Jonathan Rottenberg

Rebecca D. Ray

James J. Gross

Emotion Elicitation Using Films

Rt$tarch on <mot;"n hg un<kTgonc explosive growth dUT· mg the ~ r.w <kcadcs, """ked ~' .... w Il><oncs (. g ,<V<>­

IUlioll'l)' arulyoe.. Tooby & c<".\nm, 1990), "",.hods{'g., .n'lomlc. Jly hosed .ystem. r", cooing fad.1 upre";ve b<h.vior; 0« ch.p''' 13, Ih" ""Iulnc), .nd hndlng< ($<I: <:KlOPP" & Gardner, 1999) . Son>< "I lhor: r.,...rch In Ih15 ar •• h .. betn <on.I.1""".I, fOCUSIng on 10<:100; lhal ru,uDII)' <ov.ry .... lth .motlO .... 1 p. l>tt.so;cs, \.U<h .s chronolog.cal age, phy»<:>1 hor:.hh , or soc,.1 ... Iu •. How .. "", ""ponmenl.1 re-5urch .Iso hg nounwd. locuSlngon emotion.l proce __ In the Conl<XI 01 rel .. n-ely ...... II·controlkd lolx>rntor'f em~· ")I'II""nl5 Ou, ch'p'.r on lhe u~ ol.motlon-.llculllg f,II",. lIke m.,,)' of.1>< comnbulI"'" 10 lho: lIandbooir af EmaI,,,,, HeiM"'" and A,~m,n!. h". 5<lu .. <1)' "'ithm this ~<ond. .xpomncnt>l.ratlll"'"

S<:",n"", who ,ak. m .xponm<"n,.l .ppma<:h h", ... 1ud .. 1<"" lVoIodi .. ll'IC'tlnot" .... fot ch<",ng cmotion f,,,,. em<>­uon Ius bttn u<.cJ as an In<kpondenl v.n.bk m mompu!a­lion, ,h:ol <k"""".".",< II>< Im[>O",,,, eonttlool ion mot!< by omo"on '0. J"""" .".)' of pheJlOmcna, r.lnglng lrom .g. ~ (Z,lIm:m & W •• ver, 1999) to h<lpmg hor:l""'OT{lstn, o.ubm.n . & ro.:"""ki. 1<Ii!1l. 5«ond, <"lOIlon Ius be<n u,",,) .. a d.pcndcnl-or oUlComc-,'.nabl. In work Ih .. has IlIum,ru,.d .. ver,1 .mo"on-rel ... d ph.n"""n •. such as ,..If-re!X',,cd c" poricne< (Dud", &0 !.amI, 2(01). fa<:tal npr«<tw behaVIor (Ekman. h", .. n, &. Anc<>h, 1980), .u­IOMnlLC Ot c~mt.1 n~,,'ou, ,)".m oc",'alion (LeDou x, 1996; I.e'·c""'n, 1988) .• nd mdmdu:ol J,ff.,.,nc ... In em<>-

Iton , ... !X'"dlng (e g .. GT'OSS. SU1(on, & Keld . ... 1998, Rot .. "be.g. Kasch. Gr<>SS, & Gothb. 2002)

Whate,"'r I hor: .. mot " " "On for .. udying emot.on, expo'" mem.hsc. have I~qulrcd. rcll~bk ""' .. " of <lL«tLng em<>­lion in an cthtcalfy acccpt.obk lashlon . Happily, im..,.,igll(Q<S h.ve made vast Improve"",n .. Ovel (he bud ... 01 ('ogs (undl<. 1921) anJ otoo .d hoc "",,,,,,,es of.he p>.S(. "",,'.

ing 10ward more "ghlly ~onlroll.d.nd rcphcabk tmot;"n ~hc" ""'" proctdu, .... Indeed, os lhor: otbeT ~h:op'ers in Ihi. ,-oJu"", .11 .... llUny J,lltr<nt <motion elic"aloon Itthn;q,,"' have now comt '0 /rUlLlon, Indudlng image •• nd sound. (Bratlky & ung. chap''' 2, W.,,,, & Ohman, (ha)X" ,. Ih .. .00umt), expTtSs" .. htha"or (Ekman, chap'er 3; land &. Snout, C""IX" i, Ihi' ,,,,I,,mt). "'rip'.d and un'ICtlp .. d 50-

c .. 1 mter.JCtI""S {ttar""""'Jo~. Amoolo, 6> ZInnoI', chap­Ie' 6; Robe ... , loai, & Coon, <!up''' 7. 'hi' ,'oIumtl. I"d \n"," (Et.,h, Ng, Mac.ul~)', P<tcy, & G«bn."" ch.p''' 8, Ih« "olume)

TI>< <ltvelopn"'''' of rotms OS <motIOn c!ten"" ha, pUIII­I<lcd ,h" WIde. maluDl>O\1 01 .motl"" ""<""t. For mu<h or lhe p>.S( h.lf-century, ,.,..arche", h.ve stlc<1td Ind"idllJl mm clips usmg rcl.tI,,,,ly ",{onn.1 <n .. ri., oI .. n 10 cl;Cl( a dlllu .... at. of anx,elY 01' , .. ~ (e.g., warns. 5po;"".n, Mordkoll, & D.Vlson. 1962) In fOCI, u",,1 recently. lhe em­p1rlC'dl ,«onI ~on<crTlLng f,l"" was ...... nt)·. promp"ng res­e,,'.lLon. about lhe f.fi.hIILty .nd •• hduy 01 filrn-~ emotlOO !nductoon procedure; (Pol",)'. 19tH). The", ha,,, bee" I\\,O nOlabl. eflorl' to bmld • ",,,n,,ftc d.ub>. ..

•

conaming films by fonn.bzing film .. kction Onlena and ..... '" blin g. S(and.«lIw:llobTal)' of emOl;on "lin uh capable of elicltmg .pecific <mOlional ""''''. Ph,l;ppol (1993) PC<­«nltd oorma,,,~ voewing data (N ~ (0) from a .. , of ! 2 fi lm clips ,h., <h<ned six emwon.l " .... and .. pon<d 'Ue«M

fot ""nuli ,lut <lie;,«1 .",,,,,,,,,,no, sad ..... , and. """(,,,I >l." Gr05S and l<'~n><m (199~), .1.0 working frorn a di.· cre\e emotions pcrspca"~, p«$<1l,«I norm:",,,< viewing data (N ~ ~<}t) from 16 fLlms ,.rge,;ng .. ght emOlion. md ",. pon«l su«~ for S(imuli th., .Iomed .mu .. m.n, . anger, "on,.""n< n,. di<gu<t. SNI", ... surplis<, • neU'Ta I 5Ia,. . • nd, '0 a !esse, u,en'. f.ar

As <motion <b.ne. h3s malu",d, (he paklte 01 viable <",otioo <00,",;00 ,ed!n;ques has grov."Il, Incre:>slngly, irn"'· "11"'0'" face a baI/bng 'IT3Y of ,eeM"lotS '0 .lki, .",ot;OO UnIOl1"na,<ly. ,he pubh.hed htcTa(m< off.r> Imfe explki' gutdance on ,he .. issuts. lorc'ng in~igawr> '0 00.. ,he" decisions on informal rules of ,humb, ,dKlsyncJ>l1C 'Connmg expen<n«>, or personal cornmun"",,,o,,,. Wi,h ,hese .... ds in mmd, we ,mend !his (lupcer 10 be • gu>de I", irn-""g:>'or> mn'.mpla'mg the u" of <han mm dips '0 dien emotion. h\ lhe .. crions ,ha, foU""" "'" fir>l outline the gm.",l taSk 01 <!t<:iting <mOl"'" m. IJbont.0'Y. Stcond. ,.,. compart.he prOPC" ies 01 films ", 01 her laoora' OJ)' emotIOn Indoct""" pr<>­adurtS, Trur<!, "'." discu .. how ' 0 u .. mItIS '" d,ff.rem <,­penmen"l <",,'exts and ... -otd polen".1 pitf.II •. Founh. w<

on .. e",,",ples of f, lm' lhal ha .... wo,k«I .... n ,n our own r._ .. arch .pphcation<. F,nally. we do<e with .. flections on ,he lu'u .. e..-olu1l0n of f'ln .... ~n <m",,,,,, eh,,"atlon PTO«ciUf'

Eliciting Emotion In th .. Labo.-.. tory

1IlSloric.ny, ,he task of .hclIlngcmolion in ,he bborn 'of) has ~ made all ,he "'''''' difhcul' hecaust emotIOn ;,,,,11 has. t>.en SlICh an elusi'''' """"ruet With d,ffe",m i,w"",gat01'l<mpkr)'­mg the,. ov..., ,d,o<),ocr.o'lC and often ",dd)' dl>CITp:m' deh. tut'on, of e",otion. " is no wonder that there h"" he", <on,,,ltrabk <""IUSIon os '0 whICh procnlUTCS rehabl)' <hei! emO<;on ~onuna .. ly , .ffeeoil" "" .. no; .. , ha,'e inoc>smgly m",,,J toward" """"n""f unde'5t,ndLnIt of k<)' ,11m"" I"oc ..... ,' mo,-.: thal has. grntly !a.c,I",,<d ,I>< 5)"'<"""'" soud, of '''''''' pr~ (Ekman, I 0)92, ~u""n, 1991)

I kr~ .. ." lollow COmm<m ""'g< . nd v,ew <mOl,on. as • lran .. em blll coordmated .. , of "'pon5<S,hat 0«," ,,·h.n an md,,·,du.f fae". slluaoio" (real o. Imagined) th .. 0. rd· <".n' to ",hent pe""""f goal, bk< others, "'-': VIew emOl,an, .. hemg m"II«OIIlI''''''"ljal. 'yp",any '""o/l'mg changes 'n 'OK""'\'(. expe"entl.!. ce",,,,1 ph)",,:H,,!,;! • • !. ptnph<.-.I ph)"iolog><.I, and helu"",.1 res!"""" 5)'Sl<lns (lang. 1<)78) ~or .xample, onger may he refleet.d b)' ,hough" CO,ICOTn· mg re,,-eng<. 1",lm!'.' of grc:l' di,"':o<, .n tk",ted he,,, .-:ole •

• nd .n 'u"". on the OOll"C of 00<" mg<r. Fm,I~'. Ioke OIhe, (on .. mpo .. ~' .... ;",-h.rs, "'< d''''''gUl,h emOl,,»!> It~m otoc, "rr",-",-.:I), "~lcn o>"<cpt •. rOT~""mpic . Cl'fTlpmrd .. "h

.n emo"on, a 1IIO<IJ j,. longer. ,fo ... " """,ng stal< .hat is fe .. "ed to specifIC objects or elicilors (Walson, 2000) .

Guided by ,h .. ~OnccptlOTl of emOl,on. laboratory emo­tion eficit .. ion p.ocedure. indude a b,,,,,d . n ay of dfom to evoke. hnd .rrective r .. pon .. ,n one 0' ""'" emot,on T<<pon<C systems riI ",m<: 'ype of st,mufu<. Figure I I h'gh­hghts .. ", ... 1 of tM key features of III< .mo<;on-ge". ... 'i,~ pr<>CCs< as it unfold. during. I>oo.-.to')' <locit.,;on pnxc­dure (whot""t tlut prO«du .. n ... y be)

The lefl of lh< fig",e draws .Ue"lIon to ,he hel that .mot,orueft<:it<d on ,he laboratory usually.re nOO cre ... d J. ""'" bul ""her an.. from pre'''isHng ,fleeu .... ~.1<., Indeed, .lIeCl has. been underS(OC>d os . S(",.m ",,,h. <onunu""", ot ,onic. oUlpm «.g .. Rw.s<H. 2(03) Emotions occur as burns of . CUvily. or wa= . .supenmp<>li«l'&,,'nslthe back· drop 01 thO. .ff..,,,", st ... m . The i",eraction bet"",en ph •. • ic <nlOllOn .nd ,on,c .If<C1 .. no< we ll uncle .. ,ood . nd i. d<3Tlyan impo"-"'" ' .... ml< for future "".rch (Neu mann, Stib<. & Strack. 2001). Indttd, an ill5pecuon of F'gure I I .uggw. that It i. 'lull< d iffICult '0 d,stmgmsh the wa,~. of emot'on from background .ffec,;ve '0 .... as ,he .. are no nonarb"",,), ent";" lor d<c,dmg when on<: phenom<Tlon ends .nd lhe OIhor begin,. Fln.fly, ,h. d,ffe"nt -pe.h" Wlthin Figure I I 11lU51"''' a T<loted compf<xity---<hat <Itt<>­lion,l impulses h .. ~ 00 unIform sign""« and ifl5(.ad ex­h,h" • ".fl.bl. dumtio" ond morphology The nOl,on or .II"",\\~ ehTOllOn .. ,')' (D:t\1dson. 1998) signal, ,he emerg­Ing scitnur,c interest ,n cluract.nzing th. ,'an.b,li,), 01 the emOl,,,,, "",,,,Iorm by deeomposmg" m'o. numbet of tern· poralsuocoonponcnts. such as blCncy. n .. t\l"e, magmu,de. dumti"", .nd oil .. ,

It shou ld he nOl,d th., F'gure I I. although ll .. lullo' h<-u ~~oc putposc:" simpl, r", the e mot oon- gene m"'" pnxeo< in m.ny ... ,ys. foOT <xampk. emOl,,,,,,,1 "'pon,.. , .. pfot. ted "'1n .. 'ngl< hn<:, • 'ep"'''''''''on lh" .o<um" lh" dll­ferent emotIOn respons<: element< (e.g., <mOlLon cxpe"enc., Ixha"", .• nd phy>&<>logy) exh'bu 5)nchmny dunngc"'",ion acli'''tion lhto .. tie.fly,' high do:grtt of s)'nchrony bet .. .,,<n <mot''''' ""pons<: ')'SI<m. has t>.en ... n .. essen".l m "-elp" ing"n OIg>O''''' mob,li" • respotlst to achalknge (e g .. nuk. a f ... get.",,)' when. hear cha,g,.,; lr,-.:n""n, 1'199). Em·

n_ f I9"r~ 1.1 . .-IrrW1"" r«p.>ndmg "'~ , II", "''''''' ,~ • bl,.,r,_ 'e><;' ,,,,,,,ion <hu'""m prowl""

pmcally, hov.""'tl, il i,d"r llul emot ional ,tspons< systems do MI '''''''Y p<Tft<:tly In tll'ir Kt ,vity (GlOSS, John , &. R,ch .. ds, 2000; lang. 1978), wIlh mod,,, in l"ron",L11ions ~Iw«n 'TTJOIion rrspo"'" syslttns of .. n obulned (Mauss, Willltlm, & GlOSS, 20Qi; Rueh, 199:», 2nd even dl$>OC"'l~ """"'Iy obscTYCd Tn S(lme Sttllng< (, .g., Lx'y. 1967)

Anothe, hmitalion of Figure I 1 isthat it dots"", ""koo ... l­~IY Ir.. role of indiVldU31 dTffe~ts_ A gTowing body of r""lIng< demon",..", tha, ind,,'idual di[f,rrnr« influ,,,,,, .",OtlOO IY""ra1ion ot C'''''Y "'go: of the pnx:cs>. These mflu_ eno:<s OC(UT OS' funclion 01 aff",uwfy ,,,,,,d t"'"S SIKh .. disposilional mood (W.I.'iOn, darl< . & T,Uegtn, 1968), emo­Ilonal le><\ivily (Kagan & Smdnun, 1999), <mOlion l.guL1_ lOT}' ,,)'ks (G""",. 1998), """ ""'I .. motions (Sal"",),. MaY", GoIdm.n, 'r u",<}" & Pallo" 1995), as well as pe.,.,.,. hty 'raTl>

(laT'Stn & Ke'd .... I, 1991, Gro<.<" .1, 1998). ph)"ic>1 ht:allh "a1'" (R'IL & 51.pI"", 2000). :md other sub,e<:t cluracttris­tics such as gcm",l, 03('. class, and cultUI< (,_g., y""", &. Rollock, 200n Indi,'idual (and gTOIlp) dilkl<OC<S "'p"",m an imponant tlltme to whkh we ""urn lata

St,.u", ,motion is I mullif""" .. d p,or= lbou, which '" much" ",II unknown, no .mgl. =h",'1u, GIn "'TV, all P"'P""" lOT 'Iidting ,molion in lilt l.boratOlY. Thus tilt very sam. pTOp<nTtl of a g,ven inductIOn pTOcedurt ,h .. make it a valu.blc procedurt to probt tTTJOlion in ""'ny con­Itl(\' m'Y'ep.-.:«nl habThti., m 0I1lt ... . With an q< 1o hdp_ m& in~'g .. o .. decide whether.nd how f'hns m'ght .. "'" llot" .-.:«ao-,h '''''', ,,'" now c"mparr mm' ","h oth" com_ mon .hCltation pfO<cdurt.

U.ing Film. 10 Ellcil Em"li"n.

