Science 10 Review Package

Description of the Final Exam

The final exam consists of: o 40 machine score questions (evenly spread across all four units)

o Numeric response items

What do I need to bring? o A CALCULATOR!

*The school will NOT provide you with a replacement if you forget your calculator*

Replacement batteries are recommended Any calculator with memory capabilities will be cleared prior to entering the

gym, and before leaving at the end of the exam.o A pencil and eraser

the exam is machine scored, and an HB pencil and eraser are requiredWhat can I NOT bring?

o portable electronic devices of any kind other than approved calculators (iPod, phones, music players)

o jackets or large sweaters, hats

o backpacks

o food or drink that will cause a disruption to others

o a databooklet (one will be provided for you)

Unit A – Chemistry – Review

Key Concepts:Chapter A1 Key concepts:

Lab safetyo WHMIS / Household Safetyo MSDS sheets

Physical & chemical properties of matter Division of matter

o pure substances (elements & compounds) vs. mixtures

o different types / examples of mixtures Physical vs. chemical changes

o characteristics of all chemical reactions

Development of chemistryo food chemistryo metallurgyo alchemy

Models of the atomo Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford & Bohro current understanding – protons,

neutrons, electrons

Chapter A2 Key concepts: Periodic table organization

o metals, metalloids, non-metalso rows (periods)o columns (families) – Groups 1, 2, 17,

18 Properties of metals

o physical propertieso giving away electrons to form ions

Properties of non-metalso physical propertieso taking in electrons to form ionso sharing electrons to form molecules

Neutrons and isotopes Electrons and energy levels

o drawing Bohr diagramso atoms vs. ions

Naming ionic compoundso binary compounds (simple metal +

non-metal)

o multivalent metalso polyatomic ionso using the solubility table

Naming molecular compoundso using prefixeso recognizing molecular compounds

with common names Explaining properties of ionic compounds

o solid, crystals, dissolve in watero solutions conduct electricityo high melting/boiling points, strong

and inflexible bonds Explaining properties of molecular

compoundso lower melting/boiling pointso solutions do not conducto special properties of water – polar

covalent bonds Acids

o pH & properties ofo naming – IUPAC and Classical system

Chapter A3 Key concepts: Endothermic / exothermic reactions Law of Conservation of Mass Writing chemical equations

o word equationso skeleton equationso states (s or aq)o balancing

5 types of reactionso recognizing themo which are endo/exothermico predicting products

moleso definitiono molar mass

calculating molar mass of compounds

o formula n = m/M

Practice questions:

1) Which of the following is a physical property of a substance?a. combustibility b. tendency to tarnish c. tendency to corrode d. solubility

2) Which of the following is a chemical property of a substance?

a. flash point b. magnetism c. malleability d. ductility

Use the following list of scientists to answer the next two questions.

1 – Dalton2 – Rutherford3 – Bohr4 - Thomson

Numerical Response 1)

Match the following discoveries with the scientist listed above.Discovered the electron (Record in the first column).Performed the Gold Foil Experiment (Record in the second column).Found that electrons travel in specific energy levels (Record in the third column).Proposed that atoms of different elements can

combine in specific ratios to form new substances (Record in the fourth column).

Numerical Response 2)When listed in order from the first to last discovery, the scientists are listed: ____. _____, ______, and ______ .

(Record your four-digit answer in the numerical response section).

3) Which of the following is a physical change?a. using yeast to cause dough to riseb. fermenting an applec. boiling waterd. frying an egg

4) J.J. Thomson experimented with beams of particles produced in a vacuum tube. By testing many elements he showed that they all produced the same type of beam. This suggested that

a. atoms of different elements have different properties.b. atoms of different elements contain smaller particles that are identical.c. all elements are made of atoms.d. the centre of an atom has a small positively charged nucleus.

5) The modern atomic model comes from the theory of quantum mechanics. In this model, an electron is described as

a. moving like a propeller spinning very quickly.b. a tiny negative particle moving very quickly.c. a cloud of negative charge.d. orbiting the nucleus like a planet orbiting the Sun.

6) John Dalton proposed four ideas in his model of the atom. Which of the following is NOT part of his model?a. Atoms are never created or destroyed during a chemical reaction.b. Atoms of different elements have different properties.c. All the atoms of an element are identical in properties such as size and mass.d. All matter is made of small indivisible particles.

Use the following list of terms to answer the next two questions.1 – Mechanical mixture2 – Compound3 – Solution4 – Suspension5 – Element6 – Colloid

Numerical Response 3) Match the following descriptions with the correct term listed above.One type of homogeneous mixture (Record in the first column).A pure substance that cannot be further broken down (Record in the second column).A mixture where the two parts are in different states (Record in the third column).

A heterogeneous mixture where the two parts are visible (Record in the fourth column).

Numerical Response 4)Match the following foods with the correct term listed above.Whole milk (Record in the first column).Iced tea (Record in the second column).Bubble tea (a liquid with solid “beads” in it) (Record in the third column).Water (Record in the fourth column).

7) The idea that electrons were negative particles embedded in a sphere of positive charge was first proposed bya. Bohr b. Thomson c. Rutherford d. Aristotle

8) Rutherford was correct in many of his theories about the structure of the atom. In which part of his theory was he

incorrect?a. the nucleus is very small compared to the empty space around itb. the electrons occupy some of the empty spacec. the nucleus has a positive charged. the electrons move around the nucleus in a random pattern

9) The correct procedure for mixing water and an acid is

a. pour both into a beaker simultaneously (at the same time)b. add the water slowly to the acidc. add the acid slowly to the waterd. pour one slowly into the other, but the order does not matter

Use the following list of properties to answer the next two questions.1 – ductility2 – malleability3 – reaction to litmus4 – conductivity5 – flash point6 – reactivity with water7 – boiling point

Numerical Response 5)Match the following descriptions below with the correct term listed above.The ability to conduct heat or electricity (Record in the first column).The ability to be stretched without breaking (Record in the second column).The temperature needed to ignite a flame (Record in the third column).The tendency to rust or corrode (Record in the fourth column).

Numerical Response 6)The properties listed above that are physical properties are: _____, _____, _____, and _____.

(Record your four digit answer in order from smallest to largest in the numerical response section.)

Classifying matterPlace the following substances into the matter classification chart:

aerosol hairspray water Kool-Aid sulfur trail mix homogenous milk

Subatomic particles

Particle PROTONS NEUTRONS ELECTRONS

symbol

charge

number in an atom

location

10) In the periodic table, the chemical family that magnesium and calcium belong to is called thea. noble gases b. alkali metals c. halogens d. alkaline-earth metals

11) In the periodic table, the chemical family that iodine and fluorine belong to is called the

a. noble gases b. alkali metals c. halogens d. alkaline-earth metals

12) When metallic elements form ions,a. they gain electrons to become anions.b. they gain electrons to become cations.c. they lose electrons to become anions.d. they lose electrons to become cations.

13) An element’s reactivity is related toa. the number of electrons it has in its valence energy levelb. the number of neutrons it has in its nucleus

c. the number of neutrons it has in its valence energy leveld. the number of protons it has in its nucleus

14) The magnesium ion, Mg2+, hasa. 10 electrons and 12 protonsb. 10 electrons and 10 protonsc. 12 electrons and 12 protonsd. 12 electrons and 10 protons

Numerical Response 7. Consider the element lithium. An ion of lithium has:_____ protons, _____ neutrons, _____ electrons, and an atomic number of _____.

(Record your four-digit answer in the numerical response section of this answer sheet.)

15) What is the formula for sodium carbonate?a. S2CO3(s) b. NaCO(s) c. Na2CO3(s) d. Na3CO3(s)

16) What is the formula for aluminium hydroxide?a. AlOH3(s) b. Al3OH(s) c. Al(OH)3(s) d. Al (III) OH(s)

17) Which of the following is an ionic compound?a. HCl(aq) b. KCl(aq) c. ClO3(g) d. NCl3(g)

18) Which of the following is a multivalent metal (has more than one possible ion)?a. copper b. ammonium c. aluminium d. sulfate

19) Which of the following properties are characteristic of all ionic compounds?

I – dissolves in water II – solid at room temperatureIII – contains a cation and an anion

a. I and II only b. I and III only c. II and III only d. I, II, and III

Isotopes

IsotopeMass

numberNumber of protons Number of neutrons

Most common isotope? (Y/N)

oxygen-18

nitrogen-14

lithium-6

20 10

19 21

13 yes

Atoms & ions

ElementMetal or non-metal

Number of protons

Number of electrons in an atom

Number of electrons in an ion

Number of electrons gained or lost

Ion charge

calcium

nitrogen

magnesium

chlorine

potassium

fluorine

oxygen

argon

Summary of ionic and molecular compounds

IONIC MOLECULAR

How to recognize them

Type of bonding

What’s happening to the electrons

What the formula represents

How do you know how many of each element?

