review of related literature -...

CHAPTER I l l

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The review of related literature implies locating, studying and

evaluating reports of researches relevant to the topic under investigation. A

careful review of research journals, books, dissertations, theses and other

sources of information on the problem to be investigated is one of the

important steps in the planning of any research study. The availability and

utilisation of adequate source of related information enable the investigator to

have a clear picture of the various aspects of the problem area to carry out his

work successfully. The literature and studies reviewed are arranged in the

following subheads.

3.1 Studies related to Modern Instructional Strategies

3.2 Studies related to Computer-assisted Instruction and Web-based

Technology

3.3 Studies related to Co-operative Learning

The related literature examined under each subheading is

ment~oned below:

3.1 STUDIES RELATED TO MODERN INSTRUCTlONAL STRATEGIES -

GENERAL

Donald and Mervin (1973) conducted a study to investigate the

effectiveness of a series of Self-Instructional Modules (SIMs) for training

secondary level sacral studies teacher trainees to develop and ask higher

53 Review of Ltterature

level questions. The study showed that self-instructional module is more

superior to conventional methods for developing concepts and skills.

Hurst (1 974) designed flexible competency based learning

module to change elementary teacher trainee's knowledge, skills and attitude

towards enquiry teaching. The effectiveness of the module was compared in

three classroom settings, individual group and control group. The study

revealed that in both individualised and group settings, teaching learning

modules may serve as a mearis to creative instruction in teacher education in

the future.

Pandya (1 974) studied the effectiveness of programmed

learning strategy in learning of Physics to Class X. He revealed that the

learning through programmeti material benefited the students with high,

average and low intelligence level as well.

Jernstedt (1976) conducted a study which revealed that

students under individualised instructions reviewed the~r course more

favourably than students under trad~tional instructions lndiv~dualised

instruction produced superlor performance only when the unit completion

activities of the individual~sed section were similar to the behaviours on the

examination instruments

Zlotolow (1989) conducted a study on the topic "Development of

an instructional strategy. Video grammar and an assimilative process." T h ~ s

study investigated a prescriptive instructir~nal strategy for teaching grammar to

college students. A videotape using structural units and identified slots was

54 Review of Literature

designed to present the grammar concepts of nouns and noun phrases. The

findings suggest that the structural units approach to teaching grammar has

potential to provide reinforcement for identification and recall in short term

memory.

Aliweh (7989) conducted a study on 'The short and long-term

effect of communication strategy instruction on the speaking proficiency of

Egyptian college students'. In order to help students overcome their speaking

difficulties, this study offered strategy instruction. That is, students were

taught to use communication strategies to compensate for inadequate

knowledge of English.

Qualitative data revealed that the experimental group did use

strategies taught to handle carnmunication difficulties. Therefore unlike the

control group, t he experimental group could convey comprehensible

messages. This ~ndicates that the change in the spoken proficiency of the

exper~mental group was due to strategy instruction.

Cennamo (1989) c:onducted a study on the topic, "mental effort

and video-based learning: The relationship of preconceptions and the effects

of interactive and covert practice." The purpose of this study was to

investigate learner preconceptions of the difficulty of interactive video,

instructional television to examine the effects of actively or covertly

responding to practice questions embedded in video-based rnater~als on

perceived mental effort and achievement on a test of recall and inference

items.


The findings indicate that learners who are provided with an

interactive video lesson that includes practice questions and feedback recall

significantly more information than learners who receive a television without

practice questions or feed back.

McKeon (1989) conducted a study on "strategies for improving

the retention and success of minority students in community colleges." The

purpose of this study was to obtain practical guidelines which community

colleges could use in developing policies, comprehensive support services

and programmes to increase rninority student retention and success.

The study identified the following important factors in the

retention and success af rninority students: providing an environment

conducive to learning, implementing academic and student support services,

conducting on-going student assessment and institutional research

A study was conducted by Worley (1991) on the topic

"Compressed digital video instructional delivery: A study of student

achievement, student attitude and instructor attitude." The purpose of this

study was to ~nvestigate compressed digital video as an instruct~onal delivery

system for distance learning.

