brody could have gone.

Eagle-eyed storytellers w ill pick up on the fact that the Act movements in

Brody’s development do not correspond exactly w ith their counterparts in

the story at large. His first Act lingers until the Kitner kid’s mom delivers her

response and his Third Act lasts forever until Quint meets his bloody end.

This is not a mistake.

The development of the Main Character does not alw ay s syncup precisely

w ith the major Act turns of a story, nor should it. Stor ytelling is not an ex-

act science; not every progression can be brokendow n into four 30-minute

sections. Sheriff Brody’s development in Jaws is an excellent example

of this.

It is interesting to note that in Alexandra Sokoloff’s analy sis of Jaws

(one of the better screenwriting experts out there), Brody’s slap is identified as the

First Act Turning Point. There is a difference betw een the Plot Points that

affect ever yone and the Plot Points that affect the Main Character personally.

His feels more dramatic and more important because one, as an audiencew e

empathize more stronglyw ith his storyline, and tw o, the dramatic shift be-

tw een his First Act and Second is more significant and drastic than the shift

that happens in the larger story.

Regardless of w hether or not one sees the separation betw een the Main

Character’s storyline and larger storyline at w ork ( usually called the

A-story), Brody’s development does proceed in a natural progression of fourstages, each one building upon the failures and successes of the previous.

There is a feeling of satisfaction, of contentment, that comes w ith a story

that has covered all the dramatic bases. There are no unansw ered questions,

no story “holes” for audiences to poke their fingers into, and no lingering

feeling of dissatisfaction. While Jaws is not a literary masterpiece, it does

satisfy the audience’s need to have every avenue explored in the context of

defeating a killer shark.


of 12 12/12/14, 1



If Brody had somehow skipped the approach of inaction, as might have hap-

pened w hen thinking of the traditional story paradigm of three acts, there

w ould have been some doubt left in the audience’s mind as to Brody’s grow th

and the sincerity of his actions. What if he had n’t d one anything? , theyw ould

have asked, and the film w ould have felt less than satisfying.

A s it so happens, every approach w as covered and the film w as a massive suc-

cess. The progression of Four Acts has much to do w ith that.

Delivering the Message

Plot points and the Acts they form are not devices designed to organize sto-

rytelling into 30-page increments. Instead, they help form the carrier w ave

for the message a writer hopes to impart on their audience. Thinking in

terms of four Acts, rather than three, insures that the entire message w ill be

delivered intact.

The problem w ith thinking of “the first half of Second Act” and “the secondhalf of the Second Act” is that a writer is in essence saying both halves are

dealingw ith the same thematic elements, both are parts of the same w hole,

w hen the truth is they’re not. They are separate, dramatic movements that

should be treated as much.

All Acts are created equal in the eyes of a sophisticated writer.


Pretty much everything in Dramatica is divided up into fours. The Four

Throughlines, the Four Domains, and yes, the Four Acts of each of those

Throughlines. The model itself is based on Quad Theory–a super compli-

cated mathematical relationship that many writers needn’t concern them-

selves w ith. Suffice it to say that every structural part of a story can be seen

f rom four different contexts, and the model reflects that.

Those w ho look hard enough w ill find the quad of Preservation (now Protec-

tion), Inaction, Reaction and Proaction under the Issue of Strategy in the

Phy sics Domain. This is NOT the OS Quad and certainly not Brody’s MC

Quad. It is simply used as a point of reference for looking at Brody’s ap-

proach or tactics used w hen dealing w ith the shark. When it comes to a char-

acter

tr

ying tos

tr

ategiz

e how

tod

ealw

ith a mons

ter

, thos

e four

Pr

oblem el-ements cover everything.

In earlier versions of Dramatica these four elements w ere seen as part of the

Action “Need” Quad, a concept that has now proven to be limited in its scope

w hen it comes to understanding the meaning of a complete story.How ever,

the above analy sis can be seen as an example of the flexibility of the current

model in appreciating any story, even one that is a tale, a short story or a

very simple story as is the case w ith Jaws.

Take any quad of elements at the bottom of the Dramatica model and one


f 12 12/12/14, 1



!"#$$%&'() +,&-. !/0#) 1#(2/

Subplots

Subplots are secondary storylines that either support or contrast the theme of the main storyline. If your

theme is a thesis that your protagonist will prove either right or wrong, then the subplots are the different

sides of the argument. They're the pros and cons. Supporting the thesis through one storyline and

contradicting it through another enriches the story and generates curiosity about how the protagonist will

resolve his dilemma. What will he choose? How will it turn out? Subplots also help give us a better sense

of character.

One of the subplots in the movie Moonstruck (written by John Patrick Shanley) involves the main

character's parents. Loretta's mother discovers that her husband, whom she truly loves, is having an affair.

This subplot mirrors and plays out the theme, which is true love is a risk worth taking. Her mother's story

underscores Loretta's dilemma: Will she play it safe in a loveless marriage? Or will she follow her heart

and embrace vulnerability, as her mother did?