Properties of acids and bases

ACIDS BASES

Flavour / Feel

Examples

Look for formulas that contain…

Reaction with metals

pH

Reaction with litmus

Naming acids

Formula IUPAC name Classical name

H2CrO4(aq) aqueous hydrogen chromate chromic acid

HI(aq) hydroiodic acid

H3PO4(aq)

CH3COOH(aq) aqueous hydrogen acetate

chlorous acid

aqueous hydrogen carbonate

boric acid

20) Sometimes when ionic solutions are mixed, they form a precipitate, which isa. an aqueous solution that forms when two liquids are mixedb. a solution that conducts electricityc. a solid substance that forms when two solutions are mixedd. a homogeneous mixture of dissolved ions

21) Which of the following are typical of a solution having a pH of 12?

a. litmus is red, solution does not conduct electricityb. litmus is blue, solution conducts electricityc. litmus is red, solution conducts electricityd. litmus is blue, solution does not conduct electricity

Numerical Response 8. 3The following is a list of compounds. 1. silver sulfate2. calcium sulfide3. phosphoric acid4. beryllium hydroxide5. lead (I) chloride6. ammonium nitrate

The four compounds that are very soluble in water are numbered _____, _____, _____, and _____.(Record your four digit answer in numerical order in the numerical response section of the answer sheet.)

22) When HNO2(aq) is named correctly according to the classical naming system, the correct name is

a. aqueous hydrogen nitriteb. hydronitric acidc. nitric acidd. nitrous acid

23) Water has several special properties compared to other molecular compounds of similar composition. This is due to

a. its neutral pHb. its charged ionsc. its ability to form crystalsd. the unequal sharing of electrons in its bonds

Numerical Response 9. Balance the following reaction.

____Ba(NO3)2(aq) +____LiOH(aq) ____Ba(OH)2(s) + ____LiNO3(aq)

(Record your four-digit answer on your answer sheet.)

24) The following reaction CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g) is an example of aa. formation reactionb. combustion reactionc. single replacement reactiond. double replacement reaction

25) The decomposition reaction of copper(II) phosphide producea. 6 moles of copperb. 3 moles of phosphorusc. 2 moles of copperd. 2 moles of phosphorus

Numerical Response 10. The number of moles in 10.0g of lithium oxide is mol.

(Record your three-digit answer on your answer sheet.)

For each reaction described below, write the full balanced chemical equation for this reaction. Do not forget to include states for each of the reactants and products. (4 marks each)

(1) Glucose burns in the presence of oxygen.

(2) Beryllium sulfate solution reacts with lead.

(3) Table sugar (sucrose) reacts with oxygen in the air.

(4) Solid francium bromide reacts with solid aluminum carbonate.

(5) Aqueous solutions of zinc chloride and sodium sulfide react.

(6) Barium and bromine react.

(7) Silver chlorate and cadmium acetate solutions react.

(8) Aqueous hydrogen phosphate reacts with aqueous strontium hydroxide.

(9) Sulfur dioxide gas decomposes.

For the calculations below, show all your work, including the chemical formulas of the compounds described. Record all answers to three significant digits (4 marks each) (10) What is the mass of each of the following?

a. 8.77mol of yttrium oxide

b. 0.652mol of cesium nitride

c. 5.15mol of sulfur trioxide

d. 10.3mol of phosphorus(11) How many moles are in the following?

a. 10.0g of nitric acid

b. 200g of ammonium acetate

c. 45.5g of helium

d. 0.0550g of methanol

UNIT B – Physics – Review

uniform motiono motion is the movement of an object from one position to anothero motion is considered uniform when an object is traveling in a straight line (no change of direction)

at a constant speed (no +/ – acceleration)o an “ideal” situation – rarely occurs for long periods of timeo other forces such as friction or air resistance interfere with uniform motiono when an object is stopped, it is still considered to have uniform motion because it still is at a

constant speed (0m/s).

distance traveled vs. displacemento the distance traveled (d) of an object

answers the question “what is the total distance the object traveled?” is found by adding up the distance of each leg of the trip, regardless of direction

o the displacement ( ) of an object answers the question “how far away is the object from its starting point?” in this case, the direction the object traveled does matter if the object returns to its starting point, its displacement would be zero the following directions are positive:

North East Right Up

the following directions are negative: South West Left Down

Suppose a trucker drives from Calgary to Edmonton, a distance of 360km, then turns around to make a delivery in Red Deer. What is his distance traveled? What is his displacement?

His distance traveled is the total distance that his truck traveledd = 360km + 180km = 540km

His displacement is the difference between where he started, and where he ended up= 360km [N] + (-180km [S]) = 180km [N]

average speed (v)o represents the distance traveled over time, where

d = total distance traveled t = time elapsed

o you do not need to specify directiono measured in m/s (metres per second)

velocity ( )o represents the displacement over time, where

= total displacement t = time elapsed

o velocity is a vector quantity, you do need to specify directiono measured in m/s (metres per second)

A ball rolls 10.0m in 4.00s, bounces against a wall, then rolls 5.0m in 2.00s. What is the average speed of the ball? What is the velocity of the ball?

v = (10.0m + 5.0m) = 15.0m = 2.5m/s (4.00s + 2.00s) 6.00s

= (10.0m [right] – 5.0m [left]) = 5.0m [right] = 0.83m/s [right] (4.00s + 2.00s) 6.00s

Identifying vector directions

o Method #1: The x-axis method uses a mathematical system to set up coordinates based on the x- and y-axis directions are stated from the x-axis and proceed in a counterclockwise

direction [up] and [right] are positive [down] and [left] are negative directions between the axis lines are

given only in degrees, and magnitudes are not given a positive or negative value

e.g. [45o] directions on the axis lines are listed simply as[right], [up], [left],

or [down] the magnitude of objects moving in directions along the axis lines have positive or negative values

e.g. 10m [right], – 15.0 m/s [down]

o Method #2: The navigator method this method uses a grid with the directions of: north [N], south [S], west [W],

east [E] directions are stated from north and proceed clockwise

north and east are positive south and west are negative

the magnitude of objects moving in directions along the axis lines have positive or negative values

e.g. 5 km [N], -10m/s [W]o directions between the axis lines are given only in

degrees, and magnitudes are not given a positive or negative value

acceleration ( )o describes an object in motion that is not traveling at a constant speedo like velocity and displacement, acceleration is a vector quantity – you

need to list directiono two other important pieces of information are given by the acceleration of the object (e.g. -9.81m/s2)

magnitude the amount the velocity is changing per second (e.g. 9.81 m/s per second) positive or negative the + or – sign before the acceleration tells you if it is + or – acceleration

Change in velocity Direction Positive or negative accelerationspeeding up (+ change) up, right, N or E (+ direction) (+ +) positive accelerationspeeding up (+ change) down, left, S or W (- direction) (+ –) negative acceleration

slowing down (– change) up, right, N or E (+ direction) (+ –) negative accelerationslowing down (– change) down, left, S or W (- direction) ( – –) positive acceleration

o because acceleration describes a change in velocity over time, it is measured in m/s2 (metres per

second per second)

graphing: position-time graphs and velocity-time graphsOBJECT IS STOPPED

position-time graph has a straight, horizontal line

velocity-time graph is a straight line along the x-axis

OBJECT IS IN UNIFORM MOTION

position-time graph has a straight, sloped line

velocity-time graph is

a straight, horizontal line

OBJECT IS ACCELERATING

position-time graph has a curved line (line can curve in one of four directions, depending on the type of acceleration)

velocity-time graph is upward sloping

position-time graphso the slope of a position-time graph gives you the velocity of the object

Calculating slope:Choose two points that are on the line

(1) To find the rise, find the difference in position between point B and point A

(2) To find the run, find the difference in time between point B and point A

(3) The formula is:

E.g. A cyclist leaves home (Point A) traveling at a constant speed. After 10s, (Point B), she has traveled 100m. What is the slope of her position-time graph? What information does this give you?

