RLST 104/ASST 104

Exam 2 Review Sheet

Fall 2012

Prepared and Compiled by Dheepa Sundaram

Please do not copy, distribute, or otherwise use any part or whole of this

document without author’s written consent. This is an incomplete

review. You are responsible for all material presented in lectures and

discussions even if it is not included on the review sheet.

***please note that I have used the spellings for names, places, and terms from the

study guide without diacritics for the most part***

Mahabharata

I. Main Characters and Relationships

Make sure you are clear on the relationships between the major characters.

Santanu and Ganga are the parents of Bhisma. Bhisma who represents the image

of sacrifice and duty to social and individual orders, takes a vow of celibacy and

helps his father get a second wife, a fishermaid, named Satyavati (represents

Maya). By her, Santanu has two more sons, the half-brothers of Bhisma,

Vicitravirya and Citrangada. Satyavati also has another son by a Brahmin named

Parasara outside of her marriage to Santanu. This son’s name is Vyasa.

Bhisma acts as regent for the young king Vicitravirya after the death of Santanu

since he has vowed that only the progeny of Satyavati will rule the kingdom. To

help his young half-brother produce heirs for the throne, Bhisma goes and steals

Amba, Ambika, and Ambalika by defeating all of the warriors at their svayamvara

and brings them to marry his brother. Unfortunately, Amba does not agree being

in love with another king, Salva. Though Bhisma sends her to Salva, he refuses

her, humiliated by his defeat to Bhisma. So, she returns to Vicitravirya who also

rejects her, saying he will not marry a woman whose heart belongs to another

man. Angered by all of this and full of hatred for Bhisma, Amba does tapas first

to Visnu for a garland which could be used to find a warrior to defeat Bhisma.

When she attempts to use this on King Drupada and it fails, she pleads with

Parasurama a Brahmin who has given up his brahmanical ways in order to

exterminate all the Ksatriyas from the earth. When he also fails in defeating

Bhisma, Amba does tapas to Shiva and is told that she will be reborn as a man and

she subsequently builds a fire and kills herself. She is then reborn as Sikhandin

(she becomes Dhristadyumna and Draupadi’s brother) to King Drupada and

eventually with Arjuna slays Bhisma during the great war (see “bed of arrows”

myth).

Now, despite the marriage to Ambika and Ambalika, no heirs were produced by

King Vicitravirya so, his half-brother, Vyasa exercised his right as the brother and

impregnated his two wives. Ambika gave birth to Dhritarastra while Ambalika

gave birth to Pandu. From these two, spawned the two sides of the war, the

Pandavas (sons of Pandu) and the Kauravas (sons of Dhritarashtra).

Dhritarashtra, the king of Hastinapura, is the son of Ambika, while Pandu, the

king of Indraprastha is the son of Ambalika.

Kunti and Madri become the wives of Pandu that is cursed never to be able to

have intercourse with his wives setting the stage for the divine births of the

Pandavas. Kunti has a magic incantation that can summon any to her. Before

marriage, Kunti gives birth to Karna, by the sun god, Surya, who she

subsequently abandons by floating him down the river in a basket. He is later

rescued by the Kaurava charioteer, Adhiratha, who raises him as his son, never

disclosing his royal birth. After marriage, Kunti uses her magic incantation to call

on Yama or Dharma from which came Yudhisthira, Indra from which came

Arjuna, and Vayu or the wind god from which came Bhima. She then gave the

incantation to her co-wife Madri, who summoned the twin Asvin gods, horsemen

and medicinal gods, and gave birth to Nakula and Sahadeva who were also twins.

Dhritarashtra and his wife Gandhari have a hundred sons of whom Duryodhana

and Duhsasana are important. Duryodhana’s attachment to power is a major

factor that leads to the great war. Duhsasana’s act of disrobing Draupadi in the

court, which leads to Bhima’s vow of revenge, is another important motivating

factor for the war. Other important Kauravas include, Sakuni, the uncle who

instigates and encourages Duryodhana to take power and exterminate his cousins.