Subplots are complete stories with a beginning, middle, and end. They have their own protagonists,

usually a secondary character. The subplot protagonist often goes through a change, but it's a shift rather

than a profound transformation. That kind of journey is reserved for the hero.

Your decisions about where and how to begin and end your subplots will affect the pace of your entire

story. You may want to have the major subplot climax coincide with the A-story climax, or slightly

before or after. Be careful not to dilute the A-story climax with a too-big subplot climax. Be sure to wrap

up any loose subplot threads in the resolution.

Theme

The theme of your story is its underlying issue, the thing it's about, the moral at the story's core. Theme is

what transforms the film from a collection of interesting scenes to a unified whole. Theme gives the storyits spine. It's the glue that binds.

Think of your theme as a thesis that your protagonist will prove either right or wrong. In Casablanca the

theme is self-sacrifice for a higher purpose. Humphrey Bogart goes from insisting that he sticks his neck

out for no one to sacrificing the woman he loves so that they can all battle tyranny. The theme of Wizard

of Oz is, "There's no place like home." Common themes include "Crime doesn't pay," "Power corrupts,"

and "Reality is illusion."

How do you come up with your screenplay's theme? Sometimes theme is present from the very start,

sometimes it emerges as you write. Each writer has a source of inspiration, an aspect of life that fascinates

her and that she explores through her writing. Usually, your theme springs from that well. If you've

chosen a story you truly believe in, the theme will become apparent. Once you are able to articulate your theme, use that knowledge as you rewrite. Every scene, character

dilemma, and event should either speak to that theme or contradict it. (See tip #36, Subplots.)

In many movies, the theme is stated outright early in the first act. How blatantly or how subtly you do this

depends on your sensibilities and on the kind of movie you're writing. Be careful, however, not to use the

theme to bash the audience over the head with a message. To loosely quote Samuel Goldwyn, movies

don't deliver messages. Western Union does.



Anticipation

When my brother and I were little, my father used to tell us bedtime stories featuring Doctor Terrible, a

villain of his own invention, and me and my brother as the heroes. Each night, my father would get us

into an impossible predicament. There we were, trapped by Doctor Terrible and armed only with tennis

rackets. We listened to my father's words, breathless with anticipation, eager to learn what ingenious plan

we would hit upon.

And then it would happen. My dad would turn the light off and say, "To be continued tomorrow."

Mine was a sleep-deprived childhood, hanging out there on that cliff. All I could think about was WHAT

WILL HAPPEN NEXT.

When you anticipate something, you look forward to it, like a special night out or a vacation, or you

prepare for it, like a job interview or retirement. Anticipation propels you into the future, and the

emotions about the upcoming event can range from hope and excitement to dread and worry. In real life,

most of us find swinging back and forth between the two extremes too stressful. But at the movies, we

find it exciting. We want to be kept on the edge of our seats hoping the hero will make it but worrying he

won't. A gripping story uses anticipation to keep us hooked.

There are many ways to build anticipation into your story. One is the tactic my dad used—setting

something up, and then delaying the payoff (see tip #34, Setups and Payoffs). Another is to hideinformation from the character but share it with the audience. One scene I saw recently did both of these

to great effect. In the movie Babel (written by Guillermo Arriaga) we know that Cate Blanchett's

character will be shot. We see the kids aim at the bus and pull the trigger. Then we go back in time a little

and see Cate Blanchett and Brad Pitt on the bus. She's sleeping, her head against the window. We KNOW

the bullet will penetrate the window, and we wait for it to happen. But she continues to sleep peacefully,

oblivious to the danger, as the bus rolls on. And rolls on. The moment of impact is delayed and you're left

squirming in your seat with anticipation.

After you've written a scene, go back through it and see how you can create more anticipation. Where can

you make us hope the character will achieve his goal, and where can you make us worry that he won't?

How many different ways can you make us ask what will happen, if it will happen, and when will it

happen? Build anticipation into your script and your reader won't be able to put it down.

Accelerating And Then Releasing The Tension: Act III

Act III gets the hero out of the tree by accelerating the action. Now we're on a downhill ride as the hero

makes a new plan and goes for broke. All the complications the screenwriter established during Acts I and

II come together in Act III. At the climax, the hero will either land safely or he'll crash and burn. In the

aftermath following the climax, the tension releases. Any threads that are still left hanging are resolved,

and we catch a glimpse of the hero's future. We finally find out if he gets the girl, or if he lands in jail.

The third act of Thelma and Louise accelerates the action: Thelma robs a store; the girls blow up a semi;they refuse to turn themselves in even though the law is closing in on them. At the climax, a chase scene

involving multiple cop cars ensues—and leaves the girls hanging on the edge of a cliff. In this film,

climax and resolution happen almost simultaneously when the girls decide to go over the cliff rather than

turn themselves in.

Act III covers the last 25 or 30 pages of the screenplay.

The overall movement in a three-act screenplay can be stated as first setting tension, then building it, and

finally accelerating and releasing it.



The lengths of the acts as stated above (a ratio of 1:2:1) are flexible. In fact, it is often dramatically

advisable to shorten Act III. Ideally, Act III should give the audience a sense of acceleration up to the

final conflict and finish with a resolution that is short and sweet. An Act III that is too long will drag the

story down.