A nm..-xh.u""" h., of pT(>ccdu ... ,h,t h"'e be.n u>cd '0 .liClI.motion '" Ihe l.bo"lol)' 'ndud«: ,m.ys. ",und" ",If_".t<menl> , f.c,.1 .nd hod)' mo,-."",nl'. ",npled .nd un",Iif""d """i.1 i""">clion" h)1'"05I', d",SS, r<1;,',d or ,m>gH><:d §ccr><:<, mu>oc, and odors (~ Ma",", 1990). ~ pTOCedm.,. d, [f,1 from 0llI' .not her IT> • IaISl' numbel of w'ys, f 0 r""ilil'lt co"'po"""'-' . .,.,. lughl,ghl ,e,"en kj' dm",,,,,,,,,, Ih.1 .1< sab.nt 10 Ih. ",leClT"" .nd USC of thtst ploccdulcs The 'ppro",,,,." locllion of (,I"" .Iong ,he", """'n Jin ... n­"on. i. pl<"nl<d '" F,~urt I 2

Int~ n,i'y

\Omo1Oon.1 I""n,"), can be ,·i'''',d in .. ".",1 wa)'s. For pTOenl pUTflO"<, we con."kl lilt mlmOlly of emot,onal lfSpon><> m I<""S 0:4 lilt 1"'0 c~plU.lI)' ,,"porable (bu, often (orrclat<d)d",,,,nsion. 01 (I) I«POO"" .,,,,ngth and (2) '''pon", b",aJth

hpenn",n,.li", ["". impull.m ethic.1 «"'''''',nt< It­

pnhng the .""nglh of ,he ,-mOllon.1 le'pon ... lhey m.y elieH . .own ",Iotn P"""' I',""Ole caTcflllly ... 1«,.d .nd de­bnd.d TIl< <XpeIi<l>N' "r '''''''''- neg'''''"' 'mu""'" can bt

Emotion [lkit.lion Using Him, 11

~--=~-~ -

c:=:J_C_.=_===:J

pamful .nd "au,"""".nJ <vtn tlot expentnc< 01 mit".., posoll""emo""". ",n be OSSQC, .. «I ","h • loss of control that ... ,,,,r:s;' ... f,lm"" c.poblc of ,I,en,ng mild "I "long 'mo.-"on. 1 ... pons«. FOl • numlou of POSH,"" and n<gat"-e cmohon5. rtims Ii""l 01 ",,««I ,Ilt r~sc ""nglh Ih .. con ~ ,liclI.d «hic.lly wlih atlot, proc,durr,

The ",l,n"" poteT>CY of f,lms may be due on pan to the inlrinsic powtt of ", .. Iu lIy ".r"d, 'xt<"",I. alld d)'n>mic.lIy vorymg ",muh. We ,u'l"'" ,t os .lso due to th. rth",·.,!y pelm,"i,'" cul,n .. 1 morts ,h ... u"""oo film 'motion. In Iht Uml~ St .. ", md ",Iltl WtlOem ccunln<s, cmerna .nd ,ele· vision lraffic ",del)' in graphic Ind emotion.I1)' txphcil n,, ­'m. l, and" OS hkely ,hal Ih' pT<S<'nct oflMst mtd,1 &"'" expe";"",nte" ",too u'" f,lm •• so"",what f'tt' h.nd 10 tlicil "long ""PO""" ("'en "'gau", <me.) ""thoul crt"mg I StnSt of hOlm or .lhie.1 vTOhuon. By <ont" .... ",hel ploce­dure • . such as hypnosis or conr"det'" p,,,,,,du,,. ,h .. ehcil "long nega"'" stat<>, may ~ "od,ly p<"ew.d as de<:ef""'" or """'pul."", .• nd ,lit dl.ets of IlIt'" ,nduCtlon proc,­du"s may ~ qUlIe d,ff,tuillo I~m,,,,e VI> ckbTldmg (Ross, l¢pp<l, & Hul;ob,,,d, 197:»

n.ert i,.1>0 goOO "'Ode"",, that film' ore capablt 01 .loc­iting :00:""'''0''" ""TOSS man)" of 1M I<spon .. "·,,em, asso.­ci.ltd "'ilb 'motion (, & ... xperience. beh.,-i"' .• monomic and «nl",1 ph)",,0108)"; Aven ll, 1%9; GJ()S$ &. I.ewn",,,, 1 '193; K .. ,m. '1.1 ,1002; 1'3lomb., SaTi o, An,gnlli , M,ni, & "tgagno. 2000) To In. OXlt"l 'hat in,~,galOrs want loelkll b"".d, multi'ystem I<'pan"", him. rna)' hold ad""'1>g«

12 [motion Elici .. tion

OYer ",n.r procWU",", ~dotal ~ suggcsl' tlu,.df. Sl3t~"",nlS hove SO""'Wlul ... ..".k<r efftct. On btluVlOl" and physiology; locial m<Wtmtnt ha< rd.nlvcly ........ k<r effr<:U "" ~xp<r\en<~; and music ha< .. lau,·tly ........ k<r </io:;.uon ph)" •• oIogy. l'ubhsl>«l .ula mcll<:at~ .Iu., whl: .... """" fIlm dips a .. copabLt of 8Cl'I<:r'''ing mulli.syst<m octi'"3'ions «.g.. Rot· ,<nbtTg, Gr055, Wilhl:lm. NaJmi,&Gothb. 2002),nuny flIm dips will not . On< d,lforulty in soning ou, this iss"" is llul films, h k< nuny <ll<il'llOO procWUfU, ... 8C"" ... lIy nom><d only on 'hr basls of .. 11.rtpOned <moIioo oxperi<I><X (a brul' 101wn or him validanon pn>«dufcs lha, IS disrus5<cl mQr~ Iully I .... ). In light of the .. 1a"v<ly I"""" roupllng among <motion rt:<p<>t>S< Syst<ms. <V<n thr most robu51 .. 11·rtpor1ro norms pr.mde no guor;ml« ,hal' 111m will gtnt ..... btN.,,· ;.,,,,1 and ph~1 actlVIUiom

Compluily

Wh.n rorutd!:nng ,h. romp\<"IIY of I,I",., what is ptrh:ops most SInking IS lhr V3fl3bihly of film dtps on this d"nrn.ion. A film can bt a .ull, silenl imago, .uch au r"""",,, cros,,,,f1 ... pau.rn. or a dynamo< vtSll..2.l and .udlt"'Y ~ ... nct that dt· poc1S complox lhrmcs In lhrtr lf1idlt""",1 incarnation,lhr film dip' tha, art uo;cd fot .motion ",duct"", "nd 10 bt dynamic,

mul"modal ..... 1 .. h.nl on mt3ntnglul ""mI""". c;;,."n lhese bures, "", .. !Ott. tn09. 'nlotiotH IlCItlng m"" ",11 bt .. btJ>-riy hIgh in ct>gnl l"" compltxlty. Indtcd . n-rn • VCT)' simp\< 1,1m, such;os. seq ..... nct <l<l""ung.n ann .... ng ampulated (t.g .• C;""" & U""'''''', 1993) I,k,ly .. quIrtS ""''''''''",bIy mott .pprai,.,1 (Fn]<la. 1988) ,han competing p<ocrourtS to dielt

d,sgust. such as mgt$lmg a btu.r ...... ( .. han. "". pnmil"'" ,elk,,) 0" ,he """ halld. ftimss/",,,, ""h otn.r .... fI">Ili'"".bas«l proc.clu,,", (~;;.. ",I,."nl <lIoot"", ,asks) lhe >bohly t<> dICit

cOW'il ""If .ophlSllCll«1 .mot """,I st .... 5UCh as """.I&!" On IhI: othtl h.,,\d. hlms ""I'<'" .... Ia'" .. ly hIgh in'<lsol C"8"'"'"" dt"",nd "" panO<lpan,j.-potenu>lIy > clra~k when I ... • ing'l'<"<'lOl ropub,oot>5. stICh as young chlld .... n. Inlants. or ct>gnlti, ... ly irnpo,rtd ><lults (".g. , Ih<>s< "'lth schizoplnenu)

At1enti<>n~1 C~J>.ure

Em"'ton <ll<i1>II"" procedures .Iso ""I)" in 00..... much of par· Il<lpan'" ,,,cn .. ,,,, Ihty '«Ju", 10 operate . Masked Sllmult make hmlted d<m:ntd,<; on aU,nlton and ope"''' on .motion

.1"""" lot.lly f)l,I1 ..... 01 ponl<'pant" ""'''''''''''' ........ """"" (_ Wioens & Olu""". chapttJ ~. Ih" ,""Iutnt). By conlrast, ,he Veh.n (1966) procedure d'«<15 panicipo"" to "ad • ,..tits of .motKWlI ,..1I.st."mtnt •. > ,ask ... "It hIgh a1tmllOlUl ... qUI .. m.nl.,h,,. p"'dud< 1"'ri()fTll3tX"e of moSI otht' coneu' ·

",nl ""k,o; (c g, fIll ing 00' q, .... ""'''"' ...... ''' ... "nttg inl<""",,," q""'-"""). As. d)namt< dt<plt)' II"" "'gog<"< both ,,..,..1 and audlto'}' moJahlteS. him chI" aIT also Iyplcally lonly hIgh m "",n"", .... 1 <:apt" .... In lact, fll", ell..,,, .... ,,... can be dcgn>dnl tty cornl"'llng dellUl\d, I'Ia«J lit enltc' ".".;1,1,,), (c g.. gOO,. en, ,'("IllllOise). 11"'rtI0"'. Ilims mal' be" >UOOptllnal proc<"

dun: in txp<nmrnw """"g" in which paruciponts mtlSl cafT)'

00' • otrondary tcl kg.. mtnWlarilhmetic).

o..man<l CharaclHI<tlcs

Films art o:mbeddtd in txl"'nnttnt.>l ronlOXlS lh:o, ""I)' con· sidtrably in 'ht" ...... 1 01 dtmand. So!nt OXpelitntnt31 covtf

Slon.. ... more hkdyt<>provoIu: demand «g. thr: him is port of. nruroti<:lsm ttst) than otlxr$ ( •. g.. ,ht ntm is part of. merrooty lCSt). 1.J1<cwI5c, lhe specifl< im.truclootlS lha. :occ<Jm.

pony fclm vicwmgolsoinllUl'1'lCt dtmand. For tlI2It1pit, bd" ... showing.sad film. Marslotl. Han , Hlleman ,and Faunce (] 964. Jl"&C 126) pr=nt<d tlx instruclions.. "lfl yours<1I txp<IK!O<' "'ha, ..... ,.t'I'IOlions you ha, .. as fully as you em, don', 11)"" hold bacl< Qt hold in your leehnS'-" In pan oot of dtmand CltI'OO':ms, v.'t (lot- tlus him. Tht Ow"¥'. and fOl"oUocrs) _,ht stmpltt ImlNCl""" to .pIt_ "..u:h ,ht fi lm """,fully -" Fmally , film dtnwtd d'lOr3OI(ri$to<:$ on: >Iso film<ont,,,,-do:fK,,<I<"L A ~Im dtpicting. man ""'ngdog kassuggcsts. u.irly Inns­p"rtnl intmt '0 ,bclt dtSguSl, wlxrnos the mlmt of • fclm dt· pieung bn<batpe ....... 1)' is "'b" .... lyopoq .....

S..rt"g.1I of these c.',"1$ in mind . film dIp' con elt'il ,moll"" wilh ",I'lively 10'" 1evcls of d,,,,,nd Funhl:rmo"'. films 01 .. " g<'ntr.ll' elf""t, ," rtSponst syst.ms tha, ... typi. cally """n as bemg ou,side of p;tJ!iclpan15' vohtion.1 '''''''01 (. g .. ht.n ..... ) Byron' ..... , pro<ro",<s.uch ... se\f·su .. · mmlS, ",I" .. d emotion. and hypnoso$ . Imost inv.nably """. !lIn Slfor>g C\leSC<>I'oC<m,ng ,ht ,.rg<ttd .1It.:t,VC st.tt Tht:S<: run m.y bt k"" obvoous for d'«<1cd loci.1 """ .. mtnl or conkdt", .. pro«dm .. ; lhe .. pr""edu"' . .. e lhus probably kM'CT in demand lh.n f,l ....

SI~n<I.rdinUon

Although Ih ... ,.,o Sl and .. d'UIWn are p .... nt in any \000.

"'101)" plO«durt"hI: st'mulus c"" .. n,. pr.sen,.""" 'PP'" r.lIUS. and ,""";ng c<>o>d"iom can "II be IIghlly con'lOlIed ""lh film cltps. The SI.nd.rd,U'ton of iii"", is ,htrtlo .. h,gh, .11"""ng lor the pot.n".1 «plicallOO 01 eff«ts oc""" boo. r.l1<>nt< (GrO'lS &: Leven..,.,. 1'195) FIlm. slur. this hIgh d<gr« of st.nd.nli: .. ",n W1,h othl:. I\Orma,i> ... mtd .... uch as .hd .. >nd musi<. Confedt,a .. in"meli"" proccclu'ts .. nd 10 he Ie"" Sl.ndardlZed Ih.n him. because • • ptnmtnters nnnot ''''011)' "'grmtm ,he d)""'mK in"'PI.y be,,,,,,,,n hu· man 1"'nl<lpanl>. Rd"nl .mOlton pfo«du". arc less >I . n· cl"d,ud ,h.n Illms "mply broouse by·pe rson Idoog.-.phi< , .. riot'on 1<,1"1< !IOUr« of ,Ix" power. The hIgh >lamlardtz.>. I"", "I fIlm. d.,.. not. 01 <ours<, g""ran,., th., him. ,,-,Illx .11=' ..... qually I"" olll>O"O<ll"'nts (So« b'er >«"loon on tn·

d, .. Id .... 1 .nd group dllleITJlC~')

T em"",~1 (<>nolderalion.

Emot''''' rtSnrch...-. d,lI .. wldel)' m lhe" ' «lUI .. mtn,. I", .. mjl<><>1 """Iu,ion. or &",,,ul'ri'), 1'", ••• mpk. phen("lm·

elU ,ha, are mod ,fied by cm<>tion OY<r 5«000. o r m,IIt_­ODds (su<h os ,he .. . nk rcn<x. """,,_rtlned br.oin potm_ ,;'1$. or b"nn oc,h .. tions) ~"i .. d ... eolkction ltthmques ,ha, ocrommod ... a high degree: oI'emponl rcsolucion. SliU­pic,u,", pan'hgms (:sec Bradley & Long. chapter 1. 'his vol· umr). in which .. inmli ar. p ..... mcd in rd.'i,..,ly shOll !Tiab (approximately 6.) 'N" arc a,..,,,,gcd together 10 iru:re»< m=$ure"",n' .. liabt1i,y. havt betn u .. d lor 'his purpoot. films. '0 ,hei' pTO!O(YpOcal ooc. a .. much Lower in temporal rcsoluuon and ... ng< lrom .boo, I t" 10 minu'~ in I<ngth. Bcr:." .. emO(ions . ..... Iativtly ... pi<! pheoome""n ... ith on .... and 011",$ ovu $C<:ond$. film$ (.nd O(her low­rcsoI"u"" proctdurcs such as conlcde ... ,. in,tracti<>m) will product cJX>Chs 01 data tha, arc hetcrogcnc0U5 in tmollorul ",uvo'icm. ExpcrimrnICrs who .... films mUS! eonsldct pro. eNur .. ,,, ex,ract the cmotional pheoomrlU 01 imeres! from ,hese lunge, eJX>Chs (t.g ..• pri<>ri enltri.a. w"'* period .v_ e"'g"). an ",ue also di5CU5>Cd in more de .. il talC'

Ecological Valld ily

Lik. many of ,he ""muli that make us cm<>t""",1 in ... 1 lif •• film eli!" repr ... n,. dyIumic dISplay 01 proIotypK: ,;tua_ 'ions ,.kvant 10 ",..,II_bemg and ",.lVIvol (t g.. 1os5. dmger. T ooby &- CO§midcs. 1990). From 'his SI.ndpo.nt. liltn' ap­pea, to be hi&!> m «OIog>cal v.hdny At the .. mr umr. both theoTClical and .mpineal unc. n o.n'1 •• "round 'hIS i'l<ue kg .• R .. z& Step'oe. ~OOO). On theone hand. Iilmcmot>On appe. rs 10 be '01 .nd 'obUS! fo' ... ",pIc .• boo, one-.hird 01 fem. l. l"u"cipanlS "",nly wt.p ,n .""""'" '0 a sad f.lm w. havt U5<d (e g .. Rot'enberg. G.-os>. et . 1 . ~OOl) •• nd OU' """ film, ,n otll<r emotion C3ICgot"itl product .. m,la, rcsuh. ( •. g.. V1Slbk W'AA'"g '0 dISgust /tim<. coo",I>"" laughtt,.o amusmg film,) On ,II< O(he, hand. f.lm emot1Oll ... k.nd or .... heue .m<>t>On (Fnjda. 1989) ,tw "'lui, ... · ""I1.ng <u<pcnsoon 01 dtSbehef" 10< 'I'ope.-.I""'. Tha, is. panlC'pam, bccoonc emotion.1 in ... p:>n .. '0 lilms in spi" 01 (0< bcco_ 00 tho: loc, tha, f.lm im:lg<$ ore.n iII ... i"" 01 ,.,Iny

In ",m .• 11"",.gh some '1UCS1OOT15 "maIn """"",m'''!l.1I< «ologicol ".hJ"y 0I1ilm<. fib", or .. proI;toobly mort ... 'Ur.l!ts­'oe (.nd he""" mo.-. gcncraIlUbie) lhan • numbe' 01 0(11<, lCchIll'IU" such'" di""ted f..,.1 tnOVtmrn, '" h}-p"".; •. ,,-Inch .... mbie '''''Y kw ... ..,ryWy hf. "')l2(KIItS. In "'ua'KIItS m ",tum h,gh ecoiog;col \..:ItdHY is rtquuM. one n"gh, do wdl '" .mplvy sen ",cd or U""-Tipted ...,;.1 m .. """"'" proc-cdurcs. as 'hey chell .mot"'" (Jut..rt as 'e~1 .nd mbmt OS ftlm emo­tion, ",h.I< requumg no willing ""'PC"""" 01 dosbehd.

& .. _.,,1 C"". ldenUon. Wh .. n U. lng Film.

lh,,; b,. we have focu..-d on ",h"h" {ilm,.re ,II< right e"""ion .Ioelt,(ioo proeedu,", to uS< in • IIm:n .... arch Con_ ,"'" In.1I< fol\uw'"g ""'''on, we cons.dc, how 10 ooc 1.lm p"""'<lutC< onct 0<>< ~ decod.d ,ho( f,lm, are approp"""

Wi,h films. as ,,;th m:lny technique< _ d in . xp<nmrn .. l psychology. ,lie devil is in 111< de!ails. Wi,h this In mind. "'" discuss .."..,.-.1 fac'ors.hat inAue"". how "",11 1,Ims ... -ork in d,fIcT<Jll StllIngs and off.r suggt"ions for .voiding common pllfalls.

How Should Emotlon Be Mn.ured?

Not surprisingly .Jud gmtnlS regarding ,II< suCCUS or !.,Iure or nlm-bastd .mot>on .Iict .. ,ion errons or,," hingt on how emouon itself .. mrosurcd. Hert wt d.scuss.WI) issues "le­van"" ,he me"'",em'n' "I.motion when using films: (I) proxim"yol' octi~ion.nd mr;tSUrcmcnt periods.nd (1) the extrac'>on oIemOllon.

