scott&connor.the role and future 2001

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The Role and Future of Archaeology in Forensic ScienceAuthor(s): Douglas D. Scott and Melissa ConnorSource: Historical Archaeology, Vol. 35, No. 1, Archaeologists as Forensic Investigators:Defining the Role (2001), pp. 101-104Published by: Society for Historical Archaeology

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101Douglas D. ScottMelissa ConnorThe Role and Future ofArchaeology inForensic Science

How does a North American archaeologistdoing forensic work answer the question as towhether he or she is a forensic anthropologist?We have our degrees in anthropology, most ofus consider ourselves anthropologists, and we doforensic work. The answer would seem to beyes. But as defined by the American Academyof Forensic Sciences, forensic anthropology isthe application of the methods and goals ofphysical anthropology to questions ofmedicolegalsignificance. While it could be suggested thatforensic physical anthropology could more accurately be termed "forensic osteology," the current definition of the term "forensic anthropology" leads us to use the term "forensic archaeology" tomean the application of archaeologicalparadigms, methods, and goals to questions ofmedicolegal significance.A number of North American anthropologistsdoing forensic work consider themselves crosstrained between physical anthropology andarchaeology. The term "bioarchaeology" wascoined to describe anthropological interdisciplinary research between mortuary archaeology andhuman osteology. The use of archaeology ina forensic context is farmore than a "forensicbioarchaeology." It should involve the entireconstellation of archaeological theories andmethods. Archaeology is applicable to forensicsituations far beyond the techniques in theremoval of a single body from a grave. Somebioarchaeologists have the skills to do forensicwork, but not all do. Some archaeologists havethe necessary skills, but not all. This volume,hopefully, points out that using archaeologicalskills in a forensic situation requires a mix ofskills unique to itself.The purpose of this volume is towork towardsdefining the role of archaeology and archaeologists in forensic work by looking at the current activities of professional archeologists and

why those responsible for the forensic projectsincluded them in the investigation. The papersin this volume strongly point out there is a rolefor the archaeologist in forensic work, but thereare problems in the archeologists' general lackof training in, and the lack of a professionalcommitment to, forensic science.The Role

Archaeological excavation, recovery,mapping,and documentation techniques are routinelyused in today's medico-legal and human rightsinvestigations. The preceding sections discussthe use of pedestrian inventory and metal detector inventory for the recovery of evidence andhuman remains; the documentation of spatialassociations throughmapping techniques, bothsophisticated computer mapping techniquesand simple sketch maps; the importance of aknowledge of soils both for the delineation offeatures, and to interpret site taphonomy; and awide variety of excavation techniques. In addition,methods in firearm identification analysisand remote sensing overlap between the twofields. Many of the techniques archeologistsare familiar with in site location, excavation,documentation, and some analyses have, at sometime or another, been applied in a forensiccontext.

The preceding sections emphasize that thereare differences in the application of archaeological techniques to forensic investigations andthe inclusion of qualified archaeologists on aforensic investigation team. Haglund outlinessome of the reasons for the resistance amongdeath investigators to include archaeologists,including the perceived skill overlap between thearchaeologist and the crime scene technician andthe ignorance of the archaeologist of crime sceneprotocol and etiquette. Many archaeologistswork on forensic cases so infrequently thatmuchof the crime scene protocol is learned on thejob. Sonderman (this volume) describes theexperience well. The onus is on the archaeologists to educate themselves in forensic work andto educate forensic specialists about what anarchaeologist may offer.

Historical Archaeology, 2001, 35(1):101?104.Permission to reprint required.


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102 HISTORICALARCHAEOLOGY 35(1)In order to encourage the continued and growing use of archaeologists as forensic investigation team members, archaeologists who wish toparticipate need to obtain the necessary trainingand have the professional commitment to bean active and productive teammember. Beyondacquiring the basic trainingand skills for forensicwork, the archaeologist must also have a firmgrasp of applying archaeological techniques andparadigms to forensic and human rights situations. No archaeological theory or techniquewill transfer from one investigation domain toanother without modification to fit the realityof the situation. This is especially true in theinternational investigation arena where political

situations are less than stable and the criminaljustice system is often poorly developed orconstrained by different ideologies and culturalpractices. Acquiring the skills necessary to bean archaeological forensic investigator is just astarting point.As Crist (this volume) points out, there is alevel of professional commitment necessary tobe fully accepted in the forensic science world.Those who wish to offer their skills as forensicspecialists incur a responsibility in doing so.Fulfilling that responsibility includes training inthe forensic sciences, membership in forensicorganizations, publication in forensic journals,and participation in forensic science conferences.We outline below what we perceive, and whatthe authors of this volume have suggested,are the basic educational training requirementsneeded to be that active and productive forensicinvestigation team member.