He also advises Duryodhana in tricking Yuddhisthira into the games of dice

where he loses his brothers, himself, and Draupadi. In the first one, Draupadi is

able to win back their freedom as she argues that someone who is not his own

master cannot bet someone else’s freedom. Dhritarastra agrees and grants her a

boon and she secures their freedom. However, after the second game of dice

where Draupadi is disrobed but ultimately protected by Krishna who makes her

sari neverending, the Pandavas are forced into exile for 13 years and must live in

disguise for a 14th

year without being found out.

Drona, though the teacher of arms to both the Pandava and Kaurava princes,

fights for the Kauravas in the great war in order to settle his feud with Drupada

who fights for the Pandavas since her daughter, Draupadi, the wife of the five

Pandava princes, was insulted by Duryodhana and Duhsasana during the dice

game episodes. It is also important to note that Drona’s son, Asvatthama

eventually leads to his demise, as he is told falsely, by the Pandavas, that his son

is dead in order to stop the devastation that Drona was causing to the Pandava

armies (they actually killed an elephant with the same name and told Drona it was

his son who was dead). His intense love for his son forces him to stop fighting

and allows him to be slain by Dhristadyumna.

The Pandavas also have important helpers throughout including Vidura, the uncle

who warns them about the impending fire at the House of Lac, and Virata, who is

the king of the city in which the Pandavas hide themselves during the last year of

their exile. The sons of Drupada, Sikhandin (Amba reborn) and Dhristadyumna

are major forces in the great battle, Dhristadyumna slaying Drona while

Sikhandin participates in slaying his/her old enemy Bhisma as Arjuna’s

charioteer.

Of course, as mentioned earlier, the wife of the five Pandavas, won by Arjuna at

her svayamvara when he shoots five arrows through a small ring, is Draupadi.

Make sure you know the story of Draupadi’s svayamvara and her public and cold

rejection of Karna (“I will not marry the son of a charioteer”). Though Arjuna

wins her, he shares her with his brothers since his mother instructs him to share

what he has brought home with everyone not realizing he had brought a woman.

Despite this, she loves Arjuna the most. It is the insult of her in both dice game

episodes but particularly at the moment when she must call on Krishna to prevent

herself from being disrobed in the court that provides a major impetus for the war.

Much like they are on Karna, final diplomatic efforts before the war are lost on

her as she longs for revenge. She fulfills her vow to wash her hair in Duhsasana’s

blood. If you remember Karna informs his mother Kunti that no matter what, at

the end of the war, she would still have 5 sons implying that either he or Arjuna

would still be there.

Finally, Krishna, is purportly a neutral figure though he appears on the side of the

Pandavas during the great war as an advisor. His brother Balarama refuses to

fight on either side of the war, disagreeing with it altogether, and Krishna grants a

choice to Duryodhana and Arjuna, saying one could have him, unarmed while the

other could have all of his kingdom’s armies. Duryodhana chose the armies while

Arjuna chose Krishna. Krishna advises Arjuna during the portion of the great war

known as the Bhagavad Gita and explains to him that he continue to fight since it

was his duty as a ksatriya and it was his path to moksa or liberation.

II. Important Myths, Themes, and Stories in Mahabharata

Be familiar with the Procession of the Dead story-where Vyasa brings the dead

out of the river one last time at the request of Gandhari (Dhritarastra’s wife) and

others. Everyone is happy and the tension of the material world is gone after

death. For example Karna and Arjuna are no longer enemies. The point behind

this myth is to demonstrate how the conflict also dies with the body and that there

is no conflict after death since everyone comes from the same source (this point is

also made in Krishna’s discussion with Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita).

Know the Pilgrimage of Death story – the end of the Mahabharata where each of

the Pandavas falls off the mountain until only Yudhisthira is left. Make sure you

know what happens to Yudhisthira and his brothers and Draupadi in this myth.

This myth shows the continued importance and role of karma and dharma and

how the concepts of heaven and hell work in this mythology. Note that neither

heaven (svarga) nor hell (naraka) is a permanent abode. And heaven is not

considered the goal of life but rather a temporary reward. Hell similarly is a

temporary punishment. Why is this story important for the mythology?