Setting the Tension: Act I

Act I sets the tension and gets the hero up the tree by establishing the characters, the story world, the story

concept, and the conflict. We learn who the protagonist is and what he wants. We become familiar with

his world before it gets disrupted, and we are encouraged to like him or feel sympathy toward him. We

also learn where and when the story is taking place and are introduced to the rules of this story world.

An event must happen in Act I to disrupt our protagonist's life, eliciting action from him and setting the

story in motion. This is the inciting incident, and it often occurs early in the first act. The first major twist

or reversal in the story occurs at the end of Act I. The protagonist has experienced a major change in his

life and has made an initial decision about how to react to this change. The conflict has been established.

The first act of Thelma and Louise (written by Callie Khouri) introduces us to the two protagonists andtheir normal world. Their goal at this point is a weekend away, a bit of an escape from the daily grind. For

Louise (Susan Sarandon), it's a break from waitressing and an opportunity to get her mind off Jimmy, her

non-committal boyfriend. For Thelma (Geena Davis), it's a chance to escape her domineering husband.

When they stop at a bar for a few drinks, we experience their bond and their sense of humor, and we

quickly get to like them. The inciting incident occurs when Louise shoots the man attempting to rape a

drunken Thelma in the bar's parking lot, disrupting life as they knew it in a dramatic way. By then we're

on their side, ready to follow their adventure.

Generally speaking, Act I covers the first 25-30 pages of the screenplay.

Organize Your Story In Three Acts

Storytellers have employed the three-act structure since its origins in ancient Greek drama, and

Hollywood still uses it today as its standard. While it isn't the only way to successfully organize a story,

it's a good place to start, particularly since studio executives pretty much expect it. And, once you have

mastered the three-act structure, you'll be able to play with alternative structures much more

convincingly.

The three-act structure is an organizational tool. Every good story has dramatic tension that happens at the

right time and in the right places. Too little tension, and the story stalls. Too much tension, and you wind

up overwhelming and confusing your audience. The three-act structure helps you map out the progressionof tension from opening to inciting incident to climax and resolution in a coherent way.

Each of the acts has a specific job to do. You can think of it as setup, complications, and resolution. Or to

put it another way, get your hero up a tree in the first act, throw progressively bigger rocks at him and

force him further up the tree in the second, and let him climb down or shake him out of the tree in thethird.

Let's take a closer look at the individual acts.



Turning Points

Turning points are events that spin (or turn) the story in a new direction. They are the major twists or

surprises that keep audiences glued to their seats. It takes a minimum of three turning points—one at the

end of each act—to keep the audience involved through a three-act, feature-length film. Turning points

are also called plot points, major reversals, or act climaxes.

At the Act I turning point, the protagonist has experienced a major change in his life and has made an

initial decision about how he will respond. At the Act II turning point, the protagonist realizes his strategy

isn't working and he needs to change course. The Act III turning point is the movie's climax, the final

show-down between protagonist and antagonist. It's here that we discover whether the hero wins or loses.

Many writers add a mid-act climax halfway through Act II, called the midpoint. Essentially, this is a

fourth turning point, but smaller in scope than the turning point at the end of Act II. It gives the

screenwriter one more destination to work toward, ensures that the conflict will build continuously, and

helps keep the screenplay on track.

We expect good stories to have turning points and are disappointed when they don't. If you want to keep

your audience involved, it's crucial to understand turning points.

Beats, Scenes, And Scene Sequences

A beat is the smallest structural unit of a script and is defined as an exchange of action/reaction. It's a line

of dialogue, an action, or a reaction that creates an emotional moment. For example, a woman dressed for

an evening out checks the clock—her date is late. She's annoyed (beat #1). The doorbell rings. Angry, she

opens the door (beat #2). Her date tumbles in, bloodied and bruised. Her anger turns to horror and

concern (beat #3). As we see from this example, beats are strung together to build a scene.

A scene is a continuous action in a single location. Each scene functions as a mini-story, with a

beginning, middle, and end. A scene has its own protagonists. This could be the hero, the antagonist, or

some other character depending on the scene's purpose. The scene's protagonist must have a goal (she

wants to go out) and face obstacles (her date is first late, then incapacitated). Scenes accomplish the following tasks: • Create anticipation and move the story forward • Reveal conflict •

Reveal character • Elicit emotion

The best scenes accomplish several tasks at a time. Once you've clarified a scene's dramatic purpose, set it

visually and dynamically. Keep your script tight by narrowing the timeframe of its action: Start the scene

as late within the action being depicted as possible, and end it as soon as possible, leaving the moviegoer

to imagine part of the scene's buildup and aftermath. Scenes link together to form sequences.

A scene sequence is made up of several scenes that work together to build tension toward a bigger climax.

In a sequence in which the hero's wife leaves him, scene one could be an argument during which he

pushes her. In scene two, he calls from work to apologize but she says she's leaving. In scene three, herushes home to find her gone. Each scene has a climax—the push, the wife's announcement, the

realization she's gone. But they all contributed toward the climax of the sequence—his realization that

she's gone.