TrainingArchaeological

For working in the forensic field, basic archaeological skills need to be well beyond those of afield school level. This includes not just excavation techniques, but also survey, cartography,soils, and remote sensing. The important factoris that the archaeologist has a broad base ofexperience. Archaeologists who have consistentlyworked on a single site type and/or a single geographical area may have a developed expertisewithin those parameters, but are unprepared forthe variety of situations encountered in forensicwork. Archaeologists need to be prepared to

implement excavations in wells, open fields,forested areas, rock shelters, caves, in burnedand unburned situations, latrines, trash dumps,and urban situations, as well as cemeteries.These challenges reflect a theme that has runthrough this volume, the need for flexibility andexperience at a breadth of site types. Forensicwork is not the place to be initiated into theexhumation of commingled skeletal material orcistern sites. The work proceeds at too fasta pace to learn slowly and the result is tooimportant tomake beginner's mistakes on site.The archaeologist is also not useful without astrong background in osteology. At sites withcommingled remains, remains are frequentlyseparated on the basis of both spatial arrangement and the age and sex of the individual. Ifremains are not well separated into individualsas they are removed from the ground, thenchances for error in the post-mortem examinations become much greater.Archaeologists who engage in forensic work,as in other types of archaeology, need an in

depth knowledge of the types of artifacts likelyto be encountered. In forensicwork, thismeansthat they need a solid grounding inmodernweapons common to the area inwhich they areworking. A basic knowledge of firearms and theammunition they fire is a necessary prerequisite.In exhuming war dead, this also extends to grenades, landmines, and other explosive ordnancewhich needs to identified and documented. Thisbasic explosive related knowledge serves a dualpurpose as unexploded ordnance may be foundon site, and care needs to be exercised forpersonal safety.A broad knowledge of modern material culture,as well as its use and history, is also necessary. We find this knowledge common in thosetrained in the field of historic archaeology. Alltypes of modern objects must be recognized inthe fragments typically found in forensic sites.This includes not only the archaeologist's ownculture, but that of any other ethnic groupswho might be encountered in the grave. In thecultures familiar to most of us, it is commonformarried people to wear a ring on the thirdfinger of the left hand. These rings frequentlycarry inscriptions with dates and the initials ornames of the people involved. While this is asimplistic example, we may not be as familiarwith thematerial culture of other cultures. For


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Scottand Connor-THE ROLE AND FUTUREOF ARCHAEOLOGY IN ORENSIC SCIENCE 103instance, a small package containing a wrappedpiece of paper may be a Muslim prayer amuletthat would help to shed light on the ethnicity,religion, and perhaps the identification of thewearer.A basic knowledge of osteology and osteological techniques is also necessary to enableaccurate site documentation and recording. Ina multi-disciplinary team, the advanced analysesof human remains should be left to a full-time

physical anthropologist or pathologist. As statedabove, the sub-disciplines of anthropology havespecialized to the point that it is difficult to havedetailed knowledge inmultiple sub-disciplines.Neither physical anthropology nor archaeology isso simplistic that it can be done well as a parttime occupation, but cross-disciplinary knowledgeand training in human osteology is important inworking with human remains recovery.A broad knowledge of curation techniques isalso necessary for forensic work. Much of thematerial encountered in forensic cases will beextremely perishable material that would notbecome part of the normal archaeological record,such as clothing, personal papers, money, andreligious or ethnic items. This material willbe disintegrating and may need immediate andextensive in-field stabilization and curation. Thisalso extends to stabilization and transportationof material from the scene to the crime lab.The archaeologist needs towork here with theevidence technicians and ensure that they bothsee the curation needs of thematerial and thatneither the chain of evidence nor the evidenceitself is compromised. On a large, complexsite, a full-time curation specialist may need tobe employed.Forensic

Stover and Crist both point out that archaeological or osteological training alone is insufficient for forensic work. Stover suggests courseson international humanitarian and human rightslaw, a general orientation to the forensic sciences, physical evidence gathering protocols,ballistics, forensic photography, and the psychosocial aspects of death and funerary rites invarying cultures are a necessary minimum for anarchaeologist planning to participate in humanrights forensic investigations.