slope = (100m – 0.0m) = 100m = 10 m/s tells you her velocity (10s – 0.0s) 10s

velocity-time graphso the slope of a velocity-time graph gives you the acceleration of the

objecto the area under the line gives you the displacement of the object

Calculating area under the line:(1) Choose two points that are on the line, and connect Point B to the x-axis(2) Determine the shape of the area under the line (rectangle or triangle)(3) Find the base and height of the shape(4) If the shape is a rectangle, you only need to multiply the base by the height

area = b x h(5) If the shape is a triangle, you will multiply the base x height and divide by two

area = b x h 2

force (F)o a push or pull on an objecto a force is required to change an object’s motion from uniform motion

to accelerated motiono often, there is more than one force acting on an object at the same time

if the two forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction, they are considered to be balanced , and the object will remain in uniform motion

if the two forces are unequal in magnitude, or in the same direction, they are considered to be unbalanced, and the object’s motion will change

o the effect of a force on an object depends on the mass of the object (kg), and amount of change in the velocity of the object (the acceleration, m/s2) the unit of force is newtons (N) and is equal to one kg∙m/s2

work (W)o work is done on an object when:

there is a force applied to the object, AND the object moves in response, AND the force and the movement are in the same direction

o work is measured in joules (J)o doing work on an object involves transferring energy to that object, so the amount of work done on the

object is equal to the change in energy of the object

energy (E)

o energy is a difficult concept to define – early scientistso all types of energy are measured in jouleso different types of energy exist

chemical energy the potential energy stored in chemical bonds of compounds examples: food, hydrocarbons

electrical energy the work done by the movement of electrical charges e.g. Volta Pile (the first battery), thermoelectric converter (thermocouple)

nuclear energy the potential energy stored in the nucleus of an atom, released when atoms fuse

(nuclear fusion) or split (nuclear fission) solar energy is a type of nuclear energy, and results from the fusion of hydrogen atoms

kinetic energy the energy of motion

gravitational potential energy the potential energy stored in an object raised above the Earth’s surface

mechanical energy the sum of kinetic and potential energy

thermal energy the energy of heat – the feeling of heat is due to the transfer of thermal energy from a

hot object to a cool object heating an object (giving it thermal energy) results in its particles having more kinetic

energy Joule studied the relationship between heat and kinetic and potential energies

potential energy (Ep(grav))o potential energy is only useful when it is converted into a different form (e.g. into kinetic energy)o for gravitational potential energy, the formula is Ep = mgh, where

m is the mass of the object in kg g is the acceleration of an object towards Earth due to gravity, in m/s2

h is the height above the Eartho other types of potential energy exist, though you are not required to know formulas for them:

elastic potential energy is the energy stored in a stretched elastic, or compressed spring chemical potential energy is the energy stored in the chemical bonds of a compound – break the

bonds, release the energy kinetic energy (Ek)

o the energy of motion, which is influenced by the speed and the mass of the objecto the formula is Ek = ½ mv2, where

m is the mass of the object in kg v is the average speed of the object

mechanical energy (Em)o the sum of the potential energy and mechanical energy of an object at any given momento assuming there are no outside forces acting on an object (e.g. air resistance), the mechanical energy of

an object will remain constant Law of Conservation of Energy:

energy can neither be created nor destroyed the total amount of energy in a system remains constant energy can be converted from one for to another

in situations where an object is rising straight up in the air, or where an object is falling, energy is converted between Ep and

Ek, but Em remains constant

At the top of the diving board, the diver has a maximum amount of gravitational potential energy, but as he is not yet falling, no kinetic energy

As the diver falls, his height above the Earth decreases, so as he nears the water, his potential energy decreases

As he falls, his velocity is increasing because gravity causes objects to accelerate as they fall. As he speeds up, his kinetic energy increases

The moment the diver strikes the water’s surface, he is at “ground level” and no longer has potential energy. However, he has reached his maximum velocity, so his kinetic energy is at a maximum.

Throughout the fall, the total mechanical energy remains constant.

Example: if the diver has a mass of 50kg, and the diving platform is 10m high, what will be the diver’s velocity when he reaches the water?

m = 50kg Ep = mgh = (50kg)(9.81m/s2)(10m) = 4905J Ep(top) = Ek(bottom)h = 10mg = 9.81m/s2 Ek = ½ mv2 v= 2Ek/m = 2(4905J)/(50kg) = 14m/sv = ?

o pendulums

another example of a conversion between Ep and Ek

at position A, the pendulum is not moving, but is at a maximum height maximum Ep, minimum Ek

at position B, the pendulum is moving at a maximum speed, but is the closest to the ground minimum Ep, maximum Ek

at position C, the pendulum is at the same position as position A

energy conversions

o evidence of energy conversions change in position (e.g. falling object) change in shape (e.g. trampoline or spring) change in temperature (e.g. pot on the stove)

o energy conversions in nature photosynthesis (solar E chemical E) cellular respiration (chemical E kinetic E, thermal E, etc)

o energy conversions in technological systems hydroelectric power station

water in an elevated reservoir falls down a penstock and causes a turbine to turn which creates electricity

gravitational potential energy kinetic energy (water) kinetic energy (turbines) electrical energy

coal-burning power station coal is burned in a combustion chamber, which creates superheated steam that turns a

steam turbine and creates electricity chemical potential energy thermal energy kinetic energy (turbines) electrical

energy nuclear power station

e.g. Canadian CANDU reactor uranium atoms split by nuclear fission, releasing nuclear energy, which is used to heat

steam and turn a steam turbine. The turbines turn to create electricity nuclear potential energy radiation thermal energy kinetic energy electrical

energy solar cells

convert solar energy directly into electricity (no moving parts or intermediate steps) fuel cells

convert chemical energy from a fuel (e.g. hydrogen) into electrical energy functions like a battery, except that it does not require recharging

systems:o since energy transfers and work are done all around us, in order to analyze a particular energy

transformation, it is easier to set boundarieso a system is a set of interconnected parts involved in the transfer

everything else is considered to be the surrounding environmento types of systems:

open system – energy and matter are exchanged with the surroundings e.g. human body, Earth

closed system – only energy is exchanged with the surroundings e.g. closed food container, house with locked doors

isolated system – neither is exchanged with the surroundings only an ideal – doesn’t exist in reality

Laws of Thermodynamicso thermodynamics refers to a change in heato changes in energy

there are two ways to increase the energy of a system (e.g. human body) add heat from the surroundings (e.g. stand by a fire) do work on the system (e.g. make the body move)

there are two ways to decrease the energy of a system heat can flow out of the body into the surroundings (e.g. climb into a cold bath) the system can do work on the surroundings (e.g. lifting weights)

o law of conservation of energy energy cannot be created or destroyed

o first law of thermodynamics the total energy of a system (including heat) remains constant whenever energy is added to a system, it is transformed into an equal amount of some other

energy form (e.g. mechanical energy, heat)o second law of thermodynamics

energy naturally flows from hot objects to cold objects

perfect machineso a perfect machine would be a machine that was 100% efficient

energy input = energy output all energy is converted to a useful form, not lost to heat, friction & air resistance

o these machines are also called perpetual motion machines

human attempts to build perpetual motion machines have as yet been unsuccessful heat

o heat is a measure of the amount of thermal energy in a systemo there is no way to measure cold – “cold” simply indicates a lack of heato a heat engine is a device that converts heat into mechanical energy

heat engines can be helpful in using up some energy that would otherwise be wasted examples:

internal combustion engine (the type of engine in today’s cars)o fuel (gasoline) is burnedo the heat causes a piston to move and gain mechanical energy

thermocouple (a.k.a. a thermoelectric converter)o two parts of the thermocouple collect different amounts of heat (usually

because they are made up of two different metals)o as heat flows from hot to cold, the thermal energy flows through a metal

junction and is converted to electric energy

o in order to get thermal energy to move from a cold object to a hot object, work must be doneo a heat pump is a machine that uses energy to pump heat against the natural flow

examples: air conditioner refrigerator

o uses electricity to pump a refrigerant, Freon gas, through copper pipes in the back of the fridge

o as the gas condenses into liquid, it absorbs heat from the interior of the fridge

o as the Freon absorbs heat, it vaporizes into a gas again and the process cycles again

technological advancementso new technologies arise out of a need that cannot be satisfied by current technology

for most of human history, man was satisfied with primitive tools and fire for survival in England in the 1600s, they were running out of natural resources that they could obtain

without inventing new ways of collecting it (e.g. getting coal from deeper and deeper mines) Archimedes screw

o uses a crank system and corkscrew-like ridges to pull water upwardso limitation – mass of water was too heavy to lift a significant distance

reciprocating pumpo uses a difference in atmospheric pressure to lift water upwardso limitation – water can only be lifted 9m high

o new technologies and new scientific understanding go hand in hand

engine technology

knowledge of science

grows

a new machine is invented

attempts are made to improve the

machine

o the Watt engine was a big improvement in steam engines because it used a separate condenser for heating and cooling the water, which made it much more efficient

o internal combustion engine an example of a heat engine – thermal energy produced from the combustion of gasoline

causes air in pistons to expand, pushing pistons upwards most improvements to this engine involve new types of fuel

from coal to gasoline (burns much hotter, so engine can be smaller) with an impending shortage of fossil fuels, new alternative fuels are being developed

energy conversions and efficiency o the energy input is the amount of work done on an object

in a perfect machine, all the energy put into a system would be useful work output, but in reality, some energy is converted into waste energy (e.g. heat)

o the energy output is the amount of energy actually gained by the object, or the energy the object has available to do work

o efficiency is a measurement of the ratio between energy input and outputo recall, no machine invented by humans is 100% efficiento the more efficient a machine, the smaller the difference between the energy input and the useful

energy outputo most often, the rest of the energy is lost as heat

Example: 300 J of Electric energy are used to power a light-bulb. If the light emits 120 J of light energy, what is the efficiency of the bulb?