EmottonS . .. ev.t'tCseem, Thtrdorc. del.ys ...... n shon ones. be(..-een (he ":I'va,ion 01 emO(ion by . film and (he aso;t'l<lnCn, of .motion by .n uperim<:n .. , con inlJoduc. mr.", .. mrnt erro,. fun"" compounding !h .. error is lhe pIO$p<C1 lIut tho: ,imr eou .... of an em<>tional rcsportS<': va,_ ies by emotion response system (e.g . r",,;'1 exp..,..; .... behav­io, may hovt. f ..... ofIstt (han emotion upericnc.o:). Tht COS!S of delay ~re "",ll iIlUSl r.o .. d by III< common pracltn of .......ng .. 1I-.-.pon rcsponSCS ' 0 IiIms '-"""""",II,-.Iy lOSing question ... i,.... Mlim<: ela~ be,wun 111< 1,lm·5end . nd ,II< qu ... iOl1n.i .. ·• compk'ion. ,II< .Iicll.d .lIe .. is hkely '" l.>de andIot- be dlSloned byerronor system:l'oe bo.... m recoil (1.cvtruon. 1988) To .vot<Il"obIcms """"""cd M,h dcla~ 'el""""",''';' r<pon5 ~nd '0 obt.1n (o-nllnU0ll5 mr05ures of cxperic~ lhat par.dl<1 wn,muO\I. me .. ure. of other r<­spon'lC dotn. i", (e g . beha\;", .nd ou,onomie !"ychopltY'i ­ology). ,her< ~ be,," • growmg tn',,<St m ",'ing d .. 1 tnCthodolopts. v.'hich aBord coni 'n ""'" mr .... res 01 emotion .xpene", •.• n e"her "nhnc 0' eucd-rtvt.ew ... lIng fonn:.,s (Frcdnekson & Kahnenun. 1993; Gotlm:ln & l.evtnson. 198~; Ruef & I.e''enson. c!uptcr 17. ,hi. ""Iumc)

One concern .boo, freGumtly ......... mg em<>t.oo exp<­, .. ~ is ,ha, the OCt 01 .. pealed ,nc",urctncn, atn potemially .11<, ,II< emotional ... pons< .... If. a ,on<:om tha, docs nO( .pply os"",ngiy!O til< phys><>logir>ol .nd behavioral r",porI>< sy"ems. whICh ""'y be m"ni,,,,ed conllnu"usly wlIhout ,n,erferingsubSl.n".lly wi,h .mot""",1 rcspon>CS. I:lttistorts "ga,ding wll<o.nd h"'" '0 ..... '1< .motion . xpc".nc. ". qu"e,hat ,II< expenm,"lC' balan« 'he d""t 10' \'altd and perha!" "''en con(muous em<>tion exp<ricr><:c r.-pon.s .ga ..... ,h. c""'pellng <bi •• "<)1'0 i",C1Ic .. wlIh ."""""",1 , .. pond_ ing during I.lm and post fi lm (n:<overy) penod •. In ott' own wo'k. wt (yp;colly ."''1< ..,,,, ... 1 and penpll<",) physiologi. cal ~. ,-,deO('p< .xp~ve beh" "". and--d.pend_ ing on ,II< Sludy-u ... m'x 01 "'fOSp<C'ivt and r .. l-lIme .mot"'n ,xp'n<:ncc "'''ngs.

A second mr>su'emcn, i'l<ue co"""m.,11< extrac(ion of emotion lrom film """'ng pe,;oo. )'bny ...... "lI<fS-----<)IJ,. .. h'c< .ncluded-h."e .. h.d "n """ron pcnoo .,-.:rng« '0 m<05Uf< expen<o, .. I. bdlll\"""'1, and ph}'''''I<>g><a1 ,",Xln'_ It)' dunng. f.lm chI' 0..., .. 11 ""erage ,upon" i •• U5<lul

1~ [motion Uki •• • ion

summ.ry 51.1151" . nd prQVld .. an lmponant Stanong potnt for do" analy,;;,_ At tho: ""me time, wt have alluded to the bel th .. films h,,,,, relatn'ely low '.mponti rtSQlUlion and typically Cr.'" h"e~neou, 'p<XII< of daLO. Thi' muns thaI tho: period "'=g< Str.negy will alm<>:St inv. riably indu'" nonemotional ep<XII< and/OT ep<Xhs in which nontaWtM emotions ... rt elicltM, .ffecti....,ly ....... "ring down' thor ero<>­lion dllO of prinCipal '"t,,<>1 Furthermore, an . xdU51'" focus on o,..,rall .ve"'g« may detrnct ITom other po!entiatly Inlorma,,'.., p"rame"rsol enlotiofl (e g., threshold. ri .. time, ,-anabil"y). One promismg .11<mati"" to period ''''''g<> i, to ex"""t "m. windows of dota bMed Oft a prion ftspon .. cnte~uch .. rating dial measures of <n>Qtiofl uperi<nce. facial """"menlS t!'LOt m.uch Intcndtd ptolotypC5 (Iloow:nberg &: Ekman , 1994), or beh.";o,,1 or physiologkal prof,l .. in­dica"," of .he tars" ,,,,olional su" (David<o". Ekman, s",ron. s"nuli •. &: Ftiestn, 1990)

What Kind of Baseline 5hould Be Used?

H",,'ev~, 0"" ",easure, emotion. and .. h.i<hnoer ... y one extr""" particular penods of tn1<T<Sl. " \$ r>«:oss:ory '0 cSti­""" In. impact of a fIlm oomp.red with <ome point of ref­"tne<: In fact, be-ca .... acute emotional """""",a1< .......J1y superimpos<d on some pnor affectl'" " .... it is dlfftcult.,f not impossible, to d"", inltrrnces .bou, 'he ",tturr of a fIlm eff.,.,t ",,,h""t. rrlev.n' bMehne penod. Thus . nother b. · "" iss"" lOT Impiem.nltng ftlm Pf""edures is establish,ng • proper potn t 01 oo"'l"'ri<on, Or ba .. hne. "K"in<l wh,ch,o .=ss the effects of a g,,",:n film cbp,

Wh" t)l'" ofoo..hne should oot: "",?ttisloncally, a reSt­

mg'"'' 110, h«n a n",JO' workhot-s< In OUr exp<n<ne<:, how· <vcr, ,hen: art: drawhacks :ossoc"".d Wlth resting baselines: (1) ,e5l may flO! be. t<[lf~llt.u,~ ""' .. 01 thor otgani<m; (2) it rrut)· eIT.te. floc..- th.t preclu<ks d .. .,.,uon of dcacti,.,tLOn <f­Iee,_<; (3) rt:<I mSlTU<tl()TIS m"y mtrodtle< unwanted ",ri.bH­i,)" >S ]lO" ""]lO"" d ; [k, rod"", 11)" III the" ablhty to comply (>«: .IsoChnSlofi.lkam, &:: Gobndl, 100'1; lcl-~nson, 1988\ To 3lmd 1he-.. drawbacks .... .., h" .. in OUT own """k ,"","Cd t<>­word u .. of ncmrai·< ntOtion·f,lm ba«imo « .g., Rotlenberg. Gross. ".1 , 1002). In .ddltlon .• Rim basel",e .1>0 has thl: <ksl"bl< le~tn ... of oomrolfin~ for the <fkc" of " ..... 'ng a dy""mlC extrmal '''mulus (PlI<n, Klmo. Yoong ... &: lawl<T. WOO) Spttif". rd.h"el), neUlral film dips On: n:conmll:ndM for bo"h"e I .... in Ih" chaptcr

hcn when a ba .. lm< has b«n wen oonSlructed, i1 will not be " .. In l as. ,omp.rison ,olldi,iorl unl'" it" ' imed 'pprop".atd), L.,~I, of rrspondmg in <xpenm".I , beh",·_ \OT:1I, .nd ph)-slolt>gl<"3l ,h,mnels are """" Slati< but dnft. 01 nnc"",e, th"'''ghuut • bbora'ory >eS<ion . Dtb)'S betw~<n "",,"hne md .,:tl\',"en f"'"ods introdU<1: the conloundmg elleCl' 01 ,inl< The,.lorr. it i, ol"n u .. ful to ha,~ mU]"pk b.1 .. hne pcnoth, ""d ba«:lme' mu<l be POSlltQn<d tempo­mil )' proxImal '0 the <motion him (tdeally m. ,onliguou, f'OS'1ion) In liesig'" that <mpioJ-' mulu pi< emotIon f,lnlS, the

I<sue 01 r«pon><: dnlt is acute and Slrongly mil".,., for thor u .. of multiple bas.eh"".

How Can Film ClIp. lie Motched?

A rt13!<d consideration is how '0 best match film, lo .llow strong infume ... bout e~ton effects. T!'LO, is, wh.n tWQ (or more) emotIOn film cor;dltlons arr compared, .motion .... archers will usually want to inf.r thal ob<ieTVtd condi· tlon <ff«15 are due 10 emotlon "'ther than film d,ffertnctS The complexity 01 fllm' complteat« 'hI< inferrnce: Films dlff.T from one another on • I .. ge numbeT 01 potentially confounding cha""'t.nSlics ( • . g. > fengt h, "'tensity, oomplu. ity. COrt tl><mes, pre .. """ .nd numbe, of htl""''' flgure •. ooloT. brightness. pteturr motion; sec DelCnbcr. S,mons, &. !lenn .... 1998). Mortov". in"""gators usu.lly ha"e few dey ... Offrffdom in matchingSlimuh on Ih ... character-Istic. be-cau .. , (I) ,he pool of <ffectl\~ mms "",13b!e lor .ny gi"n l .. get emotion is often sm.1I (t e .. 2-~ ftlms): (2) the number 01 possibly rd"",mt dlm<nSlOTlSof dlfferene<: .mong flims is SO IaTg<, and 0) e",n 'lighl v.nations in thor ed iting of fllm cltps (:On d",matlcally .I'er ,he" <ffcctlv ....... as em<>­Ilon elicitors

Bee.u .. i. i, "ore that films (:On be matched across all e!'LOract.ristics. ,nvcstigators must match .Iong. few c!'LOr­ocorri9.ics th .. have ,he h,ghc<l pnonty In OUT ""." work ".., ha", matched f,lms bas<:d Oft I<ngth . lheorelically 'nlpoT­tont dunens,on. (._g .. activ."on kl~f» known effte" in the It<<ratUT<. and <ludy·speclflc atm. (. g ..• " i""e5lig'"ion of stlmul"s mnmng ",.lehed f,lnlS on lh'matic COn""', Rottenberg, Gross, 6;r Gotltb, 100~). DeCl51OTlsaOOUt maleh­mg .hould be mad<: "pbc"I)". ","h "fertnce to the go.ls of Ihe ]lOrticul." study

How Many ~ilm Clip' Should lie U.ed?

Our di"'u<$ion of ba",bn< and of f,lm <llmulu. oonfounds h.v" ,ugg<S1"d .. ...., .. 1 no, .. SOl.l"''' that con obscu.-.: ,he ·"gn.l- of emotion tto,.- Can one hoos, IhlS 51gn.l1 One approach" to "''']pit ''''ot ion for ex""",'e periods by uS­ing .... "'I film e",mpl." for a ~I\'en emotIon ,,,dlor '~I)'

long ,,,mulus prcscnt:1I'OTlS. Indud . psyehometric theot)· argu .. 'hat agg"g,ttion o'~r mtlltlple fI lm exemplars (. nd long fi]m.) shoulJ mcrt:"'" m«lsu""..n, ",h.bllll)" (F.pst .. n. 1983)_

1I Owt,~,,,,,,,,bk thIS apP,",-",,=h 'o$1mplm~ ~motlon nuy be, It is ol1<n problem,tlc,o ~arry OUt ill p"""i« beeau .. (1) d,n ... nl hIm. de .. gned to target. panicufar emotIon do not always ge"""" e'l"mllen! respon ... : (1) til< nsk of habltu.tion, .. TlSUiz:ttion, 0' hl1gUt dlee" m<n:""', ... "h more f,bn pre"""'"tion;; (3) ~>n~" f,lms are "'OTe h«crog<' neoos and oI«n 1<", dleell,'e ,h.n ,ho"" ftfm, (e g .. long neutral film, can becomc ,,·crs,,~), .nd (4) pr.Ktlc.1 con· Slmim, rda .. d to j"r",'l p"nt ",'"Iab,h,)" .nd .tlmUon 'pan often m.ke it ,mposslbk 'n ''''' mn" Iplc ".mplars fot uth

largel emolional Slat. For these ,tosons. we have u .. d a <:ompmmi>e samplmg St""'g)" in our <>Wn ~",h : For each t .. get emOlion w. u .. one (0' two) ,ebu"ely sho" film stImuli th.t or. lyplCally between I ond 3 minu.~ m knglh .tld ,hat .... as hocnog<:""", OS i. poMlbk Our """'gy '0

boost ,hoe signal of .mOlion .hoe ... for. plocn . hoea,"y burden on '''mulus .. 1..,. lon (.nd ... dueiog sourttS of noise).

What I. Ihe P.y<:h o logical ( .,.,Itxt OUrlng Film Viewing?

n.. ""''''Vlty of emOlion to psychologiGll con .. ", is an m· ""'SlIng (.nd btdo",lmg) aspt<l of ,molion tlu, uon disrupt lhe Stand.rdin'ion of film ohdl >lions of omo"on Flll1l'l ' " ohcn shown in the conlcxt of "'",plex. multl<CSSlon Slud ­,", in whICh pa"""panlScompkle qUC$Clonnal<e$, hav.: "",. so .. ' llKhc<I."", vid'OI'p<d,.nd In .. raet w"h ont or mlll'<C ~nmcnl"-S. A1lhough an invutigolor may be pankub rly inlCttSlM in paniclpaot<' nnotlonal response< to ont osptcl of IMs complex e"P"ricn<e (i.c .. lhe mlll'l). il IS i",ponontlO rtmembe. that ......,ral asptctS of tilt cxp<nmeo .. ] protocol nuyuiggu emollonal responses lhat compete "'Ih (and even 5lIp<..w.) panictp:rnIS' emotional ~poI'IStSlO the Blm ebps. Of eoul$<. it OS lm]><lO'Slbl< fOl" an invut'gotOl" 10 control (01 .".n 10 be ow. ", <>fl~ry oopt<\ of , ... psydlOlogol conI .. , Nn1:rilic It<<. thItt .spcctS of the psychologlC:al """text sund out as .hTt.u 10.und.lJdl~ion and can be conlwlkd .ndlOI" monitC>r<d: {l} um,og. (2) oroo, .nd 0) pnor VlCWI"J:-

II fi rst con>ldera(ion IS "mmg. 01 """n. film is presenled m ,he COOl$< of .laborotOty .. won 11 "'OIlld bt unwi .. to

.... url'll: trun • sod fIlm pR'StntM 11 the end of. gruehng l·hour labomory .... ion will be o""lu ... d in ,he sam. ""'y as " would at the btginOlo~ 01 ,he """on, 8'"en ,he gr ..... hkehhood of i"" ..... d panlClpan' /ollgue (M"'Pn, 1920) and "or"",,y to "p< ... d labot1llory t"'''' (Thompson & Sp<nccr. 19(6). II St<OI1d cons&dcr.u'on ISthe ord<r In whICh • film IS pres<nI,d withl'" labo""o,y .. """, fot ''''mpi<. cen.in ""dor. of film prestn.,,,,,,, may be more ."",epuble '0 "'''.,..,.""r clftcU llun ",hers. 5<w .. 1 studIeS rnd"",. ,h .. TtSiclu.l.ff..,u,.., "al" ,luI """eh the ""I'net of • 1'11:'" emo­lion ,,;mulus Wlll enhanet the rcspon><: 10.he I'II:W Stimulu. (. g .. 8r.>ll'lCOIl1bc. ]98~; Neumann Cl.I . 200 I), suggesting th .. carryo,..:, c/I.., .. a ... mOSl probable when fIlm. of hko ".Ienet Of' p""I1I,d In block<d o,de, II third .Iemen, of tho psychologic.1 e"""xt ,hat poS«' 'h ..... 10 "antbrd,,,,,· "on i, ,he film.,"ieWlng hlSloncs 01 particlpan .. rank'pan" often ha,.., p .. vtoo,expcI'II:net "·,,h film< us«l In Iaborotory proeMu, ... Stmply b.."m<e rnan)' of the best <mollon 111m eh I" arc M"ed .. gmen .. of conm"fCtally '" ",labl< en,.noln­ment<. !'nOt ",.wing h>. been ''''''''''tM w"h , he,gh .. t>«l .. pon of the .argot emOlion (Gross & l.e, .. "",n. 199~), and It may mnu."", the "'pcne"", of ""wlng fIlm clIps '" OIhcr W'Y' kg . "'P<Cl'''= effccts).

In oor own work, whon .""""", .• pte,flC -r1«15 . rc 1m· I'rnlam IU "', we m. I<.o.·, pmnt of .,'""mg that e""h fIlm

""""'''' in e;och posiuon ,,,thin the experimental p~ocoI. We :also try to limn cart)'O>'tr from """ filOl '" ,lit I'II:x' using temporalspacing kg .. ,,'th .. If-.. pon~, I"nod,). OS well OS noncmOliorW diSlrxtor tasks (e .g .. copymg gw­""tne figu""; Gross. Cl .1.. 1998) With ,cspt<t to tlie wue of prior film '~g. w< rOll.indy ask panicipan15 (both during ptlOi teSling of the films .nd dnnng tlie expcnm.m it .. IO ""he,lie, ,hey have .. en ,he flim belo", W. lhen u .. this inlormation '0 eOl1 .. oI for the df..,,-, of pnor vi<WlOg

DoeSlh., Phy.jcal (""tUI Matt."l

One ,mponom <ktcml1nanl of panicipan,s' rcspol'lStS to film stimuli i. the physw:.1 .. nrng in whIch films .... presented Emotion.1 "'lC'Ii"'y'o films has bcen .. ssoci'lt.d "'''h mun· dane aspros of ,he expenmcnt.al SltuatKln su<h OS fOOItlligh,. Ing (Knez, 199~), largor dt<pl.y stU (lkt.nbe. & Rtt-.-«, i99(i; lomhord, 1995). w;m .... r ,oom temp<ratur. (Ander­son, Dt ....... & DtNttt, 199~), and color (as oppo$Cd to blxk .nd "'hito. Det.nbcr. S,mon •. & Reiss. 2(00). Physi­... 1 "",og.1so i""ludt$ panoclponlS' proxImity and accC$$

10 OIher ]>COpk. laboralory film procedures (hke . 11 erne>­llon procedure')'re :IOC,.lly .mbtddM phenomena Indi· viduals nuy repon d Iffering .. ""ions to fillll'l as • function of the group .... kg.. whethe. h lm •• r< vi<w.d in group o • IndIVIdual sesSIon fonn ... ), and 'hese dfeets may dIffer by emollon U.kobs, Man".ad, & fisd" •. 200]) E~n " .. "hin tho contex. of <inglc-<ub;t<t porad,grns. ",bole changesm the phYSlc.1 o,.. ngemen .. m.y ",f1u,nce ••• cti."y ... th. imph.d :IOCI.I p .... n .. of Olh ... (F"dluod. 1992). For enmple. th, presence o f v,deo recordIng «Iu tpmcm In • paniClp.nt ,oom may Inet ...... If.eoo""'o".n .... Ih .. d.mp<HS 0' enh.ne .. beh",oral ... pon ... In our own work. _ h.~ u .. d a 20-",ch monilO' positioned .bout ~ f ... from the partlClpam in .oht.ry film v,ewlng """0'" conducted m. hVlng.room ilke labo . .. ory room w"h dlmlllCd light. Th.oughout .. pcnment.1 ..... 011 •. partlCl' pants .nd exp<,iJruOnlCr< arc m (ontact ",. . n mte",om Cam ..... u .. d to ' «Old panic'par,,' exp' ''';,,, bclu"01 or. d,sertc,ly hldd<n bthllld do,kc .... d);lass pond. m onkr.o mmlm", pa"'C1pan,,' .. If-conselou.n ...