An act is constructed out of scenes and scene sequences that build toward a climax bigger than each of the

scene sequence climaxes. The information revealed in an act climax is so new and shocking that it

completely changes the protagonist's situation. An act climax is also called a turning point (see below).

Acts are discussed in more detail in tips #27-30.



Genre

Stories are arranged by their shared elements into categories called genres. Aristotle gave us the first two

genres by organizing stories according to their emotional charge. Positive or upbeat stories were

categorized as "fortunate." Negative or downbeat ones were "tragic."

As storytelling evolved over the centuries, more and more genres and subgenres emerged. Today, no one

can agree on how many genres exist or how to divide them. Below is a description of some of the most

common film genres and subgenres. All of these will be familiar to you and, as you will see, genres often

overlap.

Comedy: This category includes romantic (There's Something About Mary) and screwball comedies (Rat

Race), satires (Thank You for Smoking), and black comedies (Catch-22). Comedies are meant to amuse.

Since it's hard to laugh at someone in danger, one of the most important rules of comedy is that no one

gets hurt. No matter how many pratfalls a character takes, his reaction is always funnier than the injury is

painful. The only exception is black comedy, where the scale tips toward laughs of discomfort.

Drama: Drama is an umbrella category for a serious portrayal of realistic characters, settings, and

situations—in other words, everything that isn't a comedy. The important distinction here is the emotional

charge. Comedies make us smile, laugh, and guffaw; dramas make us reflect, worry, and cry. The

category drama has many subsets and includes movies like Kramer vs. Kramer, The English Patient, and

Rain Man.

Action/Adventure: Action films are fast-paced, mile-a-minute rides. Explosions, chases, and battles figure

prominently. Adventure films usually revolve around some kind of quest, and are often set in exotic

locales. Action and adventure are so intertwined that they are often treated as one. Some sub-genres are:

disaster/survival films (The Day After Tomorrow), treasure hunts (Romancing the Stone), swashbucklers

(Pirates of the Caribbean), and spy films (Casino Royale). Crime: Here, the main storyline revolves

around a crime committed. Among this category's many sub-genres are: police dramas (Se7en), gangster

films (The Untouchables), film noir (The Maltese Falcon), courtroom dramas (12 Angry Men), and

thrillers (The Manchurian Candidate). Horror: Designed to scare the living daylights out of us, horror

films shock and thrill at the same time. In his book Story: Substance, Structure, Style and The Principles

of Screenwriting, Robert McKee divides horror into three subgenres: the uncanny, in which the source of

horror is subject to rational explanation (Psycho), the supernatural, in which the source of horror isirrational or from the spirit world (Poltergeist), or the super-uncanny, where the audience is kept guessing

between the two other possibilities.

Learn more: The genres above are only one way of classifying story types. For a thought- provoking take

on the issue, check out Blake Snyder's book Save the Cat.

Story Is Conflict

There is no story without conflict. As entertainment lawyer Judith Merians puts it, "Too often writers

forget to tell a story. There's lots of character development, establishing of setting, but I don't know whatthe fight's about. If I don't know that, you've lost me."

When a character wants something very badly but must overcome obstacles to get it, this creates an

interplay of opposing forces—in other words, conflict. Conflict is about struggling for power in ways big

or small. Luke Skywalker wants to beat Darth Vader. Three bachelors taking care of a baby want it to

stop crying. The stakes may be different, but both are power struggles that give a story its essential

conflict.

The choices a person makes when faced with extreme conflict bring out his or her deepest character.

That's why conflict is so compelling dramatically. We get to live through the hero's dilemma vicariously



and wonder if we ourselves would be as courageous or as foolish.

There are four elements essential for story conflict:

• The character must have a goal and encounter obstacles along the way.• The goal must be essential tothe character. He must not be willing to give up. There can be no compromise. • The goal can't be too easyto achieve. The odds should be stacked against him. • The character must stand SOME hope of achievingit, otherwise the story will come across as implausible.

Every story has a central conflict. In The Pursuit of Happyness, written by Steve Conrad, the centralconflict is Chris Gardner's struggle to become a stockbroker and provide a home for his 5-year-old son.But there's also scene conflict: between Chris and the mother of his son, who doesn't believe in him; whenChris is in the homeless shelter repairing his last bone density scanner so he can sell it to feed his son, andthe shelter lights go out; and when Chris' boss asks to borrow $5 without realizing it's all Chris has left.Each of these scene conflicts feed the primary conflict. Chris can't give up or his son will go hungry. Theodds are highly stacked against him and his goal seems almost impossible to achieve. But he has twoqualities that give us hope: He's determined, and he's highly intelligent.

Start with the primary conflict, which is your hero's story goal. As your story progresses, add newobstacles and setbacks for your character to overcome, but make sure each conflict feeds the biggerconflict. Allow the obstacles to become increasingly more difficult and the conflict to escalate as the hero

approaches the crisis point. Master the art of conflict, and you will have the audience sitting on the edgeof their seats.