Win = 300JWout = 120J

efficiency = work output = 120J x 100% = 40%work input 300J

Example: A 0.500kg rubber ball is bounced from a height of 1.0m. It hits the floor and bounces back up, but because the energy conversion is only 80%, the ball does not reach its original height. How much potential gravitational energy does the ball have after the bounce, and how high does it bounce?

m = 0.500kg Energy input = Ep1 = mgh1 = (0.500kg)(9.81m/s)(1.0m) = 4.91Jh1 = 1.0mg = 9.81m/s2 % efficiency = Eout / Ein Eout = (efficiency)(Ein)efficiency = 80%=0.80 = (0.80)(4.91J)

= 3.92JEnergy output = Ep2 = 3.92JEp2 = mgh2 h2 = Ep2/mg = (3.92J)/(0.500kg)(9.81m/s) = 0.80m

energy supplyo solar energy sources

any energy source derived directly or indirectly from the sun

wind energy – caused by uneven heating of the Earth’s surface, causing convection currents

water energy – caused by heating of the Earth’s water, water evaporates and falls as precipitation, causes movement of water, converted to electricity

biomass – any form of organic matter that stores energy from the Sun by photosynthesis

o e.g. plants, wood fossil fuels – formed from plants and animals that lived and harnessed solar energy

millions of years agoo e.g. oil, coal, natural gas

o non-solar energy sources do not rely on the sun

nuclear energy – energy obtained from the nucleus of atoms undergoing nuclear fusion (2 atoms fuse), or nuclear fission (1 atom splits)

geothermal energy – thermal energy from the heat of Earth’s coreo evidenced by geysers, hot springs, volcanoes

tidal energy – movement of ocean water, caused by the gravitational pull by the Moon

o renewable energy continuously and infinitely available using these energy types do not deplete their supply e.g. solar, wind, water, geothermal, tidal, biomass

o nonrenewable energy limited and irreplaceable e.g. fossil fuels and nuclear energy

energy demando demand for energy has increased because of several factors

exponential population growth increased industrialization greater reliance on non-renewable energy sources than on renewable energy

o key terms: energy consumption: use of energy energy conservation: limiting the amount of energy used cogeneration – uses waste energy from one industrial process to power another

e.g. using waste heat from a power station to heat local buildings sustainable development – economic development that meets current needs without

jeopardizing future generations’ ability to meet their needs.

Practice Questions:

1. Which of the following in not a result of an energy transfer or transformation?a. an object undergoes a change in status or significance.b. an object undergoes a change in temperature.c. an object undergoes a change in motion.d. an object undergoes a change in shape or position.

2. As a machine is improved, its efficiency should:a. increase as the amount of waste energy decreases.b. decrease as the amount of waste energy decreases.c. increase as the amount of waste energy increases.d. decrease as the amount of waste energy increases.

3. Jupiter’s acceleration due to gravity is 26.2 m/s2. The amount of potential energy stored in a 300g object 1.75m above Jupiter’s surface would be:

a. 5.15 x 103 J b. 13.8 J c. 13.8 x 103 J d. 5.15 J

4. A vehicle will have traveled fastest when it covers:a. more distance in more time.b. less distance in more time.c. more distance in less time.d. less distance in less time.

5. Objects A and B have the same kinetic energy, but object B has three times the speed of object A. The mass of object B must be:

a. three times the mass of object A.b. nine times the mass of object A.c. one-third the mass of object A.d. one-ninth the mass of object A.

6. If the height above the ground of an object decreased, the total mechanical energy would:a. increase, because kinetic energy increases.b. decrease, because potential energy decreases.c. increase, because potential energy increases.d. decrease, because kinetic energy decreases.

7. The acceleration of an object in motion is positive when:a. its speed increases, traveling North.b. its speed increases as it falls.c. its speed stays constant, traveling East.d. its speed decreases as it is rolled up a hill.

Use the following graph to answer the next three questions:8. The object with the greatest speed after 2.0s is:

a. object 1.b. object 2.c. object 3.d. all three objects have the same speed.

9. The object that has covered the greatest distance after 2.0s is:a. object 1.b. object 2.c. object 3.d. all three objects have covered the same distance.

Numerical Response1. The acceleration of object 2 is m/s2.

(Record your two digit answer)

10. A vendor selling hot dogs at a football game carries a 5.0kg tray. Work would be done by the vendor when he:a. stands waiting for moneyb. walks across the aisle to a customer.c. makes change.d. climbs a flight of stairs.

11. A 2.50kg trophy is moved from a shelf 2.00m high to another shelf 3.00m from the floor. The work done to move the trophy from the lower shelf to the higher one is:

a. 24.5 J b. 73.6 J c. 49.1 J d. 123 J

12. A 0.300 kg arrow is shot directly upwards at a speed of 10.0m/s. What height does the arrow reach?a. 2.0 m b. 5.1 m c. 15 m d. 98 m

Numerical Response

2. A steam engine has a heat input of 1000 J and does 350 J of useful work. What is the percent efficiency of the engine? (Record your three-digit answer in the numerical response section of this answer sheet.)

Numerical Response3. The list below are some types of energy:

(1) potential (4) electrical(2) kinetic (5) chemical(3) thermal (6) nuclear

In a coal burning power plant, the energy transfers that occur, in order, are: _____ _____ _____ _____ (Record your four digit answer in the numerical response section of this answer sheet.)

13. Which of the following is a scalar quantity?a. velocity b. displacement c. force d. energy

14. A newton is a measurement of force, and is equal to

a. 1 kg ∙ms

b. 1 kg ∙m2

sc. 1 kg ∙m2

s2 d. 1 kg ∙ms2

15. Which statement is true about an object that travels forward, then back to its starting point?

a. its distance traveled is zerob. its displacement is twice the distance of the forward legc. its distance traveled is the forward leg minus the backward leg?d. its displacement is zero

Use the following information to answer the next two questions.When merging on to a highway, a car accelerates west from 15 m/s to 35 m/s in 5.0 s.

16. The acceleration of the car isa. – 4.0 m/s2 b. 20 m/s2 c. – 50 m/s2 d. – 10 m/s2

17. If a position-time graph were sketched for the motion of the car, the appropriate shape of the line would bea. b. c. d.

18. The main reason a pen doesn’t roll off the table but remains in place is:a. The pen has no forces acting on itb. Unbalanced force is applied on the penc. All forces acting on the pen are in balanced. Balanced forces are acting in the same direction

Use the following information to answer the next two questions.A student draws the following graph but forgets to title it and label the vertical axis.

19. If the student’s graph is a position-time graph, the object isa. traveling at a constant speed of 10 m/sb. stopped 10 m from the starting pointc. speeding up by 10 m/sd. returning to its starting point

20. If the student’s graph is a speed-time graph, it indicates thata. the object is traveling at a constant speed of 10 m/sb. the object is stopped 10 m from the starting pointc. the object is speeding up by 10 m/sd. the object has traveled 10m

Numerical Response:4. A toy car travels at 9.0m/s for 11 s. Its displacement is m. (Record your two digit answer)

Use the following information to answer the three questions.21. The slope of the graph is

a. 0.0 m/sb. 0.0 m/s2

c. 1.2 m/sd. 5.0 m/s2

22.22.22.22.22.22.22.22.22.