Whal b Ih~ Role o l lndi"';dual and C,oup Ollfe. enns?

r\. dramatIC .",mple of.1Ie ]XI"'" of Ind"'ld",,1 dill ... n ... to Inn""nce ,ho OIltcome 01 emOllon .hella""" procedure, " hypnOllC emo"on Induetlon>, wh'ch ore not usal>le In I lie rnato"'Y (10--1~") of p<opl. ,,·110 nOl hlghl)' h),p"",,,;:able (~r, 1981 J. IndIVIdual d,ff<l<nc<s . lso In/l"ence '<><llv_ 11)"0 emollon /tIm chps. fo, cxampk, '.,,, .. ,,ons In .. 11-rcponM I'II:urotod;nl.ntl .. ,tra,..,1"<iorl ho, .. bc.:n .oown '0 mnucnce ""got"'" and post""" rc,,","ons '0 fIlm •• respe<:l" .. ly (e.g., Gross e< .1 .. 19Q8). L,ke,.., .. , hlo!<>g",,1 t"'''' .• u<h •• r'Sll ng .It<t totnceph:llographlC (t E G) "'YOlII'II:"Y in .nterior

"'gions of lilt bram. h.v<c .1"" Ntn shown 10 predicl fllm "'activilY (Whttitr, Da,,;dsoo, &- Tomarkcn, 1993)_ How on<

proettd, in lilt bcc of 11><>< indi,,;du:ol differc~ dtl'wds larg.ly on 0 ... '. 'e><a",h aim>, Som< lUe1rch<r> (e.g., pt,­son.IIly ....., .. cIM:r» wdcomc: v:ori'llOTl on lhe$<: £actors bt· CllU>< lhe>< dlff."''''' .... ''' the fOCl.lso/ .ltudy (c g., &"nooum f:,t Willi.ms, 1995). In other caz<, ,uch as work (K\ oosic emOlion pr-octlSl:. (t_g., forms of ><!f-"gt.tl .. ion), lhe:>< in ­di,,;dual d,ff.""" •• m. y constilulC nUlS>"'" vanancc lhol inl"rf" .. with ,1M: dtltclion of 011><, .ubtlt ytl imponanl ell.c .. ,

The mnu=cc of grwp m<mbership (q,-. linguistic. gen­<It" ,oc",-1. Ot sociOtcOnomic) on etnOllOn mm rcaclivily is at an .arly Slage of inVCSIigallon . nd i. an Imponant .. u fOT fUlUlC ~.",h. Prtliminary e>'i<k""e, ~r. indiat'e< lh." tIM: Gr= and I.<v<cnson (1995) f,l= generalize 10 OIIM:r 1m_ guistic groups (e.g, , Gt rm.a.n -l.ngu"&,, 5ptakrrs; Hagemann <t.1., 1999). Emotion film <ffec" ho,,,, also g<n<.-.1iz<d ocroS$

dlffc"m Clhnic gwup5 m.some samples (G""" &; ~rt.SOIl, 199~; T sal, lLvenoon, f:,t Utr$l=><Tl, 1000), but addni"...l study of IhlS iss"" is .... okd Olher flndmgs ~ lhat gen­d" may bt a panicularly importanl mn""nct on film ",.c_ livily' Women. ,,1'1!ve 10 "",n, hov<c Ntn shown 10 txhlblt st ,onge' "'pons of ell\Olional ex", Iitt'Ic" (Gross &; 1.<"""""', 1995; Hagemann cl .1., 1999),10 bt moT< <xpresslve (Kring &; Gordon. I ()98). and 10 .. hlml d ,ff,,,",ial nrural ocli .. -lions 10 emotion cheno,", (Karonn. cl .1., WOn T ,oal""'nl ollhe>< gr""p d lffc"n<-.:<, we btl .. "", .hould hing< ort "",,',

Wld" 'e><arch au", wtt<" gr""p dille"nc""lC Itt< ob)<tt of study, ,ndlVldual. wuh ""nom group m<mbtclup5 (an bt ov<fsamplcd (Canlt. D.esmond. Zh.o. f:,t Gobri.Ii, 2002); wh .. r youp d,II"en"es ",pn:stnl confounds, 'hcy can be add",,,,d by sc,eening «.g., studying each ><" ><paral<ly; G,= &- l.t'",n",n, 1993) 01 by uSIng I""-' hoc Slatistlc.1 conlrols

In OUT own wo,k, we Of< C.UliOU5 .boul .ssu,l\lng that hltn , .. ",,"uy wIll ge".,,,,~u ocross gt""P; m the .ll!I<nc. 01 st,ong nom"'""" mlla_ W. h."", found th:.t the .ua:cssful US<

01 fIlm cltp; .ntall. ,Xl<n"," pilotIng of nlms ond .".nlion to sampl. COmjXl6ilion .• nd "'''' Itgt.tlarly "port Itt< gender and ethnic cOfflI""-'"on 01 study panlelP.",. SO .s 10 .1Iow olhcr< '0 ben .. oompa<e our "suits Wilh Itt<" Own. If w<

btlttv< (., we oftcn dol lh .. ,he" m. y be Impo">nl g.ndcr .11«: .. , w< may conduct on inilial study ","h • "nglt gmd" (of"n wo"",n) and lhen '<plic'l< and extend ,.,ul,. of Ihi. m,,,,] Sludy hoy U5mga mixcd-><xsamplt Uktwi"', for "eOl­"",nl of ind"'id",,1 dlU".nct<, w~ lttommcoo Itt< u>< of instnlm<nts to ",,«on oul part>CIj>llnts who Ita"" indio,du.1 d,ff,,,ncc prohle< 'hot m'ght ContollllnJle ... ul ... "d/o, coll,,,,ng d"ta on ,tt<", individu.1 d,ff~t"ncc ,--:mablcs to cn,blc po« t>oc stallst>ealcon'ro/ k.g., WI><.,\."I .1 . 19(3) In our own wmk, wc ,),p.-..Uy obtaIn 1 widt a,ra}' of indi· ",du,1 d,lIer."",,, m""u,t<. TnOSO often y,a 'hc inlCm<', be-10 .. lit, tXj"!<nITKlllal ",SS\On

RKommendu Film Clips for Elkltlng Dhc ... te Emotional States

In th .. ><cuo". "'''' fifSl dlSCUSS th<: pro<= of finding, ffiiting, .lId v-abdatingft1mcbpo.. W. lhen r«:OIl1Il"oOnd a numberoffilm clips lho, meet OU' ontcn. lor ebt!ling spt<irlt target tmOlions, drawing in pan on th<: mm lib",,), described in GlOSS and l<vcnson (1995) Toward 11M: ~ of this <tclion, .... corui<k, ",her fIlm dip; !ho, ttl2y be ""lui bul !lu, do no! "'gel d;.. Crt .. • motions, The number 01 Pf"""" c"""ion elM:lIt><1 "'­,.,.tnS "latn",1y modest_ We rnnarkOrt """" of lht Slumbling blocks!ha, ha"" stood In the way of d<vtlopmgand '''-ltdnmg alargtf hbraryol fIlms and pn:sent r«:OIl1Il"oOndations fmovc,· commg lhe>< <tbsUlc1c< in fUlU'" sumwus d"..,lopmmL

Dev~'oping and Validating film Clips

Clearly, it would bt dcsir:obl. to hove an t xttnsi,,,, d."ba5.t of valid f,lm stimuli lha, rival. lh"'" 01 OIh .. norrn~live cmotional Sllmuit kg., Plctur.,., words,.nod sounds). p,,­haps most envi.blc in ,h .. "'pte< is Itt< Im .. ",,(ion.l Affee­lIv< PioctUrt SySlem (1A1'S; Lang. Bradley, & Cu,hbtrt, 1995), a databas< of hunodreds of colored picln"" lhat h."" bt,n <l.nda,diztd ou large nonnative participanl .. mples fo' judgcl pl<asur< and .. ousal. distribuled internatIOnally 10 >Cor .... of ,,><.rchers, and us.rd t~ .. nsiv<ly ,n cognlltv<, ..,. cial p;y<:hoIoJllCal. and biobtha",oral $Iud,t<. The cempa"'· 'i.-ely mod.st .'U of Ihe hbmy of w.ll-valida,ffi fl\ln d,p; prompt' a ron<l<kration 01 obstaclt' lru" oflcn ari", In ttt< course of d<>",lopmg ncw ,"mulu, him"

f.fSI. mtn, a" co,nplic ... d 10 d.velop !>te.""" unlike ,ltd". ,hey ar< .mbtddcd Wllhm .noott<, sourcc. fo' the fo,.-.blt fUlUte, Jl I ..... in-h""st prod""i"" of tmolton film' fall. btyond Itt< l.chni.,.l, df3matnrgIcal, and fm:mc .. 1 means of m"" labof3IOne5, ba",cl1ng 'moIi"n film' from. und,d ... SOUret is an tler'\lV< proce'" thal mvolv ..... num_ bt, of $Icps. mcludmg nomm.lIng ,and,J.te SOUret •. mfo,_ mall)' sc".mng ""',..,. from cand,d .. e sou""', h .nI. td !l"'g dIp; wk,n hom candid ... """,t<, collecting p,IOI d,,. on cd!l<d c!tps, 'mlltngdtps on ttt< bas .. of 11M: pIlot ",'ings (assuminglhJl ,he initi.1 "'lings look prontismg), .nd. fiMlly, colltctiuK norma",,,, da'a from particlpan' samplt-> bo:os.rd on tht flnal cdl1td version 01 Itt< flIm dip

In our exptnl:n<:', w< hov< btcn fcpta .. dly surpn><d at ,he f'agtht)' of lhe 1,lm e .. "lttlon proctsS. Of'~n. fIlm "'g_ "",nl< lhal ar< powerfully cm"',onally ",'""all"" m ,1M: con­tex' of the 13'ge' hIm fall to .lid' .mOlion ",·tt<n Itt< f'lm chp i, view<d on its OWn. panicubrl)',f ttt< part'Ctpan' h., nOi ""'U Itt< fi lm. W •• 11<1 ha,'c found lha, <"Vton If a him ><gment ,UfVIves!l •• urgn)', tht cmotion.1 itnpocl can ''at)' as. ,,­SUll of rtlali\",ly m,nor ,,,riation< '" lht cdnlng 01 <tltt<r ,he mu"", Itt< Im'gc, or both

A ",cond loelO' I hOI h .. hmd .. e<l,\;e de,'tIOpmwl of 1 IOfgo hb,,"y 01 f,IT", Ita< btcn • lack of syst<ma'ic communt_

c.Hon . mong ;chob",. WI><""" .. ill pICtures and "'hOOT m .... i.1s a" shaled widely, UoctTUinly conc"rning II>< bir US< of commerciil ~lm$ for ;cholarly pur~ ha. slow~d ,t.. d< .... lopmtm of 0 r<cnlJ'31iud "P"''''''Y wt.." film clips migh' b< .. ored. copi<d . and diStnbu,.d, n.. de .... lopmenl of'M In""...,. howt .... ,. Ius made i, rasier for ",I>ola", '0 dev<1op =",diud kw:ations ,ha, post fr:..me.e<Jlllng instruc· 'ions rot- !l',,"r.I'ing Stimulus films (which doe< £311 under bir Uot) , As _ rn"'''' lo"" • • d inlO 1M lUlU". we "xf""I 'M lnt<rn<' Wlll "main an imponan' RSOU= for bmldlng II>< co,nmuni'y of r .... rcM'" wl>o de .... lop and .... emotion film.o;,

A 'hml 1"",01' ,ha, has made" diffICul' to buIld . l .. ge library of mm dips is 1M dispa. .. ," (ond ol .. n iocom""nsu­"'e) fIlm nhduion proccdun:s. In our o,.'n research ....... ha .... lollowed tl>< pra<tict of "'rtfully prt'estmg .""h of 'M Itl ..... w. are 'hlnking 01 using ""h. sample ,hat is maIChod to ,I>< imendrd restoreh popula'ion, We coIl<ct v.lida,1On d.ta on 8-10 films at • ' lin" in group-format sotSSiom ,h., lOS! • pproxinu"ly I hom (fatigue and the du ... "on of fIl ..... I,m·

[motion EliciUtion Uling Fillru 17

it< ,I>< numb<r o{fIlm< ,ha, can Ix valida,,,d), W" obtain a br~ ronge of emotion "'pe~r>er: "pons immrdi.a,dy af. '.r .""], film chp is shown, As ise",den t from ,Ile ",Iler con· tributions '0 'his ""Iume. ,he", art tn.:Iny d,IT" .... , w.~ '0 :ISS<S< emotion expentrtC<,

The sptC,fic e">OIion Ir""" _ usu.ally US< spon a br~ range of theot-ettcally Important disc ..... ""gati ..... nd postu , .. "motional .. ,,,",, W. 'ypi<:2lly.1so indude the .. nn wnft<­siOIIto"","," how usy it is lor tit< panicipant to undr""and ,Ile him dip oul5i<k tile original ~Im context The Uot of. wide J'3nge of terms allows us '0 compart film< WI! employ 10 elICIt d,ff .... nt urget .u,u. Wi,h'n . gi .... n .study. _ of­'<'11 lind i, u • .,ful,o .... $<, ..... 1 """" ,hat converge on a tor­get emot,onal """ '" 'hn _ may Ctr ... ""ge' cornposnos, For uample. in a .. ndy 01 .m .... m<'11t and sa.dness. wt u..d 'he "lting lonn shown in Figurt 1.3. On the form . panlCi · pan'5 ..... ,he grea .. stemotion thaI ... as experi.nced during ,I>< prtteding film. uSing both discr ... emotl('" (specific).n<! d'm<1lSiooa1 (plt_n, ,.... unpleasan,) "nns, P:onocipan15 "' .. • ""h tUm on 9 -poin' 11l<en (Q-.8) scal .. lhat 10. disc" ..

POST FILM QUESTIONNAIRE Figur. I .]. """film que><ion ... " .... d III lilm valk!.a,,,,,, The tollowing oveslions refer to how Y5lU /e/! ..tIiIf: wa!@lg(hg film.

, , , , ,

U";nK . ... ><at. aOO'· •• pI<_ Indot. 11>< U"'t .............. ot t:A CII ....... 100 y .... "p<~ .. l>il< .. · ... hi"ll' ... /"iI,n. --_._, __ amtiety

~,-

--~­_ _ dtSgUst

-~, ~,

- "'"' ---inle< .... ,

--'"

-----_ ...... ~

__ w _ ---Did you leel anyotlte. emoHon during the tllm? 0 No 0 Yes

II .... w hat was lhe emOllon? .-CCCOCCC-----­How much OIlhis " mOIion did Y<'" Ift,? _ _

1_ .... ,II< rollo .. "'" pI<ao.antn<OS ~I< ' 0 ..... 11>< r .. ,i"I:< Y .... load durin~ ,I>< film. Cir<1< ,. ... , ........ ,

o - , , •

Had yotJ seen litIS film betore? 0 No 0 Yes

, ,

/);d yotJ close your eve" or look "way during any see ..... ? 0 No 0 Yes

.motion< a", anchorN by Mf ar ail and <.1(/,.",tly and lho! lor tho: di"", ... """,t v. lor"" it.m 15 anchor«! by "npl<a>anl and pI''''''n! W. abo .lio,,", panidp.n!s co ",! •• ny oct .. r emoUon they m. )· ha"e lelt during the ~lm .nd osI< wllt,h .. they looked '''''''y dunng tl>< mm (in which.,... ,I><y may not h"," Ottn lmporum pans of the film)

When decldmg wheth .. Or not a film is dficacious (in­cludIng the fllm' .... ~ ",commend 1><",), w< have ",I;.d on in,,","y and di>c .. !<n< .. as!he two prImary ""'tries. That 1<, i."n . .1Ily rd, .. to "'h"h" I nlm .. «iv",", high mun repon on the 'af~! emotion .. Iali,~ ~o other c.ndid.,. film<. Di!(w<n<1.! .. 1<", ' 0 <he degree '0 ..... hich p,micipancs ... pon I..,bng lhe largot <motIon mOK intensdy ,han .It nontorg<l<d <m",i"",. One way 1<, formalize !he di!<m.­"<>, melTic lS to us< an IdIographIC "hit rat<" SlanSlie th .. is the percent.ge of p'''ie,p'''''' who indicated 'h'" ,hey h. d feh Ih< lOrge' em",ion" 1 ..... I poin' mO" in'ensely ,h.n OIher, n-omlrgel<d <lnOlion •. [),ffe,en! r.Jms !h. ! pu­talively eho,!he $>"", ,,,g,, SIal< can be eompar«! <tailS­llcaliy by «,mbinmg in .. n'i'y .nd d''''' .... ne .. scores ,mo •• ucto .. mdu, in whIch <ochm1<n$ny sco", .. p~n's. ~ <roft d."ved by norm.\,.,ng intensity SCOTU lor .n com­panson films and m which uch disc", .. ness «ore rep'" sents • nOTm.hzed di"" .. !enus v,lue Tc!aliv. CO .11 comp>rison fIlm' W. h.ve «<enlly added '0 , he .. ,nelfie. for judgmg the .utctS; of. film the r<commend .. ion lh .. mm. h,," hIgh alplus for lhe largel compos"'S and he low ,n "PO'" of coofuSion