Writing Narrative

Narrative is everything that isn't dialogue. It includes descriptions of the characters, the locations, theimages and actions we see, and the sounds we hear. It also sets mood, pace, and tone.

Good narrative is active and lean. Here are some points to keep in mind:

Write only what you can see or hear: If you describe a character's inner state (A painful memory fromwhen he was 5 years old overwhelms George) or give backstory (Celia was Jonathan's first girlfriend) inthe narrative, how will the audience be made aware of this information? If it's absolutely vital to the storyto have this information, turn it into a visual or a line of dialogue.

Describing Actions: Whereas novels are often written in past tense, screenplays are always written as ifthey're happening right here, right now. Use present tense: John opens the door, walks into the room.Stick to active voice: John opens the door, and avoid the passive voice: The door was opened by John.Replace the present continuous (Gloria is driving) with the present simple (Gloria drives) whenever youcan.

Describing Location: Include only enough for the reader to follow the story and the production team to

design the shot. Follow the "rule of three." Point out no more than three items in a room to characterize it.People can easily visualize and remember three things, but become overwhelmed when asked toremember more. Use quintessential details. For example, if you want to describe a hippie's apartment, youmay want to point out the chintz, the incense, and the Kama Sutra displayed on the coffee table, but skipdescribing the furniture, the color of the rug, and the windows. Unless, of course someone is about toburst through a window. Then by all means let us know it's there.

Describing Characters: When describing the way a character looks, avoid non-descriptive clichés like"drop-dead gorgeous," or specifics like "blond and blue-eyed." The first only gives us a generic picture,and the second limits the casting possibilities. Use metaphors to paint more vivid pictures. Instead of, "At



six feet tall and weighing only 120 pounds, Beth is too skinny," say "If Beth stood sideways and stuck out

her tongue, she'd look like a zipper."

Break up the paragraphs. Large blocks of text are a turn-off to the reader. First, it slows down the reading

experience and as a result slows down the story. Second, it indicates the writer is either inexperienced or

spending too much time on details. Keep your description to blocks of four or five lines. Include only

details that are truly important. Keep your sentences short and simple. Avoid complicated grammatical

constructions.

Tone: Keep your tone consistent. If you're writing a comedy, your descriptions, actions, and choice ofwords should be funny, too. If you're writing an action film, then your narrative should be full of tension

and action.

Setups And Payoffs

Think of setup as a promise made and payofs as a promise fulfilled. When you set something up, you

create an expectation in the reader that it'll be paid off later. In Thelma and Louise, as Thelma is packing,

she throws in her gun on a whim, even though she has never used it and is afraid of it. When we see that,

it propels us into the future. We know that gun is going to be used and wait for it to happen. If it doesn't,we'll feel cheated.

Every story element needs to be set up: actions, character traits, character transformations, events, turning

points, the ending. In The Pursuit of Happyness, set in the 1980s, we see the hero playing with a Rubik's

cube, and we hear a report on TV about the fad it's set off (setup). In a later scene, the hero attempts to

talk himself into a prestigious training program for stockbrokers, but the broker he's trying to impress is

too wrapped up in the Rubik's cube to listen. The hero manages to complete the puzzle, thereby proving

his smarts to the stockbroker (payoff).

When you set something up, it needs to evolve organically and naturally. The point is to tease without

blatantly manipulating. It can't scream, "Hey, you! Look here!" Make the intervening stuff between the

setup and the payoff pertinent to the story and interesting in its own right. Then deliver the payoff. Workon getting the timing right, which will vary from scene to scene and story to story. Don't leave people

hanging too long, but don't close the gap too quickly either.

Exposition

Sometimes viewers need to know about something that happened before the movie began so they can

understand the story. Or they need some background information on a character that explains his

personality or behavior. Exposition, as this information is called, has to be delivered through setups,

flashbacks, dialogue, or other subtle means, including visuals and music.

Writing exposition is tricky, because it can easily fall in the "telling" rather than "showing" mode. If

you're too heavy-handed with your exposition, you pull the reader out of the fictional world. Good

exposition is woven naturally into the story.

Exposition should be doled out on a "need to know" basis. Give the reader only as much as he needs to

know right now in order to understand the story. A good way of creating suspense and masking

exposition at the same time is by making the audience curious about what happened or what the character

is hiding. In Casablanca, by the time the flashback of Rick and Ilsa in Paris rolls around, we are dying to

know what happened between them.



One trick for revealing information the audience needs to know is to reveal it to a character who is also in

the dark. In The Silence of the Lambs (novel by Thomas Harris, script by Ted Tally), Clarice's superior

prepares her to meet Lecter. Because Clarice needs this information to do her job and stay safe, this bit of

exposition comes across as believable. A more awkward bit of exposition is the opening scene of My Best

Friend's Wedding. At dinner with George, Julianne checks her answering machine and learns her best

friend Michael called. She then proceeds to tell George every detail we need to know about her

relationship with Michael. The problem is, George is Julianne's second-best friend. Wouldn't he already

know the story? That kind of information dump is pure telling. It pulls you out of the story.