Also, make sure you know why Drupada, Arjuna, and Amba perform Tapas in the

Mahabharata. Be able to explain the stories connected with each one. Tapas is

literally “heat” and refers the process in which human beings perform austerities

and meditation exercises to focus their power and eventually cause an imbalance

in rta forcing Shiva to come down to prevent premature destruction of the

universe. Be sure you understand how power is now centered within human

beings in that they are able to directly affect the gods without sacrifice but rather

through focused concentration. You will be asked to talk about the change in

power from Early Vedic Mythology (sacrifice to appease the gods, rta and nature

gods have the power) to Later Vedic (rta and brahman all powerful but human

beings can control nature gods through sacrifice) to Mahabharata (locus of power

now rests in human beings who can affect the divine and cause imbalances in rta

through intense focus or concentration-tapas). Be able to answer the following

questions. Where is the locus of power located in each of these periods? How

does the locus move? What does this demonstrate?

Make sure you are familiar with the instances of class warfare beginning with

Satyavati. There are several characters which rebel against their positions in the

social order (Satyavati, Ekalavya, Drona, Karna). Be able to describe how they

rebel, whether or not they are successful, and what this shows about the rigidity of

the social class system at the time of the Mahabharata as compared with the

Ramayana-ie. Personal gain and desires often trump dharma. Also there is no

longer mobility according to ability between the social classes.

Make sure are able to remember what important figures symbolize, for instance,

Bhisma symbolizes sacrifice and duty to his family and society. He is very

unselfish. While, Yudhisthira is known for truthfulness and fairness. Karna is

seen as the loyal/ideal friend. Arjuna is best warrior. Bhima is known for his great

strength. Focus on the major characters and characterizations we have discussed

in lecture or discussion.

Make sure you know and understand the stories behind the important individual

conflicts in the story, such as Arjuna and Karna; Drona and Drupada;

Amba/Sikhandin and Bhisma. Remember, the Mahabharata represents conflict at

individual (ex. Karna vs. Arjuna), social (exs. Drona vs. Drupada, Ekalavya vs

Drona), and cosmic (fire vs water). It is important to be able to make connections

between the conflicts at the various level and see how they work to together in the

narrative of the story (see the competition between Indra (rain god) and Surya

(sun god) and how it plays out through Arjuna and Karna). Please note that there

are more examples for the individual and social conflicts in the text than the ones

I have listed here.

Make sure you know the names of magical weapons that are received by both

Karna (Vasava-arrow from Indra) and Arjuna (Gandiva-bow from Siva) and

where they came from and how the characters received them. Know the myths or

stories associated with each one.

Why are the rules of war or engagement important in the Mahabharata? How are

they broken and why is it significant?

Make sure you understand the significance of the Bhagavad Gita both inside and

outside of the Mahabharata. The two identities of every person are atman (soul-

permanent) and deha (body-impermanent). Krishna explains that the atman is

more important which is why it is ok for him to kill his family members in the

war (their permanent identities are not harmed). Also Arjuna must choose Karma

yoga as his path since he is of the warrior class and has been trained as a warrior-

that is his path. Krishna tells Arjuna that as long as he performs his duty

(dharma) without attachment to the fruits of his actions (karma) then he is doing

the right thing. In this case, that means fighting the war. Be able to answer the

following questions in regards to the Bhagavad Gita section of the Mahabharata.

What kinds of paths are outlined in the Gita for the ultimate goal of life? What is

that goal and how is it different from svarga or heaven? When are people sent to

naraka (hell)? What are Atman and Brahman and how do they relate to moksa?

What are heaven and hell in the Hindu mythology?

Krishna Myths

I. Major Themes

(i) “little” over the “big”- Krishna is a champion of the common people

and their struggle against the aristocracy. There is a focus on the traditions and

practices of the common people.

(ii) Krishna represents the “human” dimension of the divine as he lives

the life of a cowherd and participates in the daily activities and games of the

gopis. He is a trickster and known for his childlike characteristics and behavior.

(iii) Krishna represents the notion of “unconventionality” of the divine

(compare with Rama). He steals butter, plays tricks, marries 16000 women at the

same time, calls the gopis into the forest with his flute and dances with them

attempting to free them material attachment.

(iv) Krishna myths represent a god that may have originally lay outside of

“elite” or mainstream Hinduism and was later incorporated as the eighth descent

of Vishnu.