Findings revealed that compressed digital video was a highly

effective instructional delivery mode based on prelpost-test comparison and

final examination scores of both treatment groups. Instructors preferred two-

way video1 two-way audio sigr~ificantly more than one-way video / two-way

aud~o. No signiffcant difference was revealed in student attitude between

56 Revrew of Literature

treatment groups. After experiencing compfessed digital video instructional

delivery, both groups rate course instruction, course content and course

delivery medium highly.

A study was conducted by Leitner (1991) on "Comparing the

effects of reading comprehension of educational video, direct experience and

print." This study investigated if the effects of educational video approximated

the effects of direct experience on reading comprehension for high and low

ability readers. Results of the study indicated that subjects participating in the

educational video treatment had the highest mean scores. The significant

findings were that the educational video was more effective than a traditional

lesson for all ability levels, the video lesson generated a large effect size than

the hands-on lesson for low ability readers and there was no difference in the

effect between the video lesson for low ability readers and the traditional

lesson for high ability readers.

A study was conducted by Adams (1992) on the topic.

"Comparing paper-based and electronic outlining as a study strategy for

mainstreamed students with learning disabilities " The study used a single

subject, alternating treatments design to compare electronic outl~ning wrth

paper-based outlining as a strategy for studying four chapters from a middle

school science textbook. Six students with learning disabilities mainstreamed

into two science classrooms participated in the four phases of the study.

Results of the study indicate that ali subjects ~mproved their performance

using outl~ning as a study strategy relative to their handicapped peers.


Barnes-Bell (1992) conducted a study on the topic: "Major

retention strategies for African-American students in allied health

programmes: A consensus of two-year college officials on Ohio." The

purpose of this research study was to assess all two-year college officials in

the State of Ohio to form a consensus on retention strategies that two-year

college officials perceive as most important in retaining African-Americans in

allied health programmes. Results showed that the top ten strategies to retain

African-American students in two-year allied health programmes include the

following: financial aid available for long and short-term purposes, an early

academic warning system and college enrichment activities that include

reading, writing, test taking and study skills specific for learning scientific

knowledge.

Way (1 992) conducted "An experimental comparison of three

methods of computer instruction: Controlled hypertext (student directed).

linear (programme directed) instruction and linear with repeating frames In

this study, a linear instructional programme with predetermined sequence, a

linear instructional programme that allows a student control over repetition of

topics and a controlled hypertext programme allowing linear selection and

control over sequence were compared.

No demonstratable differences were found when post-test

scores were compared. However, the hypertext programme took a markedly

longer time to complete. This is consistent with other recent research and


suggests that hypertext which is a viable alternative for CAI may not be as

effective as first thought.

A study was conducted by Zielonka (1992) on "The influence of

co-operating teachers' utilisation of a reading instructional strategy and other

factors on pre-service teachers' implementation of that strategy." The

purpose of this study was to examine the influence of co-operating teachers

on specific reading instructional strategies used by pre-service teachers in

field placement classroom. Results were analysed statistically and

descriptively to determine the influence of having co-operating teachers' use

of the Directed Activity on pre-interns' implementation of that strategy. No

significant interactions occurred.

Mahan (1996) conducted a study on the topic: "The ~nteraction

of attitude and self-efficacy with innovativeness and locus of control in

teachers in a televised training course." The purpose of this study was to

determine if participants' levels of innovativeness and locus of control

demonstrate a relationship and / or an interact~on with attitude and self-

efficacy in a staff development course in technology via one way television

Results indicated that the interaction of locus of control and

innovativeness was significant on the difference of scores from t h e pre-test

and post-test in behavioural attitude and difference of scores from the pre-test

and post-test in self-efficacy in learnrng electronic communication.

A study was conducted by Douv~lle-Ricker (1996) on the top~c .

"Brrnging text to life: The effects of instruct~on in a multi-sensory imagery


strategy on fifty graders' prose, processing and attitude towards reading."

The purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of instruction in

imagery strategies on fifth-grade students' image construction, reading

comprehension and attitude towards reading.

Qualitative data that emerged from student exit interviews

revealed positive reactions to imaging while reading from students who

received imagery strategy instruction. The relationships that have been

shown to exist between imagery and reading comprehension in the mental

imagery research provide a strong rationale for additional investigations ~ n t o

the complex role that mental imagery assumes in the reading process.