The distance traveled by the student over the five second period isa. 0.0 m b. 5.0 m c. 6.0 m d. 7.5 m

23. If we were to graph the motion of the student using a distance-time graph, the line would bea. a straight horizontal line at 0 mb. a straight horizontal line at 1.2 m

c. a straight slanted lined. a curved, upward sloping line

24. What force needs to be applied to maintain the height of the book that is being subject to a gravitational force of -5.0 N [down]?

a) -10 N [up] b. +5.0 N [up] c. -5.0 N [down] d. +5.0 N [down]

Numerical Response:5. If two movers applied a force of 60N to move a couch across the room, and expended a total of 2000 J of energy, they

moved the couch m. (Record your two-digit answer)

6. A dad carries his child (with a weight of 200N) to the top of a waterslide tower, a distance of 0.130 km. If the work done by him is a.bc x 10d J, the values of a, b, c and d are: _____, _____, _____, _____. (Record your four-digit answer)

Written Response:1) A baseball thrown at 35.0m/s strikes a catcher’s mitt and slows down to rest in 0.500s. What is the magnitude of the ball’s

acceleration?

2) A water balloon is dropped from a height of 12.0m. Determine the speed of the balloon just before it hits the ground.

3) Identify the following vectors, using both the X-axis and navigator methods.

4) A tsunami travels a distance of 4.0 x 106 m in 3.6 x 104 s. What is the average speed of the wave?

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.00.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

Speed-time graph of a student as he walks down the hallway

Time (s)

Spee

d (m

/s)

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.002468

1012

Time (s)

5) Choose two types of energy generation.a. Identify each as solar/non-solar, and renewable/non-renewableb. Describe two specific advantages and disadvantages to each.c. Identify the type of energy input in each one.

6) What is the speed of a 300g ball with 304J of kinetic energy?

7) A boat travels at 8.00 m/s[N] for 14.0s. What is the displacement of the boat?

8) A large crane did 2.2 x 104 J of work in lifting a demolition ball a vertical distance of 9.5 m. Calculate the average force exerted by the chain of the crane on the demolition ball.

9) Describe a device or situation where the following energy conversion takes place:a. Kinetic to thermal b. Chemical to electromagnetic (light) c. Nuclear to electrical

10) A small electric motor has an efficiency of 85%. In lifting a small load, it produces 15 J of mechanical energy input. Calculate the useful output of the motor.

Unit C – Biology – Review

Key concepts: Chapter C1: Microscopy

Scientists – contributions to microscopy / cell theory Janssens Hooke Van Leeuwenhoek Redi Needham Spallanzani Pasteur Brown Schleiden & Schwann

Cell theory Parts of the microscope Microscopy skills

Calculating magnification Measuring field of view (low power) Calculating field of view (high power) Calculating actual size Calculating scale Unit conversion (e.g. mm to µm)

Advancements in microscopy Magnification, resolution, contrast Light microscopes vs. electron

microscopes Applications in industry & medicine

Chapter C2: Cells Organelles – structure/function

Differences between animals and plants

Photosynthesis, Cellular respiration, Energy storage Chemical reactions Molecules used by the cell to store excess

energy Fluid Mosaic Model

Cell membrane as phospholipid bilayer Roll in cell communication & transport

Transport – compare, contrast Diffusion Osmosis Facilitated Diffusion Active transport Endo/Exocytosis

Tonicity and its impact on the cell Applications in industry & medicine

Surface area to volume ratios Implications of multicellularity Calculations – what the numbers mean

Chapter C3: Plants Organization of a multicellular organism

(cells, tissues, organs, systems) Structure & function of plant tissues

Dermal tissue – upper & lower epidermis Ground tissue – Palisade layer & spongy

mesophyll Lenticels Guard cells / stoma Xylem & Phloem

Control systems in plants Opening and closing the stoma

Phototropism Darwin’s experiment Auxin

Gravitropism Transport in plants

Root pressure Cohesion Adhesion Transpirational pull Pressure-flow theory

Practice Questions:1. Numerical Response: If a microscope has a 10×

objective lens in place with a 15× eyepiece lens, the magnification of this system is X. (Record your three digit answer)

2. Which one of the following scientists was first to identify the nucleus as an important cell structure?

a. Brown b. Hookec. Pasteur d. Schleiden

3. Which of the following statements is not part of the cell theory?a. Cells are the smallest unit of life.b. Cells come from pre-existing cells.c. Cells can form from non-living matter.d. All living things are made of one or more cells.

4. Compound microscopes contain more than one a. lens b. eyepiece c. diaphragm d. light

source

5. When a specimen is stained, which characteristic of the image is improved?a. fixation b. contrast c. transmission d. magnification

6. One advantage of using a light microscope over a transmission electron microscope is thata. resolution is betterb. more detail is observedc. live specimens can be observedd. specimens are imbedded in plastic

7. A student using a microscope measured the low-power field diameter to be 20mm. The student then switched from the low-power (4x) objective lens to the medium-power (10x) objective lens. Assuming a 10x ocular lens, the medium-power field diameter is mm. (Record your two-digit answer)

8. The technique that gives information on the three-dimensional structure of molecules isa. X-ray crystallographyb. confocal laser technologyc. scanning electron microscopyd. green fluorescent protein technology

9. If you were looking at the letter G under a compound microscope, which of the following would correctly illustrate what you see?

a. b. c. d.

10.What part of the microscope holds the objective lens?a. eyepiece b. nosepiece c. mouthpiece d. headpiece

11.Numerical Response: An object that is 1.0mm in size is 1.0x10-a m, 1.0x10-b cm and 1.0x10cµm. The value of a, b, and c are: , , and . (Record your three digit answer)

12. What is the recommended part of the microscope to hold when transporting it?

a. slide b. base c. arm d. stage

13.If you placed a small piece of onion on a slide and looked at it, then shifted the slide towards the left, the image would appear to

a. move left b. move right c. move closer d. become blurry

14.The amount of light that passes through a sample on a slidea. is adjusted by the coarse magnification knobb. is adjusted by the diaphragmc. is adjusted by the slided. cannot be adjusted, just turned on or off

15.The ability to see two objects as separate refers to the microscope’s

a. magnification b. contrast c. resolution d. illumination

Use the following information to answer the next question.Changes in a microscope image:1 - increase in magnification2 - decrease in magnification3 - increase in field diameter4 - decrease in field diameter5 - increase in eyepiece lens power6 - decrease in eyepiece lens power

16.Numerical Response: Switching from a low power to high power objective lens would have which effects, as numbered above? (Record your answers in numerical order)

Use the following information to answer the next two questions.

Activities in the development of science1. Identification of the nucleus as the cell’s command centre2. Theory that cells can only arise from other cells3. Development of the first compound microscope4. Investigation of the structure of cork

17. Numerical Response: Match the individual associated with each activity as numbered above. Hooke Brown Virchow the Janssens

(Record your four-digit answer)

18. Numerical Response: The correct ordering of the activities listed above, from first to last, is _____, ______, ______, ______. (Record your four digit answer)

19. When a specimen is observed with Microscope A, it appears large, but out of focus. Under Microscope B, it appears smaller, but the image is crisper. Compared to Microscope A, Microscope B has

a. better magnification but poorer resolutionb. poorer magnification but better contrastc. poorer contrast but better resolutiond. better resolution but poorer magnification

Use the following information to answer the next question.Image #1 Image #2 Image #3 Image #4

please note: Image #4 is fluorescent in colour

20. Numerical Response: Match the images above with the type of microscope used to capture the image: light microscope confocal microscope TEM SEM(Record your four digit answer in the numerical response section of your answer sheet.)

21. State the three points of cell theory (3 marks)

22. Suppose that you observe a specimen under high power of your microscope and estimate that it takes up

about one third of the field diameter. The high power field diameter is 0.450 mm. What is the length of the specimen in micrometers? Explain how you reached your answer. (2 marks)

23. The cell organelle whose primary function is packaging and transporting cell materials is thea. lysosome b) Golgi apparatus c) vacuole d) ER

24. Because it will burst to contain a cancerous or infected cell, the cell organelle also known as the “suicide sac” is the

a. ribosome b) lysosome c) vacuole d) liposomes

25. The cell structure associated with lipid (fat) production is thea. ribosome b) Golgi apparatus c) mitochondria d) smooth ER

26. Which two organelles perform opposite functions?a. chloroplast and mitochondriab. lysosomes and vacuoles

c. smooth ER and rough ERd. cytoplasm and centrioles

27. Complete the table by putting a check where the statement is true.Statement PLANT CELLS ANIMAL CELLShave a cell wallhave a cell membrane

contain a cytoskeletoncontain chlorophyllundergo cellular respirationundergo photosynthesisstore energy as glycogentend to be round in shape

28. Suppose a plant and an animal both take in extra energy that they need to store in their cells. a. Which stores the energy as glycogen and which as cellulose?

b. Which of these chemicals is likely to make the organism appear fatter?

c. Which of these chemicals is likely to make the organism more rigid / crunchier?