(v) Krishna myths emphasize the path of bhakti yoga, the path of

devotion, exemplified by union of the gopis (ātman) with Krishna (Brahman) for

instance through Rās Līlā (dance of love). Through complete devotion to the

Supreme Soul one can attain moksha from samsāra. Also, Krishna represents the

“beautiful” and is the very embodiment of love as the eternal union between the

atman and Brahman indicating the divine nature of marriage as representative of

this union.

(vi) The notion of “good” and “evil” in Krishna myths is explained by the

notion of “balance”. When opposing forces are in balance that is considered

“good”. A disturbance in this balance is considered “evil”. Good and evil

relative not absolute concepts since all forms emerge from a single divine

(Brahman).

II. Myths and Examples

(i) Nearly every myth in Krishna mythology signifies the “little” over the

“big”. Examples: the myth of Pūtāna-Krishna suckles his demon nurse who tries

to poison him to death by sucking the life out of her, killing of Kamsa-Kamsa was

causing the disturbance for which Krishna descends and he killed and merges

back into Krishna and is the last birth of Hiranyakashipu, Bakāsura-crane

monster, Aghāsura-dragon, Kāliya- serpent who was quelled by Krishna but not

killed as his wives begged for his life arguing that it was his nature to be

poisonous, myth of Krishna’s birth

(ii) “vision of the universe” myth with Yashoda and Krishna when

Yashoda asks Krishna to open his mouth and drop the butter he had stolen and

instead she sees the entire universe and realizes the Krishna is the Divine but

forgets again when he closes it.

(iii) “16000 women captured by Bhaumsura”, “Krishna’s flute”-he leads

the gopis into the forest by the call of his flute (also representative of the cowherd

life) to leave behind their material attachments and come devote oneself to the

Divine.

(iv) Brahmā’s mischief-Brahma attempts to hide all of Krishna’s friends

from him leaving him alone and Krishna responds by recreating all of his friends

and Brahma comes to him and touches his feet and admits his superiority; “Indra

and Govardhana mountain”- when Krishna tells the people that they should not

worship Indra for water, shelter, food and protection since all of this really came

from the Govardhana mountain and they may as well worship that. So they begin

to do this and Indra angrily sends torrential rains and floods the city. Then people

angry and afraid go to Krishna and ask what can be done and he tells them not to

worry and picks up the Govardhana mountain with his little finger and offers the

people shelter underneath thwarting Indra.

(v) The gopis and Rās Līlā-dance of love performed with Krishna and the

gopis and signified in the specific alliance and cosmic love between Krishna and

Radha (his favorite gopi). Each gopi seems to have her own Krishna

demonstrating the atman’s union with Brahman and presence of the divine

everywhere and in everything.

(vi) The story of Hiranyakashipu and his three births (has a choice to be

born 7 times good or 3 times evil to achieve moksha and chooses to be the enemy

of the divine for three births and realizes that this was the much more difficult

path. His three births are Hiranyakasipu, Shisupala and finally Kamsa and each

time he is killed by an avatara of Visnu and finally when slain by Krishna, he

merges back into the divine escaping the cycle of rebirth.

III. Main Characters and Relationships

Krishna is born to Vasudeva and Devaki who is the sister of Kamsa, the

tyrannical king of Mathura. Be familiar of the myth that lead to his and his

brother Balarama’s rescue from death at the hands of Kamsa. Remember that

Balarama is an incarnation of Ananta while Krishna is considered the eighth

avatar or descent of Visnu. Krishna grows amongst the Gopis or cowherds and

his foster parents are Nanda and Yashoda and he spends in childhood first in

Gokula and in Vrindavana. Balarama is saved by Vasudeva pretending that his

other wife Rohini gives birth to him.

Krishna is known as an unconventional god and the god of the common people.

He is mischievous and pulls all sorts of pranks while representing the path of love

or bhakti yoga to achieving moksa or liberation from the cycle of rebirth. Though

his beloved was Radha, a gopi girl who represents Visnu’s consort in heaven,

Laksmi, he was the beloved of all the gopi women who were drawn to Krishna by

the call of his flute. They would dance Rasa Lila in order to experience the love

of union with Krishna.

Krishna averts several disasters and saves the gopis on many occasions. He

represents the little over the big, showing that common people, like the cowherds

(gopis) can triumph over the big, like demons, gods, “evil” kings, and so on.

Make sure you are familiar with the myths/legends listed in Handout 13, #4(a-m).