Let us state here first that neither of theauthors had formal university training in lawenforcement, forensic sciences, or the criminaljustice system. Our knowledge of these comesfrom extensive reading, professional developmentcourses in forensic anthropology, and on-the-jobtraining. So this section is the result of whatwe have found to be necessary and beneficialknowledge. The goal of this training is to buildan understanding of the role and responsibilitiesof an archaeologist in a multi-disciplinary investigation.The first of these is an overall course inforensic sciences, presenting a broad overview ofthe disciplines involved inmodern criminology.This ranges from pathology to biochemistry toosteology. A second useful course would be incrime scene investigation procedures. Again,this allows the archaeologist to understand wherethey fit into the overall hierarchy in the criminaljustice system, as well as the role of the otherindividuals on site. One of themore importantpoints to master as a teammember of a forensicinvestigation is that the artifacts are evidenceand that there is a legal chain of evidence thatmust be maintained. To treat an artifact asan artifact and not a piece of evidence witha chain of legal custody is to compromise aninvestigation,with the real potential to lose thecase in the judicial system. Finally, an overviewof the court system inwhich the person will beworking, as well as other court systems aroundthe world is useful.Crist (this volume, Table 1) details specificcourses and opportunities for training opportunities in the forensic field, applicable to archaeologists. He includes courses at the NationalMuseum of Health and Medicine/Armed ForcesInstitute of Pathology, the Smithsonian Institution, theU. S. Public Health Service's NationalDisaster Medical System, NecroSearch International and others. To date, similar courses arenot taught atmost universities.The Future

Forensic archaeology as a sub-discipline ofeither archaeology or forensic science is farfrom a reality. The overlap between forensicarchaeology and forensic anthropology is real anddifficult for forensic investigators outside of the


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104 HISTORICALARCHAEOLOGY 35(1)disciplines to recognize. In fact, it is sometimesdifficult for those within the disciplines torecognize. The constellation of skills necessaryto work at crime scenes is wide and everyarchaeologist will not have the skills for everysite. Many of the papers in this volume re-statethe concept that as not all physical anthropologists are forensic anthropologists, not all archaeologists have the skills and qualifications forforensic work. However, no body of archaeologists themselves has yet determined what isnecessary to be a "qualified" forensic archaeologist.The papers gathered here emphasize over andover again that recovery techniques are wherearchaeologists make their strongest contribution.This means a strong background in fieldwork.This is not the area for a theoretical archaeologist. The forensic archaeologist needs experience at a variety of site types in a variety ofgeomorphological environments. The archaeologist needs to have worked at the level of directing these endeavors, in order to direct similarendeavors at a crime scene. The firstcriteria fora forensic archaeologist, then,may be at leastthree years (not field seasons, but full years)of fieldwork at sites encompassing open sites,structural sites, buried sites, caves, and well orlatrine sites. At least one full year of fieldworkshould be at the Field Director level.In addition, a combination of on-the-job training and coursework in crime scene protocoland the responsibilities of a forensic scientistare necessary. This can be demonstrated eitherthroughwritten or oral tests. The commitmentto the forensic sciences should be demonstrated,

as Crist points out, through membership, andparticipation in,professional forensic associations.This commitment to, and acceptance of theresponsibilities of, being a forensic professionalis a current failing of almost all archaeologistsworking in investigation.Crist discusses the possibilities of a certifyingboard of forensic archaeologists. Stover suggests the formation of an international nongovernmental organization to act as a coordinating body and informational clearinghouse forarchaeologists and forensic scientistswho wish toapply their skills and expertise to investigationsof violations of human rights and humanitarianlaw worldwide. Itmay be possible to combinethese two goals in a single body.High profile forensic investigationshave engendered a strong interest in the forensic field inthe last decades. Forensic archaeology is anexciting adjunct to the general fields of botharchaeology and forensic sciences, and also is atruly applied discipline. It is a very demandingfield of endeavor and should not be enteredinto lightly. The future of a discipline called"forensic archaeology" will depend on the commitment of its practitioners tomaintain highquality, professional-level expertise inmultipledisciplines.Melissa ConnerForensic Anthropology, Inc.11101 South 98th StreetLincoln, NE 68526Douglas D. ScottMidwest Archeological CenterFederal Building, Room 474100 Centennial Mall NorthLincoln, NE 68508

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