W. <mph.s ... ,h.:., our .. h,,,,,. on TetrOSp«I!l~I)" .. _ .. SO«! .. 1f-.. pon. of emOliOl' (obu,ned in group-";e""ng .. ",ons) 1m fllln ",hd,,,,,,, .. pTX,ic.l, not phIlosophical w. do n'" ".w .ny of the mOJo, .m"'ion res""" .. syst.m. (i e" •• l' .... nct. beh.:.llOI. pI1)"o101og)1) as the -gold .... ,Kbnl. " G,WrI the)"""" ~ollphrlg bctwttn <mollonal respon .. s)"s_ tom., 5<lf_ ... porl "'lings ",,11 not p<rfcctly p«d~ whICh film< WIll product bchOl'lOral of pI1ys;oLogicaI . ,''','''''''''. We en­CO\lr>~~ f< .. arc~rs 10 colkel ""lid .. "", d ... from as many rosp""''' syst.m . .. possIble !o offord ~ prr<"lse se, .. -""nt. eon<'",,,ng , he elfr<"ts of. gown mm We acknowl· .dg., how'\'<I> lhat "SOUlct IIm",,;on. oh.n m,k< u imposs,ble '0 , .. hd ... f,lm m ... ri.l, u'ing ,he f"l1 "'ng< of be r,..."'ral and/or pI1ysiologic.1 ""''''''''; and t he $0"" '""' ..... _

ing contexts ( •. g , Tnd,,;du.1 .... ion.) >S WIll be u .. d in ,he expt"""'1tl i, .. 11

Our Film Re<:omm" ndal iom

I\o<h our <m""on fIlm ",cornmewat""" and the eIite"> on ..... hoch ,hey are b ... d bUild on.nd ex .. nd OIlr ~ elfon. (e""" & le"<nson. 199~). In 'hIS work, "'-" haw gene",I!)' w>n'.,.j to .helt 'P"clfK' d"" ...... motlonal sea< .. (e 11;, on­ger . .,dne,,) .. ,lit, ,h,n mo" dlffo .. se", .. uI fiV'""" or negot"" """"anon (Walson. 1000). The,e/or<, m semllllus dcw!"pm<nt ...... h" ... ",arched for fIlm> ,h ..... ",lalh .. )y ]"gh "n d,,,,,,,,. <mot""" (Ihe oargt',).nd OS low., """"bk

on ",her ",la'ed .moUo .... W •• houtd not. lha, fr«JUfon,ly wt h.a"" found ,"'u our milial "'WIllOns .. ,0 how • film c~p ... ·ould work have been wrong, and a mm chp lhol wt be­];""ed """,Id .liCll ad"" ..... "",e proo»ctd ... h.:., migh, bese be clu.racc.Ii .. d ... dlffu .. SI. !e of posit,,~ or neV!lve ac­UVOlion and _ lItnct d"""r<l«i. We Illuse .... 'hI< po,n, by con!T3SImg .. If-... pon profiles of lwo films that wt .. wh de....,loped '0 <1""1 dTsgu<t. UMxp«t<dly,' film depicting an .mploytt woun<l«i ;n III ;ndustrial accidem (Figu« 1.4, panel A) ... -;os far ks.succnsful from lhe se.ndpoin, of diS­C«,~"""han a fllm depicting ,he sutgia.1 Omplltal"'" of In arm (e.g. fIgure 1 4, panel B)

In lhe following SK'ion •. ",e off" OIlr curren, «<om­n"wlIion. ",vrd;ng mm clips 'har Wlll ehelt n. utral or rd .. i,·~ly dl$<r<!e~mOlional ....... We org>niz< ,he .. rec_ om"",nd. !ions according 10 targ .. emOlion One poim of d,fl ... ""e from Gross .nd t.n .. nson·s~, of "W' .mOllon< should be noted Mlld le""lo of cOnlen"".nllh .. w~ ... P"­Vlously ~ons,d~"d "p. ""ely'" nOw coruid".d unde< Neu"al Tl bl. I 1 p" .. m. v. lId.1lon d.1O fo, these ftlm, >CrOSS' (OTt ~l of items '0 foclln.te comparisons. In ap­pendIX I, frame In.!ruCUon. ore p,...,n,.d for cr .. ung many of these .. ,muli from c~w .. lly .""lobl< SOu ..... Add,tl"". t hIm mSiructions ... w.lt .. COpIes of noncom· m<lCl.1 film •. are aVlilable II hup.l""' ...... cas.u.f.edul psycbologylfoc_rottenbergi h'm

••

Figure 1 .•. Doll"",", =poru< p",j,\<s "tu .. vd [or T"'V [.1.". "'1'''n~ d"P''' r.nlCTpo"!> ,ouk) «pen Aln""''''''", lAMUS). <".",n,.,...,., (crUll. An!:<T (AN(;\'J. d,,~USI (Dl%), F,,, (FfAR), S.do<,. (""'1):-;1 . or 'urrru. l .... ,RPl.

\

Tobit 1. 1

kK .. " , .. ,dod ,_ lor llI<ibn!I DilCtelo lmotiotIoI Sl.Ole>

' .... - .... "'" (5D) StIJ·1lqct1U ~

"'"'" ~'" M<O "" ~ ~ ,~ ~, ru~ -~~ \I (\' .29) '.'0231 (139 (0 1ll O~H08'1 OHelll) 2"(201) o ll(OIl) ) }II (I 71) 4HO H) C,U(aH) 190(2.131 F (,'. ill '61 (lIB) OH(06lJ OH(Om 021 (01J) 210(201) 0}5/0 l1li) ))2(182) ) 6) (l9)} 017(061) 121(171) - .... ,\'.28) ,(IO(l11) OU(06n 0,11 (III) (1'10(092) Oil (I~) 001(0 26) 468 (L 96) 479(]l4) (I Ii <0 4') 207(l11) f 1\.)4) '~2 CI 9\1) 021(0+91 010(161) 091(111) onnOl) 006(024) 4 )9U09) 4 '10 (l 19) 018(0<4.6) 194(223)

w.. .... (".141 '21(2)6) 007 (0 17) 02l(o~1 (I" (l i(I) 079(1') 007(027) )71(14») ) 64 (J 17) OOl(am IHU t !) F (\'. HI 'ZO(l761 008 (0 l7l 031(008) 0)8 (090) (1)(089) 00.{0 20) 421 (l66) 4 62 (1l1li) 004 (0 10) \71 (l (5)

"""'" IJ .. \lV<I·I)) 7HnOl) O~IO m O~{lll) 18HZ 79) 092 (1 +H 0)1 (08)1 '92 (l 9l) 608 (llI!I) 0011 (0 18) )38{221) FIN_lSI 687(1191 007(0261 081(146) 207 (2 '18) 180(291) 020(Oloti} 527(260) 'H(l64) (I H (181) Hi (l 'IT)

'"'" """!:Ur'

M(N.m IH(l6l) ~Ol(L821 1 II (I 11) '169 (\ 611 110(176) 162(1m 076(1l)) l 6/1 (201) 307(21l) 16/1(197) f(N.]}1 OM(lIl) DO (l 3'.1) 181(12l) '1 9'1 (1 80) 061 (I H) II' (100) 0 '11 (090) llHI611 ~11(213) 111(J76)

Cry fr« ....... ~I (N. III 078 (162) ~87(1961 lO9(173) ', 7'1 (176) I 78 (H8) lOO(292) 08l(16'I) 40\1 (Ill) ,ua, l 7) 1 116(2 n) f(N.361 014(Oi2) 617(1681 12R(lH) ')) (2 i 8) 0,12 (16') l69 (lil) 0,11 (0 12) 311 (I 161 , ~ (I~3) I i2 (l,~)

0,'9""

l\tt.I! Fi",,""U" M(N.10) 140 (2}9) 09' (I '50) 1 8Hl 0) 660(139) 08' (J,76) o ~H I O') 0," (I 61) 110(211) 0\10(177) 30' (l~) F(N.lll 2 47(256) 0 47(1m 187(1l7) 6}4 (J,~) I II (Hili) o JlI ( U l) 0,34 (0 8)) 188(186) 029(1 10) 372(2 ~3)

""'1"'(.11"'" M(N.HI I 1)(1 7l) 068(1 17) 11l(19i) '00(1ll) O' I (J I') 174(184) 027(06)) 165(211) 093(1 46) III 12m f (N. m (I'll (110) 066 0 '501 LIO (I 43) 619(191) 031 (0811) 21'(136) 0 1'(013) 268 (2l!) 0760:16) lOO12 H )

r"", So",,, M(N.I!) 04, (0 82) o IS(O " !) 181 (127) i 91 (DO) 03li(08]) 0 4'0(4) 0()9 (0 m 100(157) 027 (091) 0 81 (l9i) f(N.I~1 0:16(11') OW(078) l00(19i) i « (l61) 039(J 10) 178(1 « ) 017(Om 1 i4 (l28) 028 (07,) 1 '50(104) -S~''''II: \1 (,~.lJ) IW(lJ7) 06HIl7) 1911226) 039(018) o U «HI) 326(20)) 096(U2) 161(117) 070(126) 114(205) F(~.)(\I 081(JH) 017(038) 192122') 000(000) 000(000) " 61(207) 019(On) 3890 m 017(0 ~') 108 (J 6')

0"", ~I \~'. ,HI 26' (l}6) IHll53) 161 (J l-4) 1}9 (l 96) Oill(08!) 387 (146) 170(197) "81(1'11 014(l13) 119 (1_04) f (~' • .f01 107U19\ 01100141 01\6,1 'I) 1 8(l (1 1'8) 018(0118) " 45 (Ill) 060(101) ")1(191) on (1.)8) 188(21 ~)

"M~

.... b !ol()i.191 10"16~) 137(J711 J~(2m 08HI1~) 021 (0"1) 016(OJll) 0190fll) 1 II (l :16) 0"(116) I 16 (1118) F ~,.)fI\ OIlIOW o 92 (l <46) 191(1311 019 (0 &:I) Oli(049) 0)1(1 m 075(116) 091(1 Jl) 011(0'1) 062 U (2)

~ .. MI.';. W I )JU06) 000(000) 0" (I (8) 000(000) 008 (019) 025(04') 3.n(l9J) ~ 54 (I 50) 061 (I 50) 0 42(116) F,).:·ljl 1l5U()91 000(000) 000(000) 000(000) 008 (019) 000(000) ]00(191) )" (H1) 061(1ll) 063(172) --

T ..... I I

«OfII"'Wd)

T"'JI'I l _ _ (SDl Sd/·RLpcrrrd .f-. .. ", ~'" '''''' ~ ~M "" "'" ...... "'- M(N.28) () III (I 19) ln018\ 1)(1 (111) 1 01 (I 49) 0)1 (Ion 1 14 (1511) 0)6{06e) 286 {I 69) '18(1 4n 118(1.)9)

ffJ/.24) o JII (0 11) 121 (l m 142 (11) 0~(078) o l\I (086) 1 (oJ (Z lJ) 017 (04B) 346(221) 6)) (!)1) 108 ( I :I9) ~ .. M(N·1 4) 1 79 (l1Kl) 2 14 (l '18) 064 (1)(11 079(148) 019(10n 1 )(1(114) 029(061) 41 4 (27 1) 6.79 (\ III 06'1(1 )9)

f(N·a) 140(110) In(219) 007 (026) 1 ()()093) 0110(114) ! 80 (He) 0670 III 467(2n) 693(l n) 027 (O.:I9) ,.,,"'" ~ M, M(N.IS) 200(20<1) 17)(1191 4 20 (no) 080{U2) 0}J(1~) 240 (2 26) 121(179) 471 (B8) 100(20) 0 3(119)

r (_ .... 1') 140(lm 220(l~) 107 (296) 067(118) 117(219) 221(2'S) 1 47 (l :16) 6 ()() (196) 69) (1 :Ie) )40011) .... Corn<""" M(~'·m 112(171) 040(1001 164(l23) 06)(121) o 20 (0 )(1) 2 )6{25l) 0.:16(11)1) j l)4 (246) 0'2(096) '1)1(1,71)

F ()J. )7) 0'9(101) o l2 (O~l) )97(Bl) Oll(O'}) 000(000) 276 (2)6) 008(018) 181(103) o lHO 82) 'OH2.24) _'it" oj u,.., ~1 (N. 20) 160(164) OIO(()m 21'(187) 020(0'2) 01'(0 49) 290(240) 010(l~) 185(116) 0,20 (0,52) ),80 (1 8')

F (N.H) 1 JH16') 014(089) 129(17)) 1) 26 (0 90) 044 (1 46) 297 (1 96) 062 (I))) 268(182) 0 1'(0:16) 447 (19n

CtO."," by "'~l'\ . .............. , ANGE ......... _ (fIlS • '-1_. DISG. ~. EMil.'. • [Iobo,,_. f EAR . f .... HAP!' • 'I>ppinI". INlt . I ... mo., SAD!< • §odnc., wv • ,,-_lot). lI.m • " .... Hot ... "'" J,oI) 0.-</ _ on .. (_, __ SooIt, II; N~ 11lIIII1. ..... . ..... "'-!Jot c-.t,. _ ... (Mom., ......... fIe~.

,_" """" ... c;.v,..II~c-dy_ICabp-, 199/>', ,,_ u.... "_1.00< b It. ~1~_-" _ UoI<CanItr. _. ~ "do _ .. 2(01), ~ .... ' -..-4 ..... "' .. (tWoon" .... I\II!IlI.(.-.I_.v.-_ ..... _,.".....1Sp<oa' . .....,."A" b ........ 'JIII7)._-....._~ __ <10& f>o< .. i"M<f>. "1\'. '..... • ........ _ A .... ·'"_ ... _,n- &. F ........ !9,n_ fooo Soo'J")'. L<fSo'J"l'· s.r,.., ... """ ("",-oIhW n-J.~ .110<~ a., ~ .. ,..".., ~,,,,,"",k. 1_' ,-.._.01"",.... -...... , __ Is.-. I.>t. 1Ioo-."tIaMw. '"I).$D..Io .......... ~~ ....... _.~Il<MII._'1 lI"'o1tno1o s..m- .. "" ... ,It.ordN.-,. 1901). 110<0-,. rIM 0-, a., -" dJlncbthun.o..l" 1.<IIudII. 19"1. t..1CIoc. 110< t..Jaoc 00II __ ..... (-. ....... ,,_. 1-' _ ...... _ ...... l'Ioa""" _oIm_ </WI1< (T ...... " H_, 11)00\, c.--.c.-- 0.. AFoU_""" _(lMMw "1tJ-. 19"1. Stoof'-- .s..tf '-- t.u.o .. "_,,,. 1'_ '-..-. _, I.- "",n ,_\

N71U''"''''''t T1>c", a", a number of film d,p' 'M "'hably elici. ,.ponsof .muSl:m<:m .nd associa .. d l:Kial signs •• uell ... .,ultng and bugh'ng behavio< Two of tbe f,lms W< cum'ntly Itt<>mml:nd ""re comedy Sl:gmen" y.ltdal«l,n Gross .nd ~~fI5(m (1995) . We also i"""Cnl ""hrullion d.talor two new f,lms. Cosby. and Whos< Lirn:" II. Anyway? ... Anger 15 one 01 tbe mon: d,lfltult emotions to elicu ""'h film cltps. S.vtral ftSl:.rct.. .. ha~ had ftponedd,fftcultyehe"­ing high b,,1s 01 ftpon«langer(e .g .. Grass&:l"".nsoo. 1995; Ph,hppot. 1993). M~r. films d"'gned 10 ehdt anger SUt .. of,en tum wt '0 ehd, • blend 01 ""V'"'' em<>­tions. includong ",I.ted ...... such as diSgust and sadne .. We prestn, <Lu.a for ,wo reasonably 5U«CS.Sl'ul :mger lilms, My Bodygwrd.nd Cry frwlom, winch ~ .. around them<:< of injU<litt. Although "'. w<1com< funt..r .ffons to develop anger mm •. w< ",-,pea that film pra<;<duK>." a' a d~_ van .. ge ",Iattve '0 techniqu« ,hot induce anger 'hrough u"erpersonal si,uations (. g . con/eden"< Of .... n .. 1 mten.C_ lton), p<:rhap< h<cau« anger "qu,,", high ~I.of .,.""",.1 engagemen, andlor imm<:diacy that .re d,fficult '0 ach,cvt WIth. film.

V;'9"'1

Several f,lm. T<iI.bly d,,,11 "'pon. 01 dl58U" and as<o<:'at«l /aci~1 sign<. such as grimacing T"'o of ,he dtsgust fIlms "" curren,ly T<commend we" , .. lid.,«1 in Gro<:s and l""n"", (199~). We .Isopr=n, vahdatoon da ... IOf on< new I,Im. f"", Sorgo'']. whICh depict< surg.c:ol ,nco<ions made '0 ,he boI,om 01. ra, .. n, ', loot -For 15 .Iso. d,rrK"UI, "'lC4>Ofl '0 di<:ot I.,th him chps. A> ,,,'h .nget. f ... mm. ,end.o dtei, a blend of emot'ons (. g. in­""''', tem'on) FmthetmQrc, I ... ",muh ,ha, produc. ro_ oo".xp< .... nee rtpo"' hlvt had of'~n d,"'ppom"ng dle<'l' on beha",or andlor phY"ol~ (Rottenberg, K2«h. (,al., 100l). MorWYt •. "" ha,,, found ,h'l ,ht fear film.lhol "" hl," piloted are accompant.d by <ubstam,,1 V'nder dlf­lerences on ,he urge' ,mOllon (h'gher T:l'm8' for wOmen th.n for m~n) Wi,h ,ht'" ca,,~.lS. "'e recommend lwo fur him.

Nrul,a/

A> w< I",.., work<d ,,"nh f,lm d,p""''''' lht y ..... . ,,'e I"",e bt<n IncIu'ingJy ,mpre-.l by the htterogene"y of -neu ­,rol" ... c'''gory. We h"" d<"~loped ',,"0 rnatn types 01 rl<ull31 f,lm d,f"'. whkh ""gh, be ,~.med plain "r""~I.nd pI.a","! "",',~I The plam neu'ral 'YJl" of f,lm d,p p"""ok .. '''r} louie ",,,,,ion «pon 01 .n)' k,nd It i.ue"'phf"d h}' .n ahstr.oct ,,,,,,,1 dlSplay "\len fro", a SCItt" saw. d,Sf'Ia)' 00..-1m., <ie5(nbed m (jT<l6S.nd lc>'enson (1995). This mm d,p

has ,ht advan,ag' of .Iiming lillie repoll 01 emoIion. It has 'M d,sadvant.ge that ",th long (or muillple) pr¢S<nu'ionS of ,hts f,lm ehp, participants tnlty someum« rtport fttling 'nn<>yro or hOled for Ihis T<ason, "" ha,'< developed. S«:­

or><! 'YI'" of neul",1 f,lm ,hat is mort pl .... n' in htdonk .one (e .g., ,hc;ts low levtls of conten'"",n'). A good ,x~mplor of • pi ..... ", neulnl him chp i. ~Ii, which depic'S naru,. """"'Y. animals, and uphfting m'-""C, W. now ra"", this'J'P< ofmm for l'I">O<l Jl"1'Jl'O«Skg .. our t....line) h<ca".. 11 " ""U IOr..TlI,.d by pantdponlS, n i. re!a.oung, and i, fuUy e"gag'S panieipan .. ' allen,i"".