Particularly, his marriages in which he marries not only humans but animals and

other forms of life denoting again that every form is divine. Make sure you are

familiar with the names in these myths not just the general story. You will see

them on the test.

Be able to explain the concept of good and evil in the Krishna mythology. What

is Hiranyakashipu’s choice, why is important, what does it show?

Shiva Myths

I. Major Themes

(i) Shiva means “auspicious” and he represents the ultimate ascetic or

renouncer of the material (Māyā) world while also representing the ideal husband

and union of feminine and masculine as creative force. He represents the fusion

of “opposites.”

(ii) Shiva signifies the destruction of the universe at the end of the

Mahāyuga through Tāndava and brings the universe back to its source so that it

may reborn.

(iii) Shiva has three forms, Mahākāla (great time), Mrtyu (death), and

Jvara (fever)

(iv) Shiva is also a savior of the people. And he is known as the god who

grants boons when people do tapas.

(v) The Shiva lingam specifically symbolizes the fusion of opposite

energies back to a single source and the union of the feminine and masculine

representing both destruction and creation.

(vi) Shiva probably, like Krishna, was a god representing a non-

mainstream tribal tradition who later incorporated into the “elite” Hindu

traditions. He is also sometimes called “pasupati” or lord of the animals which

maybe a reference to the horned male god in the Indus Valley Civilization.

(vii) Shiva’s wives represent his Shakti (power) and each represents a

different aspect of Shiva.

II. Myths/Examples

(i), (iii) Shiva myths often show Shiva as a “fierce” god that behaves

rashly and then has to fix his error. For instance, the myth about Kāma (God of

love)-burned to ashes by Shiva’s third-eye but later restored when the world was

dying and when requested by Kama’s wife but without a physical form and

Ganesha (Shiva’s son with the elephant head)-made by Parvati and asked guard

her bathing area and is accidentally killed by Shiva who didn’t know who he was.

Shiva then replaces his head with an elephant and deems that he be worshipped

first at every prayer ceremony.

(ii) “myth of the birth of death”-Brahma and Vishnu want to keep creating

and sustaining and Brahma realizes that if he continues to create and these

creations are eternally sustained then the world will be overpopulated and so he

goes to Shiva who offers the solution of death and rebirth so that Brahma and

Vishnu could maintain their creation and sustenance of life.

(iv) Arjuna, Amba in the Mahabharata all do tapas and Shiva grants them

boons to save the universe from premature destruction. Also see the myth

surrounding Shiva’s blue throat in which Shiva swallows poison which is released

as a result of the churning of the ocean (see story of the Kurma avatara of Visnu)

to save the people. He also produces Kumara (second son) in order to slay the

demon Taraka to save the people.

(v) the stories of Shiva’s wives-Shiva represents the ideal husband

devoted to his wives despite being a figure who is uninterested in the transitory

world of Maya. This demonstrates the creative and destructive aspects unified in

the symbol of the lingam which demonstrates the dual nature of Shiva.

(vi) “myth of Shiva’s superiority over Brahmā and Vishnu”- Brahma and

Vishnu are fighting go the Shiva to determine which was the greater or more

important god. Shiva asks them to find the end of the pole and whoever does this

who be the superior one. When neither could succeed they realize Shiva’s

superiority and prostrate themselves to him; “Daksha and Sati”-Shiva marries

Sati and then her father forbids his attendance at a large sacrifice enraged at his

daughter’s decision to marry a ‘non-aryan’. Sati responds by burning herself

alive. After which, Shiva transforms a lock of hair into a terrible demon and

destroys the sacrifice and everyone there and the gods need to beg Shiva to restore

Daksha and allow the sacrifice to proceed and Brahma and Vishnu note how that

they are one with Shiva representing the eternal Self (Brahman).

(vii) “Daksha and Sati” and the story of Ganesha

III. Main Characters and Relationships

The Shiva myths center around the notion that Shiva represents the fusion of

opposites. Where Visnu represents the multitudes of forms taken by the divine,

the Shiva myths symbolizes all the different forms fusing into one and being

taken back into the source. Shiva represents both creation and destruction

through the image of the Shiva lingam. The lingam represents creation because it

is the fusion of the male and female reproductive organs and destruction since it

represents the fusion of opposites, or of everything in the universe into one. The

universe is destroyed and taken back to its source by Shiva’s tandava or dance of

death in this moment.