Rajaswamjnathan (1998) conducted a study on "Impact of

multimedia package on the teaching of commerce with performance to select

variables." The study found that the use of multimedia was more effectwe

than conventional method of teaching.

A study was conducted by Beller (1998) on "A constructivrst

approach to staff development: A study of teachers' percept~ons" The

purpose of t h ~ s study was to explore teachers' perceptions of a staff

development project designed with constructivist characteristics. The project

chosen for investigation was a project integrating technology ~ n t o science and

mathematics classrooms through the use of integrated thematic units

Teachers' descriptions revealed that they approved of t he construct~v~st

approach to self development


Mathew (2000) conducted a study on the topic: "Effectiveness of

self-instructional materials and modern instructional strategies in minimising

learning disabilities of students in secondary schools." Results of the study

indicate that self-instructional materials and the modern instructional strategy

are effective in the achievement of biology for Grade IX learning-disabled and

non-disabled students.

The quasi-experimental study conducted by Martindale and

Ahern (2001) compared three delivery models: direct instruction, concept

attainment and small-group discussion. The study found no significant main

effect. However, there was significant interaction effect between delivery

model and prior web experience. This indicates that for some learners.

certain delivery models may be more effective for web-based environments.

Palak (2004) conducted a study on "Teachers' beliefs in relation

to their instructional technology practices." This study investigated how

teachers' beliefs and factors relate to teachers' instructional strategy

practices. The results obtained from this research point to the following

instruct~onal technology practices of teachers in substantial ways relate to (1)

their bel~efs about teaching and technology and (2) the contextual conditions

in their teaching environments.

Oxford (2004) conducted a study on "Effects of technology-

enhanced language learning on second language composition of university-

level intermediate Spanish students." The purpose of this research was to

determ~ne any benefits of weekly/structured, in class, computer-assisted

6 1 Review of Litemture

grammar drill and practice on the composition quality and quantity of

intermediate university Spanish learners. Findings revealed that students

who received weekly, structured computer grammar and vocabulary package

had higher scores for composition quality and quantity on the post-test

measures and accessed the databases less than the control group.

Ewell (2004) conducte'd a case study of "Pre-service teacher

perceptions of intensive field experiences and classroom teacher monitoring."

This case study examined the experiences of three pre-service teachers who

enrolled in a teacher preparation programme that was conceived and

implemented through a collaborative effort between a college, a K-12 school

and a regional education agency. The findings point to the strong benefits of

extended and extensive field experiences in K-12 classrooms for pre-service

teachers. The extended field experiences provided a multi-tiered framework

that allowed for peer mentoring and contextualised classroom experjences

that contributed to an improved sense of self-eff icacy as pre-service teachers

part~cipated in hands-on-teaching.

Jun (2004) conducted a study on "The influence of quality

technology support on teachers' effective technology integration in relation to

the maturity of a school work environment as a professional learning

community." The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of

quality technology support (QTS) on teachers' effective technology integrat~on

(ETI) in relat~on to a school work environment as a profess~onal learning

community (PLC). Results of the study revealed that only QTS had a

6 2 Review of Literature

significant effect on teachers' ETI, whereas PLC did not have a significant

effect on teachers' ETI level.

Anderson (2004) conducted a study on "A study of pre-service

teacher exposure to technology in the college classroom and field

experience." This study evaluates the exposure of pre-service teachers at the

University of Alabama at Birmingham to technology in the collage classroom

and field experience as compared with the Alabama State Department of

Education technology standards for teacher education programmes. Findings

include identification areas for improvement, as well as of areas where

standards are adequately addressed.

Tran (2004) conducted a study on "Effects of formative feedback

and assessment on self-regulation in pre-service teacher preparation." The

study concludes that at any points during standards-based, technology-

supported instruction when student persistence andlor effort is found to be

lagging, feedback that provides accurate and concrete information on how to

persist or invest more effort results in increased achievement for all learners,

regardless of the~r prior knowledge or self-efficacy

McCauley (2004) conducted a study on "Mathematical wrlt~ng in

the elementary classroom." In this study, fourth and fifth grade students at

River View Elementary participated in mathematics activities requiring written

and oral dialogue. These dialogues were analysed to