Another trick is to reveal exposition through action. In Casino Royale (novel by Ian Fleming, screenplayby Neal Purvis, Robert Wade, and Paul Haggis) a scene was included to inform us of Bond's double-00

status, achieved once a spy kills twice. Bond is face-to-face with a spy gone bad. The spy is cautious but

confident, sure that if he were really in trouble, the agency would have sent a double-00 agent.

But, as he points out, Bond has only killed once. At that point, Bond pulls out a gun and shoots him,

securing his double-00 status.

When writing exposition, search for ways to mask it. Don't tell us anything we don't need to know, and

don't allow characters to discuss things they already know. Reveal exposition through action as much as

you can. And create curiosity by holding on to exposition until it's absolutely essential to the story.

Stage Directions

Stage directions tell an actor how to execute the actions of the story. An example: Sally nods. (Action.)

She wants him to know she understands. (Stage direction.) The consensus in Hollywood is that too many

stage directions slow down the script reading and insult the actors' intelligence. The same goes for

including camera angles in your script, a big no-no and a sign of a rank amateur. Camera angles amount

to stage directions for the director. Remember, nobody likes being told how to do their job.

Writers often feel that stage directions get the emotions across expediently. If someone is speed-reading,

the parenthetical will tell them Carol is feeling hurt. The reader will get it. Isn't that the point?

Yes. Andno. The reader needs to be gently guided by the story itself, not pounded over the head by the writer.

Similarly, the actor's motivation, the director's cues, and the designer's inspiration should all come from

within the story. Film people are creative people. They want to fill out the details with their own

imagination and creativity. A screenwriter's job is to remain evocative rather than absolute. Let's look at an

example from Tender Mercies, written by Horton Foote. Mac, an alcoholic musician, wakes up alone in a

motel room. Prior to abandoning him in a drunken heap, his companion went through Mac's jacket and

stole his money. In this scene, Mac looks for his money to pay Rosa Lee, the owner of the motel:He

enters. He goes to a jacket lying on the floor. He searches the pockets of the jacket looking for money, but

finds nothing. There is a half-empty bottle of whiskey on the dresser, and he goes to it and takes a swig

and then goes back outside. We are told what Mac does, but not how he does it. Mac doesn't stumble as he

enters or search his pockets in a panic. We understand Mac intended to pay. His drinking from the bottle

shows a need to steady himself, and we can assume he feels pretty bad. The actor (Robert Duvall) foundhis own facial expressions, timing, and gestures to communicate his character's emotions.

Focus on

showing through events and actions rather than telling through stage directions. Then, if you feel a stage

direction is necessary to emphasize or clarify a moment, go ahead and use it. If you do this judiciously,

nobody will have a problem with it. But avoid camera angles at all costs. Simply show us what we need

to see. Instead of CLOSE UP on a hand turning a key, write A hand turning a key. Scaling back stage

directions shows that you trust your story to do its job, and that you trust readers, actors, and directors to

do theirs. The most confident writers use the fewest stage directions.



The First 10 Pages

Take another look at the photo of Greg Beal of the Nicholl Fellowship surrounded by over 6,000 script

submissions (http://photos.oscars.org /listanevent.php?events=50). Now imagine you're the reader sitting

in the middle of that avalanche. How much patience do you have for a story that doesn't grab you right

away? I'm betting not a lot.

"Readers are overworked," says producer Hal Croasmun. "Your job is to make it impossible for them toput your script down."

Hollywood's short attention span can be infuriating to writers who have poured their life's blood into their

work. "Unfair!" they cry. "If a reader puts down the script after 10 pages, they'll miss the award-worthy

love scene on page 53. And what about the fantastic twist at the end?" Unfortunately, by then it's too late.

It's the business of readers and producers to know what will hold their audience's interest. "I've asked over

25 producers, 'At what point in a script can you tell if it is written by a professional screenwriter?'" says

Croasmun. "Many said, 'Within three pages,' and more than half said, 'On the first page.'"

Don't think the public will be more generous. Several years ago, famed editor Sol Stein conducted an

informal study on book-browsing habits in mid-Manhattan bookstores. He found that most people readabout three pages before either buying the book or putting it down to pick up another one. In his book On

Writing, Stein says, "Thereafter, whenever a novelist told me that his novel really got going on page 10 or

20 or 30, I had to pass on the news that his book in all likelihood was doomed."

The first 10 pages need to introduce us to the story, the setting, and the characters. They need to establish

the hero's "life as usual" and to show us the event that catapults the hero into a different life (inciting

incident). By the end of the first 10 pages, we need to know what the story is about. All this needs to

happen in a fresh and entertaining way. Many novice writers stop the story to establish the characters and

the setting and to unroll "life as usual." But experienced writers reveal character and establish

relationships and setting and get the story rolling by giving us conflict from the get-go, saturating every

line of dialogue with meaning, having their characters interact with the setting, and creating intriguing

story questions that pique curiosity. The best way to learn how to write great openings is by studying thefirst few pages of some of your favorite scripts.

When you grab your reader on the first page, you've just made a promise to tell him a great story. Live up

to that promise on every page that follows, and your reader won't be able to put your script down.