It is important to know the various names given to Shiva since they describe his

functions in the mythology. He is Mahakala or “great time” and this is because

time represents the deterioration of life or death and Shiva is the one who brings

the destruction of the universe at the end of Kaliyuga. He is also known as

Nataraja or “king of dance” symbolizing his dance of death or tandava which was

represented in the slide during lecture that shows Shiva dancing surrounded by the

ring of fire and stepping on the goblin. He is also known as Pasupati or “lord of

the animals” which signifies his possible non-Aryan origins in the mythology.

This epithet links him with the Indus Valley Civilization that probably

worshipped some sort of “lord of the creatures” figure that was represented by the

figurines found that denote a male figure with horns. This also connects Shiva

with the notion of creation or fertility. He also represents Jvara or the “fever of

destruction”. This refers to the moment before the destruction of the universe in

which the calamities and unrest of the world attains a fever pitch and perpetuates

in the return of all forms to the source and the subsequent rebirth of the universe.

Shiva has three wives that represent different aspects of his power. Sati

represents creation and you should be familiar with the Sati and Daksha myth,

which is also important regarding Shiva’s non-Aryan origins. He also marries

Parvati, with whom several myths are associated, who represents love. She is the

mother of his two sons, Kumara or Kartikeya, and Ganesha. His third wife is Kali

or Durga and she represents the destructive elements of Shiva. He marries her to

continue the necessary destruction that Shiva must unleash on the universe and

she represents the force of destruction that returns the universe to its source and

allows it to be reborn at the end of Kaliyuga. Her name itself is derived from

Kaliyuga.

Shiva has two sons, Ganesha, the elephant-headed god, also known as the

remover of obstacles and the god of wisdom and Kartikeya or Kumara, who is the

slayer of the demon Taraka and is born in the river Ganga when the Gods request

that Shiva produce a son to slay the evil demon. Ganesha is created by Parvati

while Shiva is away meditating on Mount Kailasa from clay and butter. Shiva

returns one day to find the boy and mistakenly cuts off his head. Learning who he

is, filled with remorse, Shiva finds the head of the first creature he sees which

happens to be an elephant and places it on the head of his son. Be sure and be

familiar with the details of both of these stories, as I have just given a rough

summary.

Be sure and know the two myths surround the non-Aryan origins of Shiva and

know how he was incorporated in the mainstream Hindu mythology. (Daksha

and Sati myth and the Brahma, Visnu, pillar of life myth) Though I didn’t

mention this before, the same goes for the Krishna myths in that, you should

know the two myths associated with his assimilation into mainstream Hindu

mythology and how he became known as an avatar of Visnu (the govardhana

mountain myth where he defeats Indra and the myth where he defeats Brahma

who recognizes him as greater god).

Other important myths include why Shiva has a blue neck, this has to do with

Visnu’s avatar as Kurma the tortoise and the poison that is released during the

churning of the ocean. Shiva drinks the poison to prevent untimely destruction of

the universe as he does when he grants boons to people doing Tapas. He must

descend from the heat or tapas that denotes an imbalance in or concentration of

power as in the case of Arjuna or Amba in the Mahabharata. In order to avert an

untimely destruction of the universe, Shiva must descend and grant a boon to

whoever is doing tapas to alleviate the heat and destructive power being cultivated

by this person through their severe mental and physical exercises. Tapas literally

cultivates or strengthens or empowers the Atman or soul where is creates a

disturbance in rta, a power imbalance that is alleviated when Shiva grants a boon

and prevents untimely destruction of the universe. Be able to give examples to

explain tapas and Shiva’s role in it, from the mythology. Also, make sure you

know the myth concerning Kama the god of love and significance of it.

Think about how Shiva is a fusion of opposites in both appearance and behavior.

How does he represent creation and destruction? How does Shiva’s lingam

represent creation and destruction? Be able to give an example from the myth of

Daksa and Sati describing the creation aspect of the lingam.

Be able to compare and contrast the Shiva myths and Krishna myths. How are

these mythologies similar? Different? Be able to support you answers with

specific examples from the mythology.

Good Luck!