29. Label the following structures:

30. Draw a diagram of the phospholipid bilayer, and label the following:a. channel proteinsb. carrier proteinsc. hydrophilic (“water loving”)d. hydrophobic (“water hating”)

31. Match the following terms with their definition and an exampleTERM DEFINITION EXAMPLE

a. permeable 1) does not let anything through i) raincoatb. semi-permeable 2) lets everything through ii) cell membranec. impermeable 3) lets some things, but not others through iii) open door

Use the following diagram to answer the next five questions

32. Where is the solute concentration higher, a. inside or outside the cell?

b. How can you tell?

33. Compared to the cell, the solution in the extracellular fluid (outside) is tonic.

34. Consider the membrane.a. Why would you consider this cell membrane to be

semi-permeable? b. what is it permeable to?

10

11

c. what is it impermeable to?

35. What kind of molecular movement would you expect across this membrane?a. the solute molecules will move into the cellb. the solute molecules will move out of the cellc. water molecules will move into the celld. water molecules will move out of the cell

36. At which point will you stop seeing movement of molecules?

a. when there is roughly equal numbers of solute molecules on either sideb. when there is roughly equal numbers of water molecules on either sidec. when the ratio of solute to water molecules is roughly equald. never, water molecules will continue to move either direction, but eventually in equal amounts in

and out

37. Complete the following table:

38. Briefly compare and contrast hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis in terms ofa. the disease they are designed to treatb. the direction of movement of toxins and wastec. the direction of movement of water and nutrientsd. the invasiveness of the procedure

39. Use the diagram to the right to answer these questionsa. what process is being depicted?

b. how do you know?

c. if this diagram were to be changed to represent the opposite process, what would be different?

d. if this is a four-step process, what is occurring at each step?

i. ii.

iii. iv.

40. Describe two advantages of being unicellular, and two advantages of being multicellular.

41. Consider the following cells:CELL A CELL B

Diffusion Osmosis Facilitated diffusion

Active transport

What moves across the membrane?Does it go along or against the concentration gradient?Does it require proteins, such as carrier or channel proteins?Does it require energy (ATP) to occur?

Diagram

Surface area calculation(Use formula provided)

Surface area of a cube: 6s2 (s = side length)

Surface area of a prism: 2(l•w)+2(w•d)+2(l•d)(l=length, w=width, d = depth)

Volume calculation(Use formula provided)

Volume of a cube: s3 Volume of a prism: l•w•d

Surface area to volume ratio (Use formula in data booklet)Favored for survival? why?

42. Plants have two systems: the shoot and root systems. a. What are the differences between each system? b. Which parts does each system include?c. In both systems, cell division occurs in specific growth areas. What are

these areas called in each system? What can these growth areas produce?

43. For each of the layers below, identify 3 characteristics and their importance to plant growth:

44. The xylem and phloem are crucial to a plants growth and survival. Finish each sentence or fill in the correct word that makes each statement true:

a. Xylem moves water and dissolved minerals from __________________________________.b. The water and nutrients moved by the xylem are used for __________________________.c. Even if xylem cells die, their ______________ remains intact, forming a transportation network.d. Phloem moves ________ ____________ from the source (______) to the sink (__________________).

Dermal Tissue:

Ground Tissue: (includes spongy mesophyll & palisade tissue)

Vascular Tissue

45. List three specialized plant cells and their function.

a.

b.

c.

46. Gas Exchange in Plantsa. label the following diagram b. write the balanced chemical formulas

for i. photosynthesis

ii. cellular respiration

47. Describe in point form below each picture what is happening at each stage of gas exchange through the stoma:

48. Plants in different areas of the world have varying numbers of stomata. How do plants in tropical climates differ from plants in hot, dry climates?

49. The following picture shows the movement of water and minerals through a plant. In no less than 6 sentences, describe the movement of substances through plant tissues. You must describe the process of root pressure, transpirational pull, cohesion and adhesion in order to fully understand the movement of materials through a plant. Also be sure to mention the respective areas of the plant at which each process takes place.

50. Compare positive phototropism and positive gravitropism. a. Where does each process take place? b. How can you tell each process has occurred?

51. Compare negative phototropism and negative gravitropism. a. Where does each process take place? b. How can you tell each process has occurred?

52. The picture to the right illustrates Darwin’s experiment on

phototropism.a. Plants #3 and #4 are both covered with a cap. Why

did plant #4 experience positive phototropism?b. Which plant is considered the control? Why?c. Name the substance responsible for this response in

plants and describe how it works.

Unit D - Environment Review

Key Concepts:

The biosphere includes all living things and the physical environment that supports those living things subdivided into three components that interact:

atmosphere – layer of gases that surround the Earth lithosphere – a.k.a. Earth’s crust – the solid portion off the Earth (includes the land under the oceans) hydrosphere – all the water on Earth (includes liquid, vapour and ice)

Atmosphere made up of a mixture of gases,

78% N2(g), 21% O2(g), 1% other also includes tiny solid particles called atmospheric dust including living things (e.g. pollen, micro-organisms) and non-living (e.g. soot)

Divided up into four layers based on altitude (distance from sea level)

Atmosphere layer #1 - troposphere only layer of the atmosphere with a mix

of gases and temperature to support a variety of life (including humans)

contains most of the CO2 and H2O and atmospheric dust present in the atmosphere

where most of our weather occurs, including wind and precipitation

Atmosphere layer #2 - stratosphere contains most of the ozone layer

Atmosphere layer #3 - mesosphere Atmosphere layer #4 - thermosphere

named for the high temperatures near the edge of the layer (closest to the sun)

Lithosphere floats on top of the fluid layer called the mantle

extends from the Earth’s surface inward as thin as 5 km, as thick as 100 km in places

warmed both by the heat from the sun and the heat from Earth’s coreHydrosphere about 97% is salt water in the oceans the other 3% fresh water, but is mostly frozen in snow and glaciers the total amount of water on Earth remains constant

Weather vs. climate weather

day-to-day conditions, including temperature & air pressure cloud cover & humidity

precipitation climate

average conditions occurring over a period of 30 years or longer

Effect of climate on living organisms The better suited to its climate an organism is, the better its chances of survival an adaptation is a change in the structure or functioning of an organism that makes it more suited to its

environment

Changing climates a variety of evidence exists to demonstrate that the climate of the Earth has varied throughout its history this change continues today, and is often referred to as global warming some of the evidence we use depends upon humans, so only describes the last few thousand years some of the evidence allows us to look back at the Earth’s conditions prior to humans arriving

Ice core sampling By obtaining a sample of a column of ice 10,000 feet down in our ice sheets, we are looking at ice made

over 700,000 years ago By analyzing the tiny bubbles of air trapped in this ice, scientists can collect information about

the quality of the air at that time, CO2 levels approximate air temperature.

Insolation & the Angle of Inclination Not all regions of the Earth receive the same amount of the Sun’s energy

Insolation is the amount solar energy received by a region of the Earth’s surface Angle of Inclination

the angle of inclination refers to the angle of the Earth’s axis compared to the vertical (23.5o)

the Earth orbits the Sun once per year the Earth’s tilt is the reason for the seasons remember, you have to distinguish between

hemispheres when discussing seasons

An equinox occurs when the Earth is tilted sideways relative to the sun

the number of daylight hours = the number of hours of darkness Spring Equinox – March 21 Fall Equinox – September 21

*in the Northern Hemisphere A solstice occurs when the Earth is tilted toward or away from the sun

the number of daylight hours are at their maximum or minimum Summer solstice – June 21 Winter solstice – December 21

*in the Northern Hemisphere Areas close to the equator:

experience short sunrises and sunsets have very little variance in their number of daylight hours from season to season 12 hours of daylight, 12 hours of darkness every day

Areas close to the poles: experience long sunrises and sunsets have significant variance in their number of daylight hours in summer, more than 23 hours of daylight, 1 hour of darkness in winter, less than one hour of daylight, 23 hours of darkness

The Angle of Incidence is the angle between the incoming sun ray and a line perpendicular to the Earth’s surface at the equator, the angle is 0o and sun is intense at higher latitudes, the angle is larger (about 40o for us) and the sun is diffuse

Albedo the albedo of a surface is the percent of solar radiation that it reflects

a white shiny surface (e.g. snow) has a high albedo a dark, dull surface (e.g. forest, dirt) has a low albedo the average albedo for Earth’s surface is 30% (or 0.30)