~

We have also had success eliCiting reports 01 sad"" .. and as.so><:ia,.d focial st~. such ... n upturned inner tyebrow ond ,..rlul"" ... One f,hn w. eurrently rtCOIn"",nd, Thr Dlamp, depicts. death ""' .... 11 ... as ""Iida,ed 'n G ..... and ~~......, (1995) and has been u,.nsivtly uSl:d ( •. g., G,O$.$ <l aI., 1998). w •• oo pre«", v,lid.tion data for Iwo ""w films. Lioo. King and R,n.m 10 ~k

SUrpriK Desp,te rela,,, .. ly good .grttmen, among emotion restareh­... tN'f>Urpri'" i •• n ''''''''lOn, ,here has ~ rcl .. ",,!y httl. ....arch on <urp""'. One cons,de,..,ion in "ud)'lng "'rpoi« i. Ihat i, h .. dist,ncl temporal pro.,.n,...-namdy rop,d <>n><t .nd off ..... In IK! , " .. ,u<p<C' .ho. fohns 'hat .liett rt­pons of ""pTi'" (Including ,he tw" we rtC"mmend) ehcit at mO<! only. few second. of 'hts emotion T1>ctefore. car~­

lui dal' ex'r.>elTon " • c,;ucal """" m ,he "udy 01 .urpn«.

SpK;or-PtHpo~ F;Im Stimuli

w. hal" recommended . number 01 emOU"n folm chps ,ha, ... .., endorse '" ef1.c'\l~' .Ioci,ors of .el., .. ·.1y discre" .mo­ltonal Sl ..... Al the same nme, we 'hink " i. c"'teal f'" 'M ro.1d to conu"u. 10 d""lop .moHon stimuh Ihat ,hcIl OIlter kmd. of affcc'"" "a'«. Thts" appropnate btcau", many 4"""i"'" .bot .. e"'OIion'T< best probed ""h him st,muli ,ha, .T< hIghly ,,,,I,,,.d '0 on,,,,er 'hem. I:", • .<ampl •. "'e ""Ieome en"n' w general' st,muli ,h.t mdue< mixed <m<>­nona! "a'" kg .. b",.""...,,; Do You Rtrnrmi><. loYd, broad ... gau"" Sl.te, kg .. Hiroshima; Butler e' .1. , 2003), or "",I_ b'ing e"'ot,on,1 "., .. ("'. F'gur. I.' for an example of .n amuSl:m<:n, ·sat!ne<.<-amu<cmcn, "'Gu.nee Sud Magnolia,).

Th .. Futu", of Emotion ElidUllon U. lng fUm Clip.

him dips 'T< tlOW-3nd w,1I colltin"" '0 ht---..n lmponant ,,,,,I for d,mmg <mOl,on Tfl 'h, 10000"""1)' A. ,he scienuroe d.,.t.... concernmg /tIm, <xpand., r ..... "'h.." ,,~II ha," many "ppotlU""lC' '0 use Itl'" d,p" '0 I,,'rn ''''' ... bo", ~mOlIon ticre ..... hlghhgh'th'tt dt"""""'" 'hat ","'h'nk ,,",II shal'" the future OJ>(' of 1,lm'

I

12 [mo'"" E\k;,otion

Use of Film. 10 Siudy Affe<tive Ch.ono",",' ry

The dynami>m 0( films" \'Itll ><lap''''' 10 studying 'ht unfold· ing of 'ht <molion """vdO<Tll """. n"", ... it .. "",nil~.d;n <><;h <mollonal ItSponst system We I><b<ve that ~,~htr.; will want ,ocapital"" ()fI f,tms' dynam1Cquah,y '0 develop ,he <""'rging If",,,,,, of .!fen;ve ~hf()flO!nttry (o"vi<\son, 1998). Th>., \s, in oddltion 10 studits that focus ()fI ,he """",11 tnlOgn;­tude 01 <mooioru.J respons<S, n:searcht" will use films to con· du<:l studIC' '0 danly aspttts ",l.attd to tmotion's latency, nst

"tnt. du""ioo,.nd oIise1 (e.g., H."",novt" 2003. ROllmoog. Wilbelm, Cros<, &. Gotlib, 20(3)

U,,, 01 Film. t o Study Emot ional Cohfl-e nce

In . dd,tlon '(} danfying how <mOnon u"fold. IW<C. Um<, rt ... rehers nllly "ish to u'" f,lm' to clanfy tbe tngani,all"" (}I tmOliDrulI ":<PO""" . One nujo, poslUl ... 01 many con­tempo"'!,), theori .. of emOHon IS th.t emon"" imposts co­beRne< "".-os< multiple ,,,...,.,.. ')'Sltms (t .g" ""ptn<n.; . I, I><l\llv;oral,.nd physiological) Smprismgly. lew <tud~ ha, .. '<:<ltd 'hts COR hypothtsis .• n<! !host ,hat h."" dOl><"" have )'lelded mixed «sul,., In FlguR 1.5, "'< d .. play du. f,om 3 ~n' study of6(l womtn who vitwed a 5-minu .. hIm clIp <onsIructed lrom segments d.-..wn lTOm Sur! Mo>gno/;",. Stg­menlS";'" sequene<d5O OS to "Wt .musemen" 'hm ... d· ne .. , tbr" .musemtn!. Th,oug.hou, the film ,,;. ... 'ng pt"oo:I, contlnU"... ""' ...... 'of <m<>twn <xptnm.,<. <xp.tsSioTl, .n<! ph)'SlOlogy """rt OOu,ned in order to """mi,... lhe cond"'ons und .. which "'porI" cohe"nct" ""tkn' (M.~ ... U,Vtn­SQIl, ~kC.ntT, & Groo.s, 20(5). As .. ",dtnt f.om Figure I 5, beh.,,,oral, expt'itnllal. .nd ph)",ologic,1 responding WCR .11 con-dated dunng ftlm "c", ngs, but 'h' Co.,<1""",,, lx'", .. n I><havioral .nd '"ptritnlial ... pons< system, .... ". high .. ,h,n ,h. <o,,<I.,ion, be,w«n ei,ber of ,h ... an<l ph)"lologtcal «."""clmS' In lu'ure wo.k, tl ",II be Impo.· ",n, '0 emplo)' hlms 10 study 'mOl'On coner.nce m <>tbe. <ampks ""tymg In ago: .nd menl31 he.I,h.

U.e 01 Re late<! O)In~m;< Pre .entatlon T""hnofogie.

W. ctlfltlnu< to be <:>«:ited b>,- m. .-me'!l""'"t 0( .. lated d)'l\:mnc p .. "",,'U"" '~hl\Ol.>g><:< ,ha, ",II <xpand ,be rtpcn"''' t>f .mOllonal stl",,,1; ,h .. can be p",,,,,,,d to p.HlC'p;lnl. I'.,hal" mo6l not.bIe" ,h. emtTg<OC< of W"""'n" p"""n­'"'>On technol<>gl<s such .. "n",,1 ... hty, whICh .11"" • PaT' h",,,,,,,, '0 '"'0,><:1 wnh Db,," ... rtd <>the. ind"'Mluab .. ;th,,, "<lmub,cJ cnm""men' ,ha,,, prc,",,«d In J-d,me,"'ionJl <omp"'" gTaph",. (I.oo""s, BI.scO\ieh, & ik.lI, I mi. Fur· ,hermor •. ,he" m .. "",,;, .. '<chnol<>gl<'< ",;11 I>< •• m[o,etd by ,he dn't!opment of In'crnct·ha..cl d"pby.rtd rnlln~ p.IJl"· du ... 'h:u ",,-,11 allow ....... chers 10 roIl«t b,gt. ,.",,,,n" 0(

",,,,,,('It' da, •. The u" of ;n'erne,,,,c '~hnolo&it. WIll ,It'''''' <xpl"","on of ''''my aspee" of <mollon ,ha, "'" dLfftc,, " '0 probe "·,,h.n em<>t"m fIlm (c g, II>< dh" 01 "notl"" on

Panel A

, I:::::::=;-;:;:-:;·:;;;'*;;~;;--------l --, -----

Panel B , - _. , .... .. - .. -.--, ---.... _-

.~

'I~ .. . . ' .

0 • . . - . .. . . .... . • , ' .... _ .. _1>1._)

Figure 1,5, Cohtrtnt:t bc'Wttn <"""ton "''''''' .. '»«"" dunnt.n .musmt·>ad·.mu,,"& film "'ql'<n«

mu'ual gaz<). A, tbe sam< lim<, prrtl"ly I><cau" of Htom' hIghly su.nd."J.ittd.rtd nonlnl<r.><t".., qualtt)', w< ... confl' den' ltu' film .... ,11 "on'm"" to h., .. on . bidmg ""II,y In ,I>< 1,.ld, even as nov.1 <motIon ch<ll"'on "chmqoes"", ",fIned

Ap pendix : VHS lind DVD InUruction. for <: ...... tln9 Emotion Film.

This Opp<OOlX conl3lm lnf""".llion :!\>oul cre,tmg 12 0( O\J'

rt{'(Xf\mendetI fthns. ~ lost 0( ,h<se 'Umtt li '",''' Jt."tloptd f.om full.length ("",,,,,,m.l 1\lms. all 01 whkh art <umfl'''' ",-"t ,hie m ,,<leotapc Of DVD 10"",,' for ,)tc<e comm ..... ",l f,itn,. " .. ha, .. p'",idcd ,\e13I!e<1 fr:t.mt edning mSln ... ,>On. fOl'CTc" mg,be"'m< cxtttpt 'h'" """l'al",,,,J lIl,hlSth"JlIt! F<>< ,host of you who ha,,, «I Lllngcqulpmtn,. "" rut, .. p""idcd pltti« "nung inlon"""()fI m 1<"", 01 hours. mlnu,,,,, _onJ., and lrame. H you ho" ... conwn1,,,,,.,l VC~ 'hat ,,,,,,It> lU .... m hours, mmu'",. and _ond,. )~ ... t"n use 'he ","-,n'tt"" yom VCR '0 local,,1>< "<''I''']'' ,he ""'= ",mo,L ."d. If ~ "bl,·. )'<l<l con uSC Ihe pau,", ",,-,,Ie.1ntI Iron'''' 3(h ... tICt to locatt ,lit."""" f"nn<' (ther< are 30 fm""'" pt. ><cofl<l,n \~lS INTsc'] forn"" 1 In 'C<"&"lt1Ol'l that our f ... k! " 1",omLng more ,11£",,1

I

:and compuler bastd, we ha~ >Iso mduded fnml< «llting in_ 5Iruclions (in par=t~) for film< that an: rurrtntly .,.;>iublt in DVD fOlllllll , I[ )'OO"''luipnl<nl does no( ha .... this kind of liming capabillly,)'OO ""Ii r..w to U5t a 5Iop watch. In ony e""nt . ..... t rttC><tIrn<nd trun you lollow 00' «liltng instructions 05 do.dy ;os possible. b«:ausc Teul""ly small emting , .. riations = f>I'J'lu<t somewhat difftrtnt ttnOlional 'CPOIIS

Som< 01 lho: IlIm 5Ilmuli >Ie dem'«l from nonoommcr­cial SOurcc,. Th<;t or" ,,",il.bk 'or do .. "IClOd as ""'td.

Am .. ",m" nl Film.

HQ,f}'

Film; 11',"", 11o,'] MtI s"lIy Targel Clootioo "muse"",nt dip kngth; 1'33'

In5lnt(1iotI~ Advonce 10 tIN: first I",,,,,,. in ..... hkh on cldtrl}' couple is vi .. bk (th. flrst..:ene .ft.r tho: OpOling CTed,t-<). Rc"'t 'he li""t to 00.00.00:00 (hours.nunuru;,"",onds f ... mes). Begm tIN: dip 11 00 :42:39:19 (00;44:49: 17). Atlhi. point,. mon and a "",man ... siuing in. ,"5IOU"''''. Th. chp begm, fI, .. f ... m.s alter lh. camera angk .witchQ from o view of tilt man:and woman .. tIN: tablt to .......... (ov~, tIN: man's shoulder) of the ""' ..... n fixing the sandWIch on her plait .nd "ylng -You know, I'm so g./ad 1.-.."., got involved Wlth roo " End the chp at 00:~3: 15: 12 (00;47:15:07). At thIS pmnl. an old<r W<)Iruln wr.o ""rd.nng he. ""01 h .. JUSl 53id Til h." ...... h .. she'. having.-

Robin Film 1Wbi" Will",,,,, J.jVt

T .rget emotl"": Amusement Cltp length 7':;9"

I""",,,,,,,,,, Ad"''''''e approx"n:lIei)" I mm,,'" mto the film, 10 the po"'l at "'hich lhe co,,,,dlan Ii", COI",,"""to ,he "'ge \\lhcn ,he atm." .. ,,,,"che< from a"",,' 01 II>< auJim(~ (a wOman .. dQC<ndmglhe .... rsto he, "")'Otl>< hrst ftame 0/ a clost-up 0/ the ComcdWl"'Or<o and htad, reset the nmtr 1000:00:00:00 (hours minut •• . ....:<>nds·rr."".). Begin the d1p" 00:03. 13'01 At ,hIS point. ,h. canl<'" !u.s ju" IOO\"J from. hack v"' ... 01 'he comed"n to. lront v\~w 01 h,m .. h' looks down >l hi. cup of ,,'>l" I'nd Ih. cftp at 00: II II 10. A, th" point, the comcJ"n !u.s JUSl..,d, )..,..'r. ""lithe .. I" 1nd the Cl""rn ha,gotl< '0 11\ uppet-ookony ,,.,w of lhe theallt End the dp 73 frame, .Ito. Ih. came", has gone to the upJ><r h. kon)·

Robttt SIKJrt ($hO<1 -""" 0/ v~lidJted film clip)

hIm' ROOtn William> U,'< Target emOllon AmU>emtnt Cltp leng,h )'2 Y

In""""on,' Adv.nc< 'ppro"motelr 2 n)lnUlts into ,he fllln, '0 tho point"t ",hi<h lhe "" "",It.'" fIrS! COnI<. on'o ,he "'"!\<

'When the camtr.l .wi.chts lrom. ,'iew of th •• udi.""e (. woman ~ ok"".ndmg the 5I.irsto h.r ""t) to the lirst fram. 0/ a close-up of the corned .. n'.I""", and head, r<>et ,he Hmer '000.00.00 .00 (hou"·minu"s."",OI"IdsJ,,,mcs) il<:gm the clip al 00'06 t 1 '01 At lhi. poinlth. com.dian is holding. cup of wat ... nd ",.pping off the "'p wllh hi. righl fOOl, saying ' I'm fill< now " Stop Tecordingot 00.08:00:01 At IhlS poin'"he rom«lLm !u.s JUS! talked .bout a dog who 53YS. "IV. ju" Itamed to lick my own g.nitals. Ie.,,, me .Ione! Don't do lhi. to mel' The cam ... h ... ",;tched to. f ... _y shot from the upper balcony Stop r«<>nImg .. ,hi. point. 26 I",mts tmo th •• hot hom the upper bakony. ju., bela .. the com.d,an says, -And your dog. ' Begin recordmg at 00:08:5 I 12. At thi' point, the comtd",n has ht$ """,'h open. his hud .ltghdy back .• od his kft h:",d open. Begin ,"",ord· ing 17 framQ Ixlore ,he comedian closes his h. nd, jllSl Ix­fo .. he says, "And you' .. Insid. "oned going, 'Oh God help me now!- End the dIp" 00: 10:'5-6; 19. A, this point, ,I>< eO­mtdian h.as jUSl said, "hi.lo« ,urn, Into > ch« .. burger, you lung.t" and lower.d hi. arm •• nd lookrd .Iightly off to hi.