The End: Inevitable And Surprising

The ending is the last thing an audience sees. If it's amazing, they'll remember the movie as a wonderful

experience. If not, they'll leave the theater disappointed.

There are three kinds of endings. Happy endings, downer endings, and bittersweet endings.

Happy ending: Boy gets girl (You've Got Mail), justice triumphs (The Verdict), and everyone lives

happily ever after. We leave the theater feeling good, our hearts full of hope for humanity and ourselves.

Because audiences love happy endings, Hollywood loves happy endings.

Downer endings: Boy gets girl but he loses something even more valuable (Body Heat), evil has

destroyed good (Chinatown). The world is a mess, and we leave the theater sobered. Sometimes hardship

elucidates life, and there have always been successful movies with downer endings.

Bittersweet endings: Girl loses boy, but she wins something more valuable (My Best Friend's Wedding).



Or good triumphs over evil, but only because the hero made a personal sacrifice (Casablanca).

Endings must resolve the story question in a clear and unambiguous way. If the question raised in Act I

was, "Will the boy get the girl?" your Act III has to answer with a yes or a no. Not a maybe. Even in a

bittersweet ending, the answer is either "yes, but" or "no, but."

The ending has to be set up step-by-step. It can't come out of left field. It should be hinted at throughout

the film. It should feel inevitable, as if that's the only possible way this story could have ended. It should

make sense. But at the same time, the ending needs to be surprising.

What? How can an ending be both inevitable and surprising?

Look at Thelma and Louise again. Everything in the story points to Thelma and Louise not being willing

to give up their freedom. Their whole journey has been about escaping from society's constraints. Are

they really going to allow themselves to go to jail? No! They have to get away! That's the inevitable part.

But the way they choose to get away—by going over the cliff and facing their death on their own terms—

that's the surprise.

Once you've written your ending, go back through Acts I and II and verify that every twist, event, and

revelation in Act III is properly set up. This is what will make your ending seem inevitable, and therefore

true to the story. It will feel right.

Building the Tension: Act II

Act II throws rocks at the hero by building the tension and deepening the conflict until the tension reaches

a breaking point at the end of the act. The protagonist now has a goal—to get the girl, solve the mystery,

save the world. If he achieves his goal without struggle, we have no story. So the writer throws obstacles

in the hero's way and develops subplots to complicate his life. By the end of Act II, the hero has his goal

in sight and thinks he has the solution. But then the major reversal at the end of Act II turns his solution

on its head. The hero is forced to muster even more strength and determination or change his plan, often

against a running clock.

In the second act of Thelma and Louise, the girls now have a different goal: to escape to Mexico. Their

main obstacle becomes the law. Complications build. They need money. Louise refuses to go through

Texas. The law is closing in on them. But finally Louise's boyfriend Jimmy shows up with some cash and

it looks like they'll make it—until a hitchhiker Thelma picked up robs them at the Act II turning point.

Act II generally runs from page 25 or 30 to about page 90.

Inciting Incident, Crisis, Climax, and Resolution

The Inciting Incident is that event which disturbs the hero's life-as-he-knew-it and "incites" him to take

action. It happens early in Act I, usually somewhere in the first 10 pages. In Kramer vs. Kramer (novel by

Avery Corman, script by Robert Benton) it's when Joanna walks out and leaves Ted to parent his son

alone.

The Crisis is that moment when all seems lost. Nothing the hero has been doing has worked, and he's

further from his goal than ever. This is the point where the hero has to regroup and rethink. Only if he

digs deep and taps his inner resources will he find a strategy that works. In Kramer vs. Kramer, when Ted

learns he lost custody, he must choose between appealing, which would mean putting his son on the

stand, or accepting the decision, which would protect Billy. He chooses to give up custody and protect

Billy, and now must come to terms with the consequences.



The Climax is the final showdown between the protagonist and the antagonist. This is the scene the

audience has been waiting for, the moment that answers the story's biggest question. Will good triumph

over evil? Will the boy get the girl? In Kramer vs. Kramer, the climax happens when Joanna realizes that

Ted is a better father than she is a mother because he's willing to act in Billy's best interest, and she lets

him have the boy.

The Resolution is where all the loose ends are tied up. Often, we are left with a slight hint of the future. In

Kramer vs. Kramer, the resolution is simple and quick: Joanna asks to be allowed to visit Billy, and then

she and Ted go upstairs to talk to him. The audience is left believing that somehow, this family will find a

balance that works for them.

Conflict And Status Negotiation

Certain schools of acting teach that every human interaction boils down to a negotiation for status. Every

gesture made, word spoken, and action taken is an attempt to either elevate or lower one's status in

relation to the other person. If you think about it for a moment, you'll see just how true that is.

In a shop one day I watched a woman walk up to a cashier and ask for a pack of cigarettes. The shop was

out of her brand. Most people would pick a different one or go to another store, but not this lady. Sheinsisted. The cashier glanced at the line forming and, somewhat vexed, repeated they were out. The

woman tried to engage the cashier in conversation. She didn't seem to mind holding everyone up. She felt

she deserved attention, and she wasn't going to allow the cashier to lower her status by depriving her of it.