Implications of Albedo because snow and ice have a much higher albedo, regions that are frozen reflect more snow than regions

without snow or ice the albedo of most regions in Canada is significantly higher in winter than in summer in the arctic, the albedo is high year-round deserts also have high albedo because they lack vegetation to absorb the sun’s rays

Natural Greenhouse Effect when sun’s rays reflect off the Earth’s surface

the energy gets radiated back into the atmosphere in the form of thermal energy normally, a portion of this thermal energy is lost to space, and a portion is absorbed by the atmosphere the trapping of this heat by the atmosphere is called the Natural Greenhouse Effect

Greenhouse gases Greenhouse gases are gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect The main naturally-occurring greenhouse gas is water vapour

Net Radiation Budget Before human activity made such an impact, the Earth’s radiation budget was balanced

that is, some thermal energy was reflected out into space, and some absorbed by the atmosphere

the net result was zero net radiation budget = incoming radiation – outgoing radiation it is important to note that the budget is balanced on a planetary basis, but some regions are in surplus and

some in deficit the areas at the equator tend to have higher insolation, which gives them a surplus the areas closer to the poles tend to have lower insolation, which gives them a deficit

if a build-up of greenhouse gases causes more radiation to be absorbed by the atmosphere, we have a surplus this will cause global temperatures to rise

Thermal energy transfer in the atmosphere the temperature of the air in the atmosphere near the equator warms and rises toward the poles the air at the poles then cools and sinks back down because the cool air has higher atmospheric pressure, it moves toward the equator where the pressure is

lower wind is the movement of this cooler air from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure

if the Earth were still (and not spinning), there would be a continuous convection current between the equatorial and polar air

Convection currents causes air to move directly North-South However, since the Earth is spinning, the winds are

deflected to the right (in the Northern Hemisphere) or the left (in the Southern Hemisphere) this deflection is called the Coriolis Effect

Global wind patterns As a result of convection currents and the Coriolis Effect, global

winds follow a predictable pattern trade winds are the normal wind patterns that transfer heat

around the globe jet streams are bands of fast moving air in the stratosphere that

travel much faster than wind in the troposphere changes in normal jet stream patterns are important in predicting

weather changes and extreme weather events such as storms and cyclones

Thermal energy transfer in the hydrosphere The hydrosphere transfers thermal energy in a similar way as in the atmosphere

Surface water is pushed by trade winds Deeper water travels by convection currents Warmer waters near the equator are driven by convection currents toward the poles

currents in the Northern Hemisphere circle clockwise currents in the Southern Hemisphere circle counterclockwise

Unlike air currents which don’t have to circulate around something, water currents are disrupted by the continents

Specific heat capacity There is one more property of water that affects global energy transfer: water has an unusually high

specific heat capacity Specific heat capacity refers to the ability of a substance to absorb thermal energy without changing

temperature The high specific heat capacity of water means that it absorbs much of the sun’s radiant energy but

stays at a constant temperature Cities next to oceans experience more moderate (less extreme) temperatures because water can absorb

heat without changing temperature

Quantity of Thermal Energy, Q the quantity of thermal energy (Q) is the amount of thermal energy (measured in joules) that is absorbed or

released when the temperature of a substance changes it is affected by

the mass of the substance (measured in grams) the amount of change in temperature (measured as the number of oC it changes) how easily the substance changes temperature (as indicated by its specific heat capacity)

The formula is Q = mc∆t , where: Q = quantity of thermal energy (J) m = mass of the substance (g) c = specific heat capacity of the substance in (J/g•˚C) ∆t = change in temperature (oC)

Understanding specific heat capacity The specific heat capacity of water is 4.19 J/g•oC

this means it takes 4.19 J of energy to warm one gram (one milliliter) of water by one degree Celsius. This number is quite high compared to other substances, for instance:

aluminium:0.900 J/g•oC copper:0.380 J/g•oC lead: 0.130 J/g•oC Which means, compared to these metals, it takes a lot more energy to make water change temperature Or, put another way, water can absorb a lot more energy without changing temperature

Phase changes During a phase change, water changes state without changing temperature

this occurs because the thermal energy is going toward breaking the bonds between water molecules, rather than making the water molecules move faster

Since water molecules undergo many phase changes in the cycle, a lot of energy is transferred in the biosphere without any change in temperature this helps to keep average global temperatures

relatively stable

Heat of Fusion & Heat of Vaporization The heat of fusion of a substance is the amount of

energy absorbed when 1 mol of the substance melts from solid to liquid without changing temperature

The heat of vaporization of a substance is the amount of energy absorbed when 1 mol of the substance evaporates from liquid to gas without changing temperature

Heating curve of water

Calculating the Heat of Fusion or Vaporization The amount of energy absorbed or released during a phase change can be calculated from the following two

formulas

H fus=Qn or H vap=

Qn

where Hfus = heat of fusion, or Hvap = heat of vaporization, in kJ/mol Q = quantity of thermal energy, in kJ n = number of moles, in mol

Biomes because they exchanges both energy and matter with

the surroundings, biomes are considered to be open systems

The six biomes Each biome has a typical range of temperature &

precipitation The biomes are:

tundra taiga desert grassland deciduous forest rainforest

Climatographs Climatographs are summary graphs that describe the

average temperature and precipitation each month for a given region the horizontal axis is divided by month average precipitation is marked along the left vertical axis

and is represented by bars on the graph average temperatures are marked along the right vertical

axis and are represented by a line graph

Changes in Greenhouses Gases although water vapour plays the largest role in the

greenhouse effect, it is naturally kept in balance by the hydrologic cycle

the greenhouse gases that we’re most concerned about, therefore, are the gases that aren’t kept in balance, especially carbon dioxide

Measuring a change in greenhouse gases

cold TEMPERATURE hot

dry PRECIPITATION wet

Evidence of increasing atmospheric CO2, N2O, and CH4 comes from a combination of ice core samples and atmospheric measurements by weather balloons

Carbon sinks & Carbon sourcesCARBON SINKS

Any process that removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere

The most significant carbon sink is photosynthesis

Other carbon sinks include: dissolving of CO2 in the ocean carbon sequestration initiatives

CARBON SOURCES Any process that releases carbon dioxide into

the atmosphere The most significant carbon source is fossil

fuel production and combustion Other carbon sources include:

cellular respiration weathering of rock decomposition of living organisms

Other sources Agriculture contributes to the greenhouse effect because

manure and fertilizers release nitrous oxide livestock contribute methane

Halocarbons are man-made chemicals used in coolants CFCs, have a GWP of 12 000 (recall, this is 12 000x more than CO2) but have been banned worldwide

since the 1980s, when it was discovered that they break down the ozone layerPolitical Collaboration on Climate Change The Montreal Protocol was an international agreement signed in 1987 by 182 nations

agreement was made to replace CFCs with less harmful chemicals in products such as refrigerators and air conditioners

first international agreement concerning an environmental issue United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change was an agreement to stabilize greenhouse gas

emissions caused by human activity the UNFCCC was not an action plan – it set out a process for future actions on climate change

support sustainable development (the meeting of today’s needs without jeopardizing future generations’ ability to meet their needs)

Kyoto Protocol in 1998, 161 countries signed an agreement to reduce their emissions to 5% lower than they were in 1990,

by 2012 countries could also earn “credits” toward their reduction

in 2010, Canada became the first nation to publicly quit the agreement

Impacts of Climate Change As a result of climate change, ecologists predict that we will see a

change to the distribution of biomes in Canada these maps illustrate the predicted changes:

the appearance of desert in southern Alberta the reduction of tundra and taiga biomes the redistribution of grassland from southern Alberta to

Saskatchewan and Manitoba With the reduction of permafrost and snow cover, we will also see a

significant reduction in albedo as open water reflects less radiation than ice, global warming is

expected to accelerate

Practice Questions:

1. Many types of evidence exist that support the notion of climate change.a. What kind of direct evidence do we have?

b. How far back does it go?c. What kind of indirect evidence do we have (give 2 examples)

d. How was each kind of evidence collected?

e. How far back does each go?

2. The Earth’s atmosphere consists of four layers. List the layers in order of increasing altitude: (closest to Earth furthest from Earth)

3. There are a number of factors that contribute to a region’s climate. Define each term, and describe the effect it has on the climate in Edmonton.

a. albedob. angle of inclinationc. angle of incidenced. insolation

4. Label the following points in the diagram to the right.a. winter solstice b. summer solstice c. spring equinox d. fall equinox e. the day with the maximum number of daylight hours f. the day with the minimum number of daylight hours

5. Wind patterns:a. Define convection and relate it to global wind patterns.b. Distinguish between our regular pattern of winds and jet streams.c. Define the Coriolis effect.