", Anger Film. -hIm: My Bodyguard

Targtt <motion Angel Clip kngth. t'{l6"

Insr",CI;""'. Ad".ne< to tit< fit" fmm. '" which a growing <:trrular lorm has ,h. word. -~tagne'''' Video' wn"en undrr It in lull R''''t the lltll<r to 00 00:00:00 (hour<:mlnu"" """"d.:frnmes) B<gm the dIp" OJ 11:23:0'5 (01 11' I ~:O]) At IhlS pmn!, Iwo tn.n art ,;.iblt. one "'<3tmg a red .. "k ,op .nd the oth .. ",<onng an .,my jach, A f1ghl ,. .bou' 10 begm. x-.· ... I p<opl< 'r< In .h. b.dg,ound, including. blond -h.lted boy In tht 10,,"" ngh. "hand corner of the sen"n Il<gln the dIp al,he It", "'me In whIch lhe blond­hatred boy'. hand (ove .. hooh hIS mouth ,nd n".. End th. dip" 01 Ib:29:17 (01 Ib·20'1O). A. 'hI! pOint, > man J""""d In. gray mUK k .h,n and black ""rot> i •• xillng the ",.tIt . ... ;,h ,,« •.• "".11. "tid. ftnce m the b:.ckground Th" Come"wo f",m.s before> .h", of. man ,,"h • bloody nose on.1I fours

Cf}"'udom

FIlm: Cry Frudom Towt.mOllon: Ang.r ChI' length 2':}6"

Instruction,: Ad",,,,,. to the point .. ""hleh "Cry f,,,,,dom- i, typ<d 3<"'" 'he sereen ,It Ihe f",;, frame m whH'h the 'm' 1> '·!Slbl., "'«, ,he 11m .. to 00:00:00:00 (hours·"nnu .. , .. cond.lra", .. ) Il<gm.he dIp" I It 36:11 (02 25.56:07). II. thi' poi"', the .. IS a .h tftlrom. ,'I(W of prot .. "" m lho: d,,,.n« to • d".._up of • bald g,,1 wi' h .• pink skin and a

boy cro<singj"'t '" front of t..r fkgin tt.. dip '''tn tilt f,,,, fro"", of thi, close-up. Stop r«<>rdmg at 2:15: 16:07 ((\2'26: 15:05)_ Atthi, poinl, 0 boy in a dark I\"'y sw<:oter i. jump­ing up .nd down, Stop recordlT\g at tt.. last from< in which he is vis;bk lxfore tl>< co."", ... slllllS to tt.. two groups 01 ptolest.", joining onto Oflt group, fkgin rttoT<:lmg at 2:25 32:06 (02 :26:32 :(6)- This ts tl>< potnt at "'hkh ,ho """"' .. • ",itct..s '0' virw oItt.. th, .. groups 01 prot ....... who hay., just jom.d into one big g.oup th .. is ad"ahCing SI .. ight to­w.rd tt.. co. ........ . Elld tt.. dip", 2' 27 '49 : 10 (02:28:~9 : 10) At this poInt .• rnan in. <;;Ir has just shO! • boy ",ho "'as runnmg away. Stop rtco,ding .ft<r the boy fall •. at the first I .. "", in whkh he is romple<ely >1111

Diogu,! ~ilm,

P;n~ Flomingol

Film. Pink Flamin8'" Targ« emOlion: D>sgu>I ail' length_ 0'30'

I""",(fi""" Adv. nce 10 the fi.SI from< in wh",h the word. "D, .. mbnd Studi",- .re ",,,bl. Wllh a ",obil. ho ..... bthmd them ReS<t the timer to 00'00:00:00 (hou", :minutes: ,,",ond. f .. "",.) Iltgin the clip at 1:31 :00:06 (1 :3 US-I J) At thts pomt, thr« prople h.,,, just Sttn • wo",.n walkIng her dog. They !:>tgin tOsml1e and hck tho" lIps, The dog 1"",­,'" its hud towards the ground sl ightly Btgm r«o.dong 2 >tcond •• nd n Imm« (82 Imm«) ,Iter tlx c. m<r.o .Wltch« from .close-upol tht wom,n to thtdogdd=tmg. End ,he dip", I .31 :38 00 (l :31::loB Ill. "'tthts potm. tht """"'n has her tffth together in a smIle al'er h.,;ng Slu<k her tongue "'" (Th,. is a lillie more th.n • ....,ond btfo,. "n", end" appe''''_)

Itmputation

FIlm Noncommcr<,,1 .urge.y fIlm Targe' emOlion' D\.guSi Clip length 1'02"

Film av"lable lor downl",d "' hup:llwww.co •. u.f.d ... ])Sydtologyif3CJOItenbe'g) htlll

~ear ~ilm ,

Shining

FIlm T~( S!1ining hrgetemOOlon: F.,. Cllpkng'h: 1'12"

In<lo"t,,,,,,: Ad",n« to til< fi'" fm"'" of ,Ix film. whIch shows a 1>0<1)' 01 """'er OUITOLlnd,d by mountam" R."" the tin",. 10 00 00 00 00 (hours minULt<.s<coodd .. ",,,,,.) &!')n t)", clip", 00:~:51 I ~ (00:57.0):011). A, thi' p<lmt. a hoy', h"nd, .... ,,,,hk (on< A., 00 the lloor an,) the other in • I,,,}

n.. .. are loy troeks .nd C • .,on a ",d, brown. and otang< ""'l"'t . End ,he clIp" 00:5-8: 12: IS (0058:2~.0 I) . Al thlS point. an open door with a It,y in the lock is viSlbl<. and one full ""cond "os passed SInce the boy has $:Old "Mom, or. you in 'I><rel"

Lamb:!

F,lm-SUm«c{Ih< IAmbs T "rget emotIon: Fa' aip kngth 3'29"

I""",,/iolu' Advance to the first fro"", 01 the film in "'hkh Ih. words "A STRONG HEART DEMME PRODUCTION" .ppear. Resetth<: "met to 00:00.0000 (hours:minUleS stror<IsfromtS) fkgin the dIp at OJ ~ 16:29 (OI40560i). At th .. POlO', • d,n rood and lr ... are in ,he f""front and a mint "",en ltailer is in lhe backgro""d Stop recordmg .. OI:~) :H : 23 {OL44:14-IOj . At thIS pom', ,It< profile of. darlt -hat .. d \VOntan is visible, n.. .. is. m<t.l wi .. hanging lrom tl>< "ding tltatappea", to .Im(><l (OOt not '1uite) touch het nOS< .nd chin &gm r«o,ding.! OJ '16:36:14 (01:17 16:0 I). At thIS point, hands holding a gun are movmg rap· idly imo tit< .,,."" from tit< right of th' "'lttn In ,he back­ground. there '-' dlny y<llow wallpaper. End 'he chp .. 01 :46:38: 19 (01 :47 lS·Oll. AI Ih,. point. t It< dJtk-Ita",d woman has It<, back to tt.. )"JIow ","Upaper .1Id has pointed her gun I><twcen the upper mIddle and ,h. upper right­h.nd portions of the ",r<en He. nght hand obscures m"" of th. left hall 01 her lace .nd we he.r her excl.,m., the hgh .. go:> out

Neutral Film.

FIlm Noncom"",m.1 ",rffn ,,"'or Target,mo"on. N.utl"' .. 1 ChI' leng,h: 3'26"

)M"U(I""'~ FIlm ,,· .. I.ble to. downlood " hup IIwww.r.s usl. ed"'psycholog) ,if ",,_rottenlx rllJ ht m

v.,no/i

film "Alasb', W,1J o.:""h" TargetemOl1on Neu!ml Clip I~ngtll ~'02·

J"SlIWI","' ~esctlr.. """'t to 00.00 00·00 ",hen tlo. CrtJilS lor ,Ix ... laskan producuon company come up_ /kgin 'he dip at OO:J3'2R'00 (OO:H 15:00). ri~h' .he' , J'C,son pbys a gu"" St.n.< the music is",11 pt')"lOg .nd faJmg.nd the vi.",,1 is. "Ihollelle 01. nwun'.m .nd 'h< mldmght .ky; the n ... ,'or lalks aoo'" th. "1:t5hn 1~ldntght sky. Fnd lit. chp.t 00:).8.30 00(00:38: 17 00). At 'hlspom'.~ buck "<01lOg Itllt. ~ .. «n, and th.,. "a shOl 01 a mountai " >I,..m

I

n.~

Film. TIlt ChcImp TOfl!l"ttmOlUon s.dness a,p Itngth 2'51'

'""",,110M: Ad""nct pool ,he mk. -).ttuo-GoIdwyn· M>.yf" Pt...,nu: 10 lhe"1St Inn'>( in which ,be mit is no Ionl!l"' ..ts.blt ~"IM: " ..... 10 00 00-00-00 (hou",;mm .. ,C$: ....,onds {"''''u). kiln .he clop at OIW 29 02 (Ol 5i 2l 0 L) Allhis point, a bour IS II''"' on a l.bI. on • locker laom Tho bon, ")'5 ·Whore's my boy?'" Anothc, rnan .... _n, "He's rlgh. hue " Be"" I'tcord,n& as. blon.d­.... ,ml bo)r _Ib OIl. 01 a da,kly II! .rca, JU5l before you hta,d .. boxer osIc ~rt'smy boyr forlhcblot 1I1nt. Stop ,,,,,,,,din,Of 0 150 52'05 [0 L ,... ~5,20) A, .h .. po,n., . hc bont says "TJ " and tlltn says. Armie ,,~he •• toniv.,. TJ_ ' Seop recording .he. he .. )'5 "Tf 1M brlor. he .. ys • Annie wn hellO ,on;"'" TJ' Begm ,ecord"" .. 0 1 51:56:H (01 .55 ,...01) fltgin rtCOfd'''i imm(dia.tely b<:fort tht child says "Yeah Thcckamp .Iways«>mes ,hrough -" Stop ,«ordong.1 01 .52:26-0-4 (0 I )6' lS-20). Al ,his pomt, tho bour has J .... c1os<d his eyes ond died Begin '«OTding .. 015315.21 (01:57-1):15) Allhlspo'n'.w • ....,.5i<kvi."" olth. d • • d bo •• r Iylngon ,h.,.blt. The C.m.n tl><n g<><s 10 II>< boy who is $landIng III from of. ull man Only ,he ""n'"on<> i, visible. tte Is ~aring. 'owel Ofoond his n/:ck • nd Is holdIng ,he boy', shouldtrs, The boy i, crymg .nd sayIng. -e .... mp· End ,he dip .. 01 " II 0) (01 ~9 08:20) A, IhlS po,nl. ,''' boy .. cryin,. saylng'l w.n' Chomp' Tht man .eplie$. -Ntaso. TJ . hSltn 10 mt tit', gone tit', """,. JOn It ... ,one' T'" child. Still cryrng. .0pllCS. 'No No. Ite'. IIQI gone he', nOl .... ·s IIQI • s...", '«oromg", II>< In .... In ,.hich ,he boy batk$ aw:ay I.om

'M m>n

~u.-prn.. film,

Cop,",,"

FIlm Capnc .... 0I0t T "'rFle"'OhOn Surpnso a,p length 0'49"

1""",,1ims. ~ 10 the ~.,. In .... In wluch tht ",unk "Sor IkwGrU ........... OR """* ~ ,he rIMe!" 100000-00-00 (hoursmmu~Irarn($) Btp>,hedlp.OI32.'loII18 (O t 13 01-(6) Allhi, po'nl. I man ,. """'g on I bed '" In "I"'"mtnl Be"n «cord,ng" ,he It .... !,..me alt .. ,lit: cam ­.... ,wllChts from a clost·up 01 the man', 1= " •• shot from d""'n 'ht .... 11 roo Ih. dIp" 01 n ~1 21 (01 33 ~ 11) At Ihl< pom,. n .. n h.".., JUSt bu.;, Ihrough 'M dooo-. Stop ,<cord,ng., Ih. I,..mt aft •• III< Ihud .~.n' ha. Iell Ih. ""r«n (from 1<1, IU righl) and 'he rn,n con be Stetn on ,II< bed

s..r 01 ("""

Film Sea oJ I.J>Y< Targ<t emotion: Surpme ail' kngth_ 0'9"

1IlSI...aK>rIs: Iu/voncc 10 lhe firOl Ira .... in which ,''' words '.0. Manm lIn:~n Prod"""ion' "no: VlSIbII: ReS« ,It(; II ..... '000:(»00.00 (houto:minUlH.J«OIIdsJ ... ma) 8<1'" ,he d,p" 01 19-~U (I 1916-0\) Allhls point •• rnanlw golWt out 01 ... eltvzoar and be&un walklng down ,It(; hall .oward an un door. Btgm ~tn, .. "',ums the tom< • •

.. lhe f,.. .... in ",IUd> he fi .... ,ums his bock comple,ely ,0 ,he WI and is IooIung'ow:ard tht left. End lhe dip .. 01 19 ' 16;00(1 19.3'-03) AI ..... poonl,tho IaMb".! Iwjust f\own out 01 ,...,..

An<knon, C. A_. 0<110<1. W E .. &: O<NCft.IC 1.1 _ (1<19,) ItOl ,.mp< ... u .... !>w,1t .fIeet, !>wilt <"","ion .• OO lrousal T .... 01 • 5<"" .. 1 model 0I.1it<" .... ogs:resoion 1't.-..l1lJ """ So<oal ~ iIIoUcn., 21. 4:H-'l48

""'<rill.J R. (1969). "u,onomk tupanl< p"".nu du.l", sad ....... 0<1 RI1llh, I'sy<~, 5. )99...41 4

Bonz. G .. Roodtr, P. (WIl,,,,). &: eam<l<lw. E (Prod"" .. ) (1970). HlrosIIi"",.N"I"~. "'lIP" J!H5 IMOIton pic<uftl Uni .. d Sta,.,: Til< VKko l'ro;.<1

1I< .. ",boum, It_, &: WIlli ..... , M (l99~) Ptroon.I", and <1,,,,,,,,,,,,1 '''<li'''', . .1<* ..... of ~"h I. Per_III)'. 29 . H-:H

Bcn. ... , G. It (191;11) M~ or><! .... ...",. ....... "'~. ",,..""""'11. J6. 129---146

Brans<:otnbo, N Il (196') WON 01 """"'" ... Itnc. orod phy>tnIopc:al._1 on ."""ion A coml"'''''''" 01,_ ,hton-r"",1 P<ISJ"C"_- ._"'" -.I~. 9.lH-·I69

II«~ M . 5 .. 011<,. I.. (Prodooc< .. ), &: iI<c ..... , It (Ot ........ ) n9tl9l !Cot of 1<>0< 1 __ poe,ulOl U<ul<d 500,., MCAI l..In<Y<l'$Oll_ V;doo

Butlt,. E A. ~~. B, WIIh<Im. f W .Stnllh. N c.. Entbon E A.&Gowo..J J (ZOOJ) Tht.......t<onoequmcaol ~ ... ppt , ___ l.411-67

Caooppo.J T .• &:Gar<koe •. W 1..(999) E"",,_ At" .... ~ofl'sJ<~.}i), 191-.214

CanIi. T. o.-ond,J LZhao. Z..&Gobri<k.J D (2000) Set dtli<mtoen in 'Il< ...,. .. 1 _ 01 ."""""'" .... ....... PrO<ftdoo:< of "" _ ......... , ofs.-.. of ... 1M !19. 10789--1019'1

Otnuoll J( Rr2m.lM.&~.dU D E (1004) Copt ..... and ... ural_oI <pO<I1MI«lUO lhoufttl ~ "'"", ill. I_~

G>oby. W. (Prod...,..ID"~Of) {I\I96} loll Co4oJ. hi","" 11.101.,... l*'u ... l Uftu<d St .. .,. T ......... ,h Ccruu'l' """

Dov>dson. R. J {\996) A11o:<r~.y\< In<! .1i«:.1Y< d'''' .... '' f'<r>p«o .... (rom .11«:" .. "'u""",,,,""" c.g.u,,,,,, 40J E __ , 11. 307-330

0.",,- R J ' H"'im, r . 50."". C I). Sonullo. J A 6r fnt><n, W \' (1990) App,-h·,.."hd .. "",I.nd « ...... 1

asymm<'ry' E"",,1on>1 "P"''''''''' . 00 brun f'hY"oIogy J""ma/ c! P,,,>OOOOl~, .... 50<1<>1 Ps)'l"""",,, .'i8. 3lO-~ L

o.«nbtr, 8. H .. &: Rttv<., 8 (1996)," bio-inlormarlorul ,1><Dr)' 0/ ,,,,,,,;00 MOIiort.nd i .... g< "'" .1100. on VleWe". J"''-''''] c! Comm"nilalioot, f6, 6I">-S1

o.I<nl><" 8 It .. S;,..".... R. F. <.7. St."''''', G. G. (1998), Roll ',m !' 11'< dlo:ru 0/ piau ... """""'" on ,"""iorul "'J'O'l'<' Joo,-",,] c! 8r<>o>Jr.,.;"! .... Elt"",nl< M,di.!.. 21, 112_116

o.trnb<T. 6 H .. Simon>. R. F . &: kriss, J. E. 0(00). 11'< <mo<ional 5ignifk""", of ,okrr m «kvi.;oo pt ... n,,,,ions. M..a. Ps)'<~, 2, ))I-)~'

D<v\tn, D. (Prod"""), &: B,II, T (Dir«t"'}. (1980). M, body&,""dlMotlon P;<tu",). Vni"d St ... <: Fox Hills Vid<o.

Duclo<, S. E., &: Lmd.J. D (loo l). TI>< &101><,." "",,,01 01 em()tioru.l "':pelienee thlllUf,h """,,01 01 .. p.-u;ion •. c.og.lllon ond~. 11,17_:;6

Ek""n, P. (J99~) "n "'gu .... n< lor bast.c emo<ion>. c.og.Uioon .... "-ioot, 6, 161>---200.

Ekm.>n, P., &: F.-n, W. V. (19H ). D<'ttllng d.«ption from tlot body or 10«. "",rna! <f Pc""""I,,,, .... 50<,," Ps~, 19. 288---296

Ekman , P .. Pn<><n. W V , &: "'""oIt, S (1980) Foci>l sign' 0/ e.-oo...l expen<TK< -""'mol c! Pc.,.....,J,,,, .... s..:;.d 1'»'£"""",,.39. 1l2S-1131

Epstein. S. (1963) "1W<&>,;"".nd b<yood Som< book ........ on ,I>< p",!JctiO!l o{ bt:h.viOt ]""moI c! p,,,,,,,,, I,,y. 51 , 360-392

F",drkkson , 8. L. &: Kohn<m>n, D. (1993) Dur>t"'" ""giro in "'lfospe,h", "",I"ation> 0/ .(I<ct,,,,, 'I"""""" -"'" ",01 <f P'''''''''!''y .nol5o<Wl Ps)'l"""'v. 65. 4~'1

fndlund, "'- J. (1992). Til< bt:lu.viorol «~ ,rid _ .. 10,), 0/ hu""," loc ... In M S ClOTHEd), f_.,. (pp I90-UJ) Newbury P"k. U. >OS<

Frijdo. N It (l98a). The " .... 0/ ,"""ion. A .... ri<." ""d",'o­pst. iJ. ~g...3~

frij<b. N H (1989) ..... "ll<lK <m"'ion> ""d , .. lity. AHI<ri<.n P,)'l","~", H 1~6-1 '47

Gom".n, J M., &: l<v<MO!l, R. W (l98'l A ",Iid procedUTe 10' obt.imn& ,,1I'«p"n 0/ .flw '" "",fi,,\ im"ac,;oo "",,,,,,I <f Com,lting .nJ a .. KaI "'.><Ito%:v, 13. 1~ 1 _lbO

Gross,J. J (1996). The emerging I,,/d 0/ e_ «gubt;oo' A" imeg""i"" ,,,'it .. II",; .... <f Gt""a1I~)'<","og)', 2, 211 _299

Gm .. ,J J ,John, O. I'. , &: Rlcha,d'. J M (2000) . The di...,.,\a· ,ion 0/ emot'oo "p, .. ""n Imm e,",o"o" "pt,,,nce. A per>o<ulny peT'J>«''''' ' P,,,,,""I .. y • ...J Soci<ll "'J'<1to%:v 8"11,,,", 26, 712_726

Gr-os>, J J ' &: Lt",,,,,,,,. R. W (199)). En>O!ionIl "'ppr....,... 1'hy>H>\ogy, ""II-"p"rt, ."J "1" .... ,' I><h."i(l, 1,",,"0/ <f "'",,.,.,.,J,, .... 5«101 p,)'<~, 6'1, 97~

Gr-os>,J J ' &: le>."",,,. R. W. (19'I~). E""""", ,I",,,,,,,,, u"n~ 101m, C"t""""'." f __ , 9, 67- 101:1

G""".J )..""-""",5 K. .& K<l<I .. r,T.(l99!I) R<b,ion. "",,..,.,n .11<ct al'Hl pe""""h,), Suppo« for ,he .1f.ct·ltv,"1 .nd .flt<lt'~.'''k'''''r ,,,w<. "",~.,"Ii', ",J 50< ,"1 P,)'l","~ !lull",", 2i , H9-1Rll

H'g,"""'''n , D., N.ununn, E .• M • .,., S., _k«, G .. L~,ktn A &: 8,o" ..... k. D. (1999). 11'< ...... mtm 0/ .Ilttll'~ "'a«i"'y U>lng 1,1n». V.I,d"y. ,,1"b,lll), .nci ... ,j,ff",_ <""'"' P,""""'",.nJ 1 ..... .1""1 Do(l"'''''''. 26, 6n-t; 19

II'hn, D. (I'rooo«,), ..Ilk". R «Mmk,' fl R ,nlf<clO")

(199i) . TIt< I.,. ltng (Mo<;oo pi<:twel. Unilro 5t,al<" W.lt Di>oey I"tctures:

H.rde>ly. T. (Produ«<l 0 99n. /Ja>h<', Wold 0.",,1.; Sum"". i. D .... ,,1i N.tionoI P.rI! [Mo<ion pictu«1 Untted St"", "1,,,1<0 'lid<o Postcard>.

H<"""""",,. S. H (]003) h,,j,,,;,,j,,,,1 d,ff< ... ~ ,n "" 0/ .11«1

chon&<' Stndies in .1I000i"" '"'''''''''"''ry j""",," ~ P,,,,, •• ,,h,,, .nol s..:;.d P,)'litt>l<v. &5. lll_1 J 1 I"n. ". M, Doubm.an, K. " .. &: Nowick,. G P (1967). Poo,,"'"

.flect focih"", crt.,i"" probkm «>Iving. -"",,,,,,I c! r."".,li", .nd s..:;.d "'y<~, '2, 1112_IU]

J>I<obs. ~., M.nlle.ad,A. S, R .. &- Fi$<bt:" A.!t. (2001). Socul c,""I<"l<1fw, "" r..c"1 ><I;";'y ,n. "'v-t''''' ,,,,,,,iorul ""ling. E_, L 51~

Kopn, ).. &: Soidnun, N. (1m) &,Iy c"ildhoOO p",di<tol>ol odult ''''''''Y rli''''tkl>, 1IIoI~ f'ly<Iria<,)" i6, 1536-IHI

!(,.am"., S., Lee""". "- R., l.erowt.J .. """.-gooi". P .. 8<.000,". G .• Jouben, S., <t ". (2002). Are» 01 oc.m ><Ii,ati"" in moles al'Hl lellUks dun", vi<wing 0/ .. ",le film <>c'''p'' !t""",,, B,";n Mapp;"" 16, 1-13

K .... ', I. 0995). Efloc" of>ndoo, lighltng "" n'>OO<I .nd cogni,,,,,,. J.>o,na! <f -En".""""",,", P,~, 15, 39-51

Kting. AM, & GonIoo," II (1998) 5<" Mlm:oc" in <mo<_' bpr<:S>io<t, <xpelien«. md phy>iology.1"""",1 <f P,""""ii", """ 5o<W Ps",ItoI<v, Ii. 686-103

Kubtiock, S (l'roduc«lDmClot) (1900) . !It< shi"i"ll iMotion pK1u",1 United St.,<.· WorneT Home V,deo

loc,y. J I (I %7) s.om.'K "''I'''''''' f"'",nun~ , nd >I ....

Som< '"'">tOn> 0/ ""Ii,..""" 'itroty In M. It. Appley &: R T",mbull (~d.), Ps)'lltologi<oI ~''''': h""" ,. " ... "h (PI' 1 ~-'l l) N<w Yo,k: Appk'oo·ern,ury Cml"

lond ... C. (1921) Stud",. QI em",,,,,,.1 T<><Ioons: I. A !""<lim,. .... ry "udy of (",,;.1 e.<pl"'''''' )00""') <f hp<fi,","l<l.I 1'>)'l"'"'V, I. n~~1

Lmg. r J (1918). Anxiety: T"" .. ,d. ps)'Cltoph~1 definl'ion. In H. S. Aki>lW &:W L W,bb (Ed • . ). f'I"h ,o'''' J;"~""",: bpi.,",,,,,, of~" " .. "no (pp 26~ W}) New Yotlc $p«mll"

lltng.r.J.BfMky.M M.,&:(u,hbtn,B N (1995) in""",. tionoI Afj<ctl"'- Pi<'~r< S-'""''" (IAP:S): T,,~""'01 "","""I.,.! ojJ«"",- '."'ll'- Goi""",l" FL Un" .... "}" QIIlond., ernte, I", "-<"arch In P,)'Cltoph)"'iok>gy

L""n. I':' J. &: K",I.a.ar. T. (1991) 1'<,...,,,,,I;'y.nd ,u""p"b,l­"y to pOO""" .nd ""g.a",'e e """ "",. 1 "."S. J<to ,..,J c! P''''''''')''Y " ... 50< .. ) Ps,,!rooO>g., 61. Ill-HO

!.=or.,., P. (Prod"",,). &: H)'>«I<, P (0.«(1",). (1976) GoP"'''''' o.t 1M","", pK1" ... 1 United Stat.,· C&S.'f"" V>dt:o

1.=", .. , R, S., Spe"""n, J c.. Mordkolf, A M .. « Ilm>oo. l. A (1961) " I.bo", ,",}' "udy 0/ psycltologlcal ",.". p,oduced by a """lOT! pi<'UI< him. "')~"'"~ .. .\I""", ~'"p/I" 76. 153

Id)oo<. J F (1_) Tltt ,_"""" br",,,' 1", '"'''"i,,,,, ,Mtrpt""'''!'' of '_""""Iif' New York: Simon &. Sch"""

l<,..n .. "" R W (I 9tl8) r""",,,,, ,nd 'll< .mOOOffitc """"011' ')"'''' ... P""'J>«:'''' k>t ,"""eh "" >u,onomi< 'f'<CirKll)' I. If W'g"" (f;~ ),50< .. 1 pm"'rl>~' Pmp<""Y'on ,lit"", .oJ ","1<01 oppi"~"''''' (PI' 17-'12) 1-<>n<1ott Wiky

l<'~n_, R W (1m) The ,n''''p'""n,1 luoc,,,,,,. 0/ <mot "", C",," , ,.,. .oJ ["""""', 1 J. -181_'1<'"

wmba,d, M. 099S). Dir«t '"I''''''''' to pmpk on tlx 5C'«n: T<k,"ioioon.nd ptrsorW >p>C<. Corn .. "rrico""" lI<><a"h. 22. 186---)1-1

Loom ... ] M. ~.JJ .~Bull. A. C. (1999) lmm<rm"< ';nUl,] <n';ronm<n" ... basoc «:s<.n:h 1001 ,n p",.:1ooIogy 8th,,,.,,,, 1I<>t."h M<tM,h, In"",,,,,,",,. ond eo.np.tf'>. JI , nT-*,

l<MII. D (~). &- l<f!irdli, F (Dil<C'toJ) (1979) n.. '"""'"" lMotioo.I""",,<1 Un~ed Stot,,: MGWfot .... Horne v-.:lto.

Marston, ..... l1.n , J. H.Jkmon. C, &: F.uoo<. W (l9(H). On II>< Labor.lOry >l00y of .... n<SIl . rod <rying. A..,ric .. Joo"",1 of l'>y<hoIotY. ~r, 117- 131

M.nm. M. (]990). On , .... ,rod"",>OIl 01 mood. Ch.i<4Il'>y<ho/­"ll'l'Lrit><, 10. 66'l--@T

Mous<, LB., lLv<ruon. R.W., M(Can ... L, Wilbdrn, F H .. &: Gr_ JJ. (200S). Th< t .. 1M bInds' <:.01><<<"", .moo!

OT'''''''''' ""ptrieoo<, Ixhmo', and ph)'S\OIoo. EnID/Wo, S, 17S-190

Mou".1 B .. Wilbelm. f W , &: G,_.J J (200<1) Is 'hm: I. ... 10 _ul mxi<'y Ihm mttto ,Ix <y'" ~motion <xp<li<oc< ,

<><P'<S<Ion, and bod,1y ~'n!- G>pi""" """ f_""" 18,6)I---«il

MCCort!>y. M C. (W"I<'). Fo,tUI, A., Gow<:,., 8., &:de- M.,....., R (Dr"",,,,,) (2001) EpI$<><!< 119IM",-.- "" .... <J"IOOde-l lnD l\«"'.JL ( hrn\im,M l.cvel<m ,T P>.,k.R. PluHlpII .... A. M Tho.-og<>od (I'mdu«,.). '"""'~"" ;, N, ...,-.,1 Culv<r Cny. CA W.m<' BrotIx" T<I • .,,,,,,,

Mo<pn ,] J B (1910) Tix dlc« ot !'''guo: on .U<ntion )000"",1 of E>:p' ''''''''"'oIl'>y<boi<'p', J. 319-333

Mon •. 8 .. "«",<r. L (Produc<r<). &: G< ...... " •. B. (I),rroo.) (1986). 1!d>I. \\1ffi<mu h ... ]Mot"", poctu«] Uru .. d St .... V"'ron V\de-o

Ntmn.nn, R.. S<ibt, " , &- Str.d, F (1001). TI>< inU""I>C< of mood on ,l><lmrnsity 0/ <rn<J<ion>l rupo"" ... Dlst-nlOn_ Vln& lullng.nd knowj~ Cognilion and E"""ion, 11, 12,}-HT

r.lomba, D., "00, M .. A"gnlh, A. M'"',A .. ''' 5I<pgno>, L (1000) Conl;.,; ,.,_ """"'>l,d ""h .11c,,,,-. p,,,,,,,,,ng 0/ U"~I 1,1 .. "", .. "Ii lou".:olo-.l ] .... ,..a] of "'l"'hoph~, J6, i'}-17

Ph.I ,PI"", r (199J).lndoc.ng'oo ........ "A Joff'''nt""J <"""",,,-",,=1,"& .. ., ... n lho: I>"",,,"'Y. ~.,_ uoJ ~~, 7, 171- 193

Pil.,i, R. 1.-, KI" ... L A Youngt"] &- lowkr. K A (2000) An .1"""",-. .pp.-h I.,.. ><h""I".': ,1Id",,'>5<uLa, baso:hn< ' V;';",n~.n "'l"",\c ,-.dro In,,,,,,,,i<>o>oI)ooonoul oj ",,.-IqoIoY'~. J7. 107_217

Pol'''Y. J (1981). On .Ix ,nd ... ""on 0/ <monon in II>< bboro,"'Y Dooc", .. mood or mulupi< .ff<CI " .... ')00""" of 1' .. """,1;" .od 5«ioi I'> __ ''''''''''v, 41. 803-617

\!ri""" R. (Prodo>o:: .. IDor«U,,). 5cho:inm.". "- 51011, J. & N"ob""'. S. (I'mducn.). (19891 "'~'" !Jon)' ... t Safly ]M""", p;ctu«1 Unlt<d St.l<>: N<w un< 110m< Yide-o

Ro" . T .• (;, 5I<pt"'" A. (2000). E"",,,,,, . nd pulmorul)' I"ncnon in "'h"" R<>ocUvil)' i" ,Ix 1 .. 1d and «Lal,onslnp "i,h iaI>on>Iory indO>Clion 0( <mohon 1'>."""""""''' ~1tJOc1"", 62,

"""" _"bet-,;. ~ l.. &- noun , l' (199-\\. ("...,."' .. c< 1><" •• ,," 'xp' .... , ... nd <>:p<rirn ,,,,I5)"'<"lS in .. ,"""'" G>pi'_ OM f_;"". 8. 101_H9

I!o<>. L. l<w<', M R.,.\o liubba,d, M (J97~), r .... '."'oo< in "U'p<rttpt"",.nd ~I pt~ptoon, _ .. trioot"""'] pro<","" in ,Ix dtbn<6ng porodlgDl.)ooomai oj P<r>OOI<lIit}' ."" 5ocioIi h)'choioJrJ', 12. 880-891.

Roo .. "Ix,,,).. G'-.J J., &- GOlhb, I. H. (200}). Emo<ion <;On, .. t ,_"..,MI1 on <tU}oo dtp< ........ diSO<d<:r. )00"",1 of ~ ""'''''''v. 111, 627--<)J11

R001<nlx'!,J. Gross,J J. Wilhtlm. F 11 , N.jmi.S .• '" Gothb. I. H (200n (Jymg ,hKshoId md intrns;.y in m.I}oo dtp=siv< disotdt' -",".tooI of /IbtoontooI "'y<hoIogi, I II, J02_112

lWt«nb<,,,J. Koscb. K. L. G ..... .). J .... GoIhb. 1 H. (20021-Sad ...... _ .m"",,,,,", , .. ctMt)· difI<<<ntiolly P'«Iict

""""""""00 rroopwi". Iu",<honing in ...... jor d<pnssi .... disonkr.~. 2. l),}-l~

I!Oll<nb<,«.J. Wilh<lm. F. H . G<.,...J J..\o GoIlib, l. H (200J). V.goJ «bound during !<:$Olution 0/ ,,,,lui <ry\ng 'mon.& dtp' .... d .r><! nond<preurd .M.vidu.l>. P>y<""­p/lJ~. iQ. 1-6,

Rl><h. W (1993) Will tlx Tnl «I .. ionship _ttn be",1 <xpr<$Sion md .!fWi"" <Xptrirnc< pk= stand up Th< US< 0/ .. hiLa"'lion. G>pi/ioO. """ &notIoo.. 9, 3J---:18

R'llo.dl. J A. (991). In de-I.""" 0/ • P"'''"YPC 'PI'HlOclo '0 <"""ion """"'pt,. )oo,noI oj P<""""ht)' """.social ,..,<0,,/­<'p',6(1,37--i 7

Rn •• dl. J A (l00)) eo.. .!fw .nd tlx pIIyd'OtOlop:o] <on­stroctoon 0( <motion ~<II Rmt:w. 110. liS-In

Solov<y. P. M.)'<r.J D. GoIdrn>n. S L. Turv<y. c.. &- r.lf. i. T r (I~) EmotKONI "trntion. <Larity .• nd Y<JW' Explorin.l; <",ohonol mt<lhg<n« usi"t 'ht T",,, M<t._Mood Se.k InJ W P<nn<bak<r{Ed .l. f_.di.d.,,"r<, aod Math (pp. 12,}- ISi) Woshms", .. , DC. Am<,ic>n 1'<)'<00.

lop:aIAs«><ia<ioon. $axon, E., Ull. K. . _mono R. (1',,><1."""), .\0 D<:rnm<, J

(D",,,,,,,). (1991). 5I1 .. ,,£< of <h< Iooobs IM""on ~u.-.:I Uni«d St .... , Orion P\!:,u,. •.

S!><n«', N , [I<,ky, J (PttodU«"), ... A" .... l:>orouAl>. R (O><t<tor). (1\167). Cry J".dtJm (M","", poet",,1 Un'led 51 .... MCNUn,,,,, ... 1 tl<>m< Vidt"

Thompson. R- F . .\o 5ptn«', W A ()966) H.bi' ..... """ A tn<><ltl pho:"""",non lOt lhe "ud), 0/ ,,",n'''''''] 'n"""""" or ho:h;Mo,- "'J<~al Rmt:w. 7J, 16-Al

Tooby, J . &- Coomloo. t. (1990) Th< f">' <XpLaI'" tl>< p=<m EmotlOnlll odoput""".nd tl>< "rue',,« of . """,,,,1 <nV(Y<)nm<n". ft"""'o' and 5«~, I!, 37~

'" TUi.]. l., l<""""". R. W .. &- CO""· .... n. L L (1000) Autooo",,,,, .. 1""" .... , .nd .ubj«I"~ «spoRO« 10 <""""""I hi,.,.. ," 01<1<, ,nd young<' 0 ... ,,,,,. A ..... '''''' .nd Euror .. n Am<rican ><lui ... ~., .. lI.,,"t. 11, (>801-

M' T"g<nd, J L (I'Yodu.c<r) &- IInnY , B (Di,,,,,,.,r). (1000). Rt"m

to"", IM .. ion pioc",«j . u..,,<d $<,,«. Mm.:..Go/dwyn. M.y<, l'>c1uou

Vd"n, E (19611). A bbor.wty lask 10' II>< ,ndu.cl"'" 01 mood <lot« ~,Rt><a"h """ Tht'''I'1, 6, 'l73----'1l11

V", .. ,S R . '" IlolI",l . D (10011. n .. rok 01 <lhn",,,),, g<nd<,. <"",,",rui <on",nl, ond <"""<,,,,. 1 d .[f<r<""" .n ~I, <xp, .... ,'.,.oo .. 11-rtp"l\«I <motion.1 '_"'i ..... g<ty. ~"_nod~"". 16, IM_191

W"'<f$,j (Dim;,Of). (1973). 1'1..1 jt=in&<" {M"""" pi<tu,.j Unil<d St.1< •. L'sl"nint Vio!ro

Watson. D (2000). Mood and ""'p,,,am<!ll. Now ~""': Guilford -W",_, D • (Io,k, I .. A., ~ Tolio:gtn. A (9138). 0.v<1o\l"",'" ond vahda'ion of bri<f lIl<asurtl of po ... ,,",, and ""ga';'" .fket: TIl< PANAS "",,1<>.}o<Ino.a/ oJ f'r~ .nd SOOaJ PI)<~, Ji. 10(iJ..-1070

...,..".. .. , . R. L o.<i<lson, ~. J. ~ T Qmatl!<n, A. J. (1993). Fron .. 1 !mo,n osymm<tty.nd <tI>OtOOlUI r<lK"t;v.,y, A IHoIogk>.I ""b.".1< of .rT",,,,, "yk "')<hopIopioi<v. 30.

"-00 Z,ll""", D., ~ WO''''.J 1\, (1999). ~ffe<ts of p~gtd

<X~'" 10 r;r>'Ui'0U5 m<dio vioI<lK< on ~ ... d unprovok<d _,I< b<havKor. }"""",I oJ App/i<d Soc"'" "')<~29. li)-16)