But from the cashier's point of view, her own status was being lowered. She prided herself on her

efficiency, and this customer was keeping her from doing her job. She snapped at the customer—which

only led the customer to greater hesitancy and indecision. Meanwhile, everyone in line was grumbling.

I'm sure they felt the customer was wasting their time—and lowering their status.

Finally, the manager came over. He led the woman away to another register, where he indulged her. From

his point of view, as manager and mediator, his higher status remained intact. From the customer's point

of view, her status as someone worthy of attention and service also remained intact. They both felt they

had the upper hand. The customers were satisfied, as was the cashier, who could get back to work. WhenI left, the customer was still happily browsing cigarettes.

And me? As the detached writer/observer, I found my own way of maintaining status by choosing to

thrive on the situation rather than becoming exasperated by it.

Some status negotiations seem obvious: a prisoner and a warden, a teacher and a student, a king and a

peasant. But status negotiations occur in every relationship, no matter how loving or intimate. Mothers

and daughters, brothers and sisters, husbands and wives continually jockey for the upper hand. We even

manage to elevate our status by seemingly lowering it. Witness a group of women complaining about

their ailments. "You think you've got it bad? I can hardly walk!" The one with the worst ailment seems to

be lowering her status, but in fact she's proclaiming herself champion in the battle of pain.

Create conflict by infusing every character interaction, no matter how mundane, with status negotiation.

Don't forget status negotiations between grown-ups and children, and between pets and their owners. My

husband and I recently spent 47 minutes attempting to get a 7-inch parakeet into her cage. That, my

friends, was one doozy of a status negotiation.



Genre Conventions

"Understand the conventions of the genre you're writing for," says screenwriter Susannah Farrow. "There

are certain things moviegoers expect to see in a comedy and other things they expect to see in a thriller.

Make sure you include those things."

Audiences have their favorite genres and are well versed in genre conventions. If they've come to see a

comedy, they want laughs. But they also want original situations, not something they've seen a hundred

times. To write successfully within a genre, a writer must study and master its conventions while avoiding

its clichés.

The choice of genre may impose conventions on: • setting (the West in a western, a battle in a war film) •

roles (detective and criminal in a detective story) • events (boy-meets-girl in a love story) • emotional

expectations (in an action/adventure, will the hero save the day? In a horror movie, will the axe murderer

strike again?).

Some genres have many conventions. Let's take a crime story as an example. The audience expects: a

crime to occur early on; someone to investigate; twists in the form of false clues, multiple suspects, or the

revelation of hidden layers; and a showdown (physical, intellectual, or both) between the criminal and the

investigator.

The hardest part of writing within a genre is avoiding its clichés. The first writer who revealed that thecriminal was really a corrupt cop found an exciting, new twist. But by now that device has become an

overused gimmick. Find ways of meeting audience expectations without resorting to clichés.

Watch as many movies in your genre as you can, and study their scripts. Ask the following questions:

What are the conventions of settings, roles, and events? What emotional expectations are the films

fulfilling? What's been done to death? What's original? How is your script like these movies, and how

does it differ? Can you give the events that have to happen in your story a fresh, contemporary twist

without committing any genre sins or falling into formulaic writing?

Understanding genre is an essential element of good writing. If you master your genre and its

conventions, you'll be able to pay off audience expectation with skill, originality, and elegance. And if

you wish to write a genre-defying script, your knowledge of genre will only make your experimentbolder.

External And Internal Conflict

As contests go, a boxing match is pretty straightforward: two guys (usually) beat each other until one falls

down and can't get up. This is primeval conflict—man against man in violent confrontation. Because

violence is so unambiguous, movies featuring this kind of conflict resonate with everyone and therefore

do well globally. But violence isn't the only kind of conflict there is—or even the most common.

Movie heroes battle individuals, groups, natural and supernatural forces, or their own inner demons.When a protagonist is forced to face his own flaws, this is known as "internal conflict." All other conflict

can be grouped together as "external conflict."

Because movies are a visual medium, the most successful screen stories depict external conflict

represented by a visible, tangible external antagonist. Films with external conflicts include When Harry

Met Sally (man against man), Jaws (man against nature), Rosemary's Baby (man against the

supernatural), and Erin Brockovich (man against society).

But movies are rendered more interesting when they include internal conflict in addition to the external

one. The most gripping stories include external situations or antagonists that force a hero to face and

conquer his character flaws in order to succeed. In The Verdict, written by Barry Reed and David Mamet,



Paul Newman plays an alcoholic lawyer who must overcome his inner demons and win a ground-

breaking case against a corrupt institution. The internal conflict deepens the external conflict and

strengthens the movie.

Boxing matches are only compelling because we get caught up in the drama of watching an underdog dig

deep within himself to muster the strength to win. We are awed by the sheer determination exhibited by

the combatants, and wonder if we have that same ability inside ourselves. Effective internal conflict can

range from overcoming awkwardness or insecurity (The 40 Year Old Virgin) to struggling with addiction

(Leaving Las Vegas) or madness (Shine), but in order to be dramatic, it must be expressed visually.

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