Scientific WritingScientific Writing

Shahin AkhondzadehShahin Akhondzadeh Ph.D., FBPharmacolS., D.Sc.Ph.D., FBPharmacolS., D.Sc.

Professor of Clinical NeuroscienceProfessor of Clinical NeuroscienceDepartment of Psychiatry,Department of Psychiatry,

Roozbeh Psychiatric Hospital,Roozbeh Psychiatric Hospital,Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran.Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran.

Research IdeasResearch Ideas

   In thinking about establishing a research program, it In thinking about establishing a research program, it is important to consider what habits investigators is important to consider what habits investigators need to cultivate in order to be successful in their need to cultivate in order to be successful in their chosen field.chosen field.

  

1.1. Be a good listenerBe a good listener

Good researchers learn as much as they can from Good researchers learn as much as they can from those around them. They learn from their patients, those around them. They learn from their patients, from the observations if fellow staff members at all from the observations if fellow staff members at all levels, and from the accumulated knowledge of other levels, and from the accumulated knowledge of other investigators in the field.investigators in the field.

2. (Read, Read and Read)2. (Read, Read and Read)∞∞

Reading papers in your field, regardless of how finite Reading papers in your field, regardless of how finite it may seem when one first approaches it, is enormous; it may seem when one first approaches it, is enormous; and in becoming a clinical researcher one must have a and in becoming a clinical researcher one must have a firm grasp, both deep and broad-based, of the field of firm grasp, both deep and broad-based, of the field of one’s inquiry, and not uncommonly several related one’s inquiry, and not uncommonly several related fields as well.fields as well.

3. Attend national, if possible, international 3. Attend national, if possible, international meetings.meetings.

If all that one knows about a field is what has been If all that one knows about a field is what has been published in professional journals, one is at least a published in professional journals, one is at least a year out of date. The most recent information is year out of date. The most recent information is usually presented at meetings. usually presented at meetings.

4.4. NetworkNetwork

When you begin to work in an area, it is very When you begin to work in an area, it is very important to get know the most influential people, important to get know the most influential people, particularly in your own field at internationally particularly in your own field at internationally level.level.

5. Present at meetings or submit to 5. Present at meetings or submit to journalsjournals

As soon as you can, submit and present scientific As soon as you can, submit and present scientific data at meetings you have targeted as the most data at meetings you have targeted as the most important in your field. This will allow you to important in your field. This will allow you to obtain criticism and feedback on your work and to obtain criticism and feedback on your work and to become known to other investigators. become known to other investigators.

  

6. Results that get results 6. Results that get results

Choosing an Area of FocusChoosing an Area of Focus

 At some point, an investigator needs to decide on an At some point, an investigator needs to decide on an area on which to focus. Obviously, this decision is area on which to focus. Obviously, this decision is of great importance, and it should be based on a of great importance, and it should be based on a number of factors, including the following:number of factors, including the following:

1.1. From your postgraduate education. It assume you From your postgraduate education. It assume you are the best in your field of postgraduate thesisare the best in your field of postgraduate thesis

2.2. Interest in the area and questions that need to be Interest in the area and questions that need to be asked, as well as interest in and compassion for asked, as well as interest in and compassion for this patient population.this patient population.

3. The availability of patients and necessary 3. The availability of patients and necessary equipment and/or methodology.equipment and/or methodology.

4. Is there a niche?4. Is there a niche?

5. The availability of collaborators and mentors.5. The availability of collaborators and mentors.

6. What is hot?6. What is hot?

What should I consider about plagiarism?What should I consider about plagiarism?

When you write a scientific paper you collect information from different sources and bring them together with your

own results and conclusions.

This is how new knowledge is developed.

All information from other sources has to be marked with a reference.

Making someone else's opinion look like your own is plagiarism.

Supportive Environment and peer Supportive Environment and peer GroupsGroups 

One can rarely do research in isolation. A desirable One can rarely do research in isolation. A desirable situation is one in which other individuals are working situation is one in which other individuals are working in the same or related areas. in the same or related areas.

It is important to work in a culture where It is important to work in a culture where research research productivity is valued, and where recognition is productivity is valued, and where recognition is given for it.given for it.

  

Categories of Papers:Categories of Papers:

EditorialEditorial

Review Articles:Review Articles: They are usually invited. Indeed, their They are usually invited. Indeed, their writers should be expert in that field.writers should be expert in that field.

Regular Research Articles:Regular Research Articles: This category is intended for This category is intended for full scale basic or clinical studies, usually up to 3000 full scale basic or clinical studies, usually up to 3000 words.words.

  Brief Reports/Clinical Reports:Brief Reports/Clinical Reports: This category ifs for This category ifs for smaller, self-contained laboratory or clinical studies smaller, self-contained laboratory or clinical studies including series of cases illustrating a novel therapeutic including series of cases illustrating a novel therapeutic approach or clinical observation.approach or clinical observation.

Rapid Communication.Rapid Communication. This category is for fast- This category is for fast-breaking new work, which is of the great potential breaking new work, which is of the great potential interest and can be succinctly presented. interest and can be succinctly presented.

Case reports are brief reports describing an isolated clinical case or a small number of cases. They may describe new or uncommon diagnoses, unusual outcomes or prognosis, new or infrequently used therapies and side effects of therapy not usually discovered in clinical trials.   

  

Letters to the Editor:Letters to the Editor: These should briefly report single These should briefly report single experiments and cases of clinical interest or respond to experiments and cases of clinical interest or respond to recent articles.recent articles.

Types of case reportsTypes of case reports

Full case reportsFull case reports Images (with legends)Images (with legends) QuizQuiz Letter to editorLetter to editor

Choosing a JournalChoosing a Journal

In thinking about where to submit a paper for In thinking about where to submit a paper for publication, several issues must be considered.publication, several issues must be considered.

The researcher should ask, “How important is this The researcher should ask, “How important is this study, and what readership would be interested in study, and what readership would be interested in it?”it?”

Sending an article to a journal when there is little Sending an article to a journal when there is little or no chance of the journal accepting it may take a or no chance of the journal accepting it may take a great deal of time and may delay publication of the great deal of time and may delay publication of the article until its importance to the field is article until its importance to the field is diminished.diminished.

In preparing a journal article, it is important to In preparing a journal article, it is important to follow the instructions to authors for those follow the instructions to authors for those particular journals. particular journals.   

One good way to decide which journal is One good way to decide which journal is appropriate for an article is to look at its reference appropriate for an article is to look at its reference list. This shows where other articles in this field are list. This shows where other articles in this field are being published.being published.  

And finally, step-by-step you will be patron of a And finally, step-by-step you will be patron of a specific journal!!!!!!specific journal!!!!!!

Submitting Process Submitting Process

After choosing the journal and making the After choosing the journal and making the manuscript according to its format, you should manuscript according to its format, you should submit it to the editor with a covering letter submit it to the editor with a covering letter indicates:indicates:

  Title of the manuscriptTitle of the manuscript

Conflict of interestConflict of interest

Name of authorsName of authors

Demand for fast track service Demand for fast track service

Type of submitted articleType of submitted article

And finally why you chose that journalAnd finally why you chose that journal

ConclusionConclusion

Like most academic tasks, writing journal articles is a Like most academic tasks, writing journal articles is a skill that is developed over time. skill that is developed over time.

  

Becoming a productive clinical researcher requires Becoming a productive clinical researcher requires one to publish, so he or she must jump in, write up the one to publish, so he or she must jump in, write up the results, submit the manuscripts, promptly return the results, submit the manuscripts, promptly return the revised manuscript, resubmit rejected manuscripts and revised manuscript, resubmit rejected manuscripts and learn throughout the process learn throughout the process

Analysis of papers submitted to Analysis of papers submitted to the BMJthe BMJ

1998Submitted

1998Accepted

1999Submitted

1999Accepted

2000Submitted

2000Accepted

All 4976 15% 5603 14% 5751 14%

UK 3182 18% 3583 16% 3517 12%Ireland 38 11% 50 18% 43 15%

Rejection - Why?Rejection - Why? Wrong JournalWrong Journal Offering too longOffering too long Faults in presentationFaults in presentation Retrospective studyRetrospective study StatisticsStatistics Failure to standardise methodsFailure to standardise methods Groups in trial not comparableGroups in trial not comparable

The object of a Scientific PaperThe object of a Scientific Paper

Enable the reader to:Enable the reader to:– Assess the observations you madeAssess the observations you made– Repeat the experiment if they wishRepeat the experiment if they wish

– Determine whether the conclusions drawn are Determine whether the conclusions drawn are justifiedjustified

Basic structureBasic structure– IMRADIMRAD

Structure of a Scientific PaperStructure of a Scientific Paper IIntroduction ntroduction (What question was asked?)(What question was asked?)

MMethodsethods (How was it studied?)(How was it studied?)

RResultsesults (What was found?)(What was found?)

AAndnd DDiscussioniscussion (What do the findings mean?)(What do the findings mean?)

Titles, Authors, Abstract, ReferencesTitles, Authors, Abstract, References

Introduction

IntroductionIntroduction What do I have to say ?What do I have to say ? Is it worth saying?Is it worth saying? What is the right format for the message?What is the right format for the message? What is the audience for the message?What is the audience for the message? What is the right journal for the message?What is the right journal for the message?

Introduction (2)Introduction (2) Brief Brief Clear (What is the question)Clear (What is the question) Instructions to authorsInstructions to authors Clarify what your work adds (Importance)Clarify what your work adds (Importance) Balance of references (For and Against)Balance of references (For and Against) Don’t overdo itDon’t overdo it

Introduction (3)Introduction (3)

Two main functionsTwo main functions Awaken the reader’s interestAwaken the reader’s interest

– Direct and to the pointDirect and to the point Be informativeBe informative

– What is knownWhat is known– StateState thethe QuestionQuestion

Methods & MaterialsMethods & Materials

This, too, is an easy section. This, too, is an easy section.   

You know you did, and here you merely report it. You know you did, and here you merely report it. However, science relies on replication.However, science relies on replication.  

Try not to frustrate the reader the same way, as you Try not to frustrate the reader the same way, as you were frustrated.were frustrated.  

In a clinical study, make sure the subjects, including In a clinical study, make sure the subjects, including controls, are defined both clinically and controls, are defined both clinically and demographically so well that analogous populations demographically so well that analogous populations could be gathered by otherscould be gathered by others

Do not refer to unpublished methodsDo not refer to unpublished methods

List the source of any materials that are not routinely List the source of any materials that are not routinely available. available.

  

Indicate how the data were handled and refer to any Indicate how the data were handled and refer to any statistical procedures you may have used.statistical procedures you may have used.

  

Methods is usually divided into subsections that Methods is usually divided into subsections that include study design, study population, treatments include study design, study population, treatments (Interventions), measurements, and statistical analysis.(Interventions), measurements, and statistical analysis.

Study DesignStudy Design 

Method of randomization, type of blinding, type of Method of randomization, type of blinding, type of ControlControl

Parrarel -group or Crossover designParrarel -group or Crossover design

  

Multicenter or single centerMulticenter or single center

Study PopulationStudy Population

Inclusion and exclusion CriteriaInclusion and exclusion Criteria

Specify Requirements as to health condition, age, Specify Requirements as to health condition, age, gender, ethnic background, weight and heightgender, ethnic background, weight and height

The criteria used in the diagnosis of the disease The criteria used in the diagnosis of the disease should be givenshould be given

Species, strain and serotype of microorganismsSpecies, strain and serotype of microorganisms

Writers must give a complete picture of the patients’ Writers must give a complete picture of the patients’ disease severity and duration, any concomitant health disease severity and duration, any concomitant health problems, and concomitant medicationsproblems, and concomitant medications

Ethic SubsectionEthic Subsection

TreatmentTreatment

In the treatment subsection, the writer specifies the In the treatment subsection, the writer specifies the drugs, the dosage regimens evaluated, route and drugs, the dosage regimens evaluated, route and method of administration, and composition of the method of administration, and composition of the placebo used.placebo used.

MeasurementsMeasurements

The writer describes in the measurements subsection The writer describes in the measurements subsection the end points that define clinical efficacythe end points that define clinical efficacy

Patient’s safetyPatient’s safety

Follow up visitsFollow up visits

Statistical AnalysisStatistical Analysis

The writer states whether an intent to treat analysis The writer states whether an intent to treat analysis was used in which case the outcomes of all patients was used in which case the outcomes of all patients were analyzed with the group to which they were were analyzed with the group to which they were originally assigned, whether or not they completed originally assigned, whether or not they completed the protocol. If an additional analysis was performed the protocol. If an additional analysis was performed on patients who completed the trial as planned.on patients who completed the trial as planned.

  

Two tailed or one tailedTwo tailed or one tailed

LevelLevel

Flow diagram of the progress Flow diagram of the progress through the phases of a through the phases of a randomized trialrandomized trial

  

CONSORT PROTOCOLCONSORT PROTOCOL

Results

ResultsResults Results section - two key featuresResults section - two key features

1)1)Overall description of major findingsOverall description of major findings

2)2)Clear and concise dataClear and concise data

Results (2)Results (2) Use a mixture of text, tables and figuresUse a mixture of text, tables and figures Give the actual number of results plottedGive the actual number of results plotted Establish how comparable your groups Establish how comparable your groups

werewere Degrees of accuracy?Degrees of accuracy? Condensed results Condensed results (Range, Mean & Spread)(Range, Mean & Spread)

Tables and FiguresTables and Figures Title text - briefTitle text - brief

– Convey max. amount of informationConvey max. amount of information– Placed and punctuated uniformlyPlaced and punctuated uniformly

LegendLegend– Fully self -explanatoryFully self -explanatory

Tables and figures must be mentioned at Tables and figures must be mentioned at least once in the body of the textleast once in the body of the text

The IllustrationsThe Illustrations

A picture is worth a thousand words…A picture is worth a thousand words…

if it is a good oneif it is a good one

FILE FORMATS OF FILE FORMATS OF FIGURESFIGURES

EPS (preferred format for diagrams) EPS (preferred format for diagrams) PDF (also especially suitable for diagrams) PDF (also especially suitable for diagrams) PNG (preferred format for photos or images) PNG (preferred format for photos or images) Microsoft Word (figures must be A4 portrait, single page only) Microsoft Word (figures must be A4 portrait, single page only) PowerPoint (figures must be a single page) PowerPoint (figures must be a single page) TIFF TIFF JPEG JPEG BMPBMP EXL EXL Good general tools for image conversion include Good general tools for image conversion include

GraphicConverter on the Macintosh, on the Macintosh, PaintShop Pro for for Windows, and Windows, and ImageMagick , which is available on Macintosh, , which is available on Macintosh, Windows and UNIX platforms.Windows and UNIX platforms.

Results summaryResults summary Easiest part to writeEasiest part to write At the start of study you should knowAt the start of study you should know

– type of record traces type of record traces – tables to be includedtables to be included

Text will tell the storyText will tell the storyTables are the meatTables are the meatIllustrations for dramatic impressionsIllustrations for dramatic impressions

Discussion (1)Discussion (1) Easiest part to write, if you follow Easiest part to write, if you follow

Akhondzadeh’s formulation.Akhondzadeh’s formulation.

Highlight the issue Highlight the issue Discuss your obtained resultsDiscuss your obtained results Literature review (with direction)Literature review (with direction)

Discussion (2)Discussion (2) State honestly the limitations of the study State honestly the limitations of the study Future studiesFuture studies

ConclusionConclusion