6. Draw and label the heating curve of water.

7. Calculations – for each question, be sure to show your work including the formula used.a. Determine the quantity of thermal energy required to heat 50 g of ice from -20oC to -10oC.b. Determine the quantity of thermal energy required to make that same 50 g of ice melt at 0oC. The

theoretical heat of fusion of water is 6.01 kJ/mol and the molar mass of water is 18.02 g/mol.

8. Climatographs:

a. Contrast the climates of the two cities based on their relative temperatures and precipitation levels.

b. Knowing that these two cities are both located in Canada but in different biomes, suggest the possible biomes they could be located in.

c. Describe the type of plant life you’d expect in each biome.

9. Describe the predicted changes to our distribution of biomes in Canada if global warming trends continue.

10. If climate change has always occurred

throughout Earth’s history, suggest three reasons why it is an issue of concern now.

ANSWER KEYS:Chemistry

MC / NR1 d2 aNR1 4231NR2 14233 c4 b5 c6 a

NR3 3541NR4 63427 b8 d9 cNR5 4156NR 6 124710 d11 c

12 d13 a14 aNR7 342315 c16 c17 b18 a19 d

20 c21 bNR8 235622 d23 dNR9 121224 b25 aNR10 0.33

Written1) C6H12O6(s) + 6 O2(g) 6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(g)2) BeSO4(aq) + Pb(s) PbSO4(s) + Be(s)3) C12H22O11(s) + 12 O2(g) 12 CO2(g) + 11 H2O(g)4) 6 FrBr(s) + Al2(CO3)3(s) 2 AlBr3(s) + 3 Fr2CO3(s)5) ZnCl2(aq) + Na2S(aq) 2 NaCl(aq) + ZnS(s)6) Ba(s) + Br2(l) BaBr2(s)7) 2 AgClO3(aq) + Cd(CH3COO)2(aq) 2 AgCH3COO(s) + Cd(ClO3)2(aq)8) 2 H3PO4(aq) + 3 Sr(OH)2(aq) 6 HOH(l) + Sr3(PO4)2(s)9) 8 SO2(g) 8 O2(g) + S8(s)

10) m = nMa. Y2O3

m = (8.77 mol)(225.82 g/mol) = 1.98 x 103g

b. Cs3Nm = (0.652 mol)(412.74 g/mol) = 269 g

c. SO3

Jan

MarMay Ju

lySep

tNov

050

100150200250

-25.0-15.0-5.05.015.025.0

City 1

Precipitation (mm) Temperature (°C)

Prec

ipita

tion

(mm

)

Tem

pera

ture

(°C)

Jan

MarMay Ju

lySep

tNov

050

100150200250

-25.0-15.0-5.05.015.025.0

City 2

Precipitation (mm) Temperature (°C)

Prec

ipita

tion

(mm

)

Tem

pera

ture

(°C)

m = (5.15 mol)(80.07 g/mol) = 412 g d. P4

m = (10.3 mol)(123.88 g/mol) = 1.28 x 103 g

11) n = m/Ma. HNO3

n = 10.0g / 63.02 g/mol = 0.159 mol

b. NH4CH3COOn = 200g / 77.10 g/mol = 2.59 mol

c. Hen = 45.5 g / 4.00 g/mol = 11.4 mol

d. CH3OHn = 0.-550 g / 32.05 g/mol = 1.72 x 10-3 mol

Physics

MC/NR1 a2 a3 b4 c5 d6 b7 a

8 a9 cNR1 1.510 d11 a12 bNR2 35.0NR3 5324

13 d14 d15 d16 a17 c18 c19 b20 a

NR4 9921 b22 c23 c24 bNR5 33NR6 2604

Written1) a = vf – vi / ∆t = (0 – 35.0 m/s) / 0.500s = - 70.0 m/s2) v = √(2gh) = √(2 x 9.81 m/s2) (12.0 m) = 15.5 m/s3) A: 10m [up] 10m [N]

B: 7m [150o] 7m [W30oN]C: 13m [300o] 13m [S30oE]

4) v = ∆d/∆t = 4.0x104m / 3.6x102s = 1.1 x 102 m5) 2 of: Solar/Non-Solar Renewable/Non c. input

coal solar non chem potential

solar solar ren nuclear (solar)

tidal non-solar ren grav potential

hydro solar ren grav potential

geothermal non-solar ren nuclear (thermal)

wind solar ren kineticnuclear non-solar non nuclear

potential

6) v = √(2Ek/m) = √(2 x 304 J / 0.300 kg) = 45.0 m/s7) ∆d = v∆t = (8.00m/s)(14.0s) = 112 m/s [N]8) F = W/d = 2.2x104J / 9.5m = 2.3 x 103 N9) answers may vary

a. rubbing your hands togetherb. battery-powered flashlightc. nuclear reactor

10) output = (% efficiency / 100) x input = (0.85)(15J) = 13 J

BiologyNR1 1502 a3 c4 a5 b6 cNR7 8.0

8 a9 d10 bNR11 31312 c13 b14 b

15 cNR16 14NR17 4123NR18 341219 dNR20 341221 in notes

22 0.450mm/3 = 0.150 mm = 150µm23 b24 b25 d26 a

27Statement PLANT CELLS ANIMAL CELLShave a cell wall Xhave a cell membrane X Xcontain a cytoskeleton X Xcontain chlorophyll Xundergo cellular respiration X Xundergo photosynthesis Xstore energy as glycogen Xtend to be round in shape X

28 glycogen = animals, fatter cellulose = plants, crunchier29 1) nucleus 2) RER 3) Golgi 4) mitochondria 5) chloroplast 6) cytoplasm 7) vacuole 8) cell membrane 9) cell wall 10) centrioles

11) lysosomes31 a. 2 iii b. 3 ii c. 1 i32 a. outside, b. more solute compared to water33 hyper34 a. some substances get through, others don’t b. water c. solute35 c

photosynthesis

chloroplast

36 d37-40 in notes41 CELL A: SA=96 V = 64 SA:V=1.5 CELL B: SA=19 V= 5 SA:V=3.8 favoured due to better SA to V ratio42-43 in notes44 a. roots to rest of plant b. photosynthesis c. cell walls d. down the plant, leaves, rest of plant45 – 46 in notes47 1) light stimulates K+ ions to be pumped in through active transport, 2) water follows, cell becomes turgid and stoma opens 3) a lack of light allows K+ ions to no longer be pumped in, 4) water flows out, cells lose turgidity and stoma closes48 more stoma due to higher humidity49 root pressure – as nutrients are pumped in through active transport, water follows by osmosis, which pushes water molecules further

up the planttranspirational pull – as water is lost from the stoma in warm conditions, it creates a vacuum which sucks more water up the plantcohesion – water molecules stick to each otheradhesion – water molecules stick to the inside of the xylem tubes

50 a. shoots / roots b. they move toward light / gravity51 a. roots / shoots b. they move away from light / gravity52 a. the cap in plant #4 is transparent, b. plant #1 because it had no treatment, c. the hormone auxin causes cells on the dark side to

elongate

Environment

1 a. temperature measurements (historical data) b. few thousand years c. tree rings / ice cores d. count rings of trees / drill column of ice from permafrost e. 500 years / 200 000 years

2 troposphere stratosphere mesosphere thermosphere3 a. % radiation reflected, it’s higher in winter due to the snow b. tilt of the Earth from vertical (23.50) – explains the seasons c. angle of sun hitting the Earth, higher here than at equator so sun is less intense d. amount of solar radiation that hits Earth surface4 in notes5 a. convection – the flow of heat in liquids and gases, the main method of energy transfer in atmosphere and hydrosphere b. trade winds – normal pattern of winds in the troposphere, jet streams – bands of fast moving air in stratosphere extreme weather6 in notes7 a. Q = mc∆t = (50 g)(4.19 J/goC)(10oC) = 1.1 x 103 J b. n = 50g / 18.02g/mol = 2.77 mol Q = Hfusn = (6.01kJ/mol)(2.77mol) = 17 kJ8 a. City 2 is colder and wetter in the winter than City 1 b. City 1 could be taiga and City 2 deciduous forest c. City 1 – evergreen trees such as spruce and pine, City 2 – leafy trees such as maple and oak9 increased desert, decreased tundra, relocation of grassland toward central Canada10 first time it’s due to human activity, rate of change and degree of change

cellular resp.

mitochondria

CO2 + H2O O2 + C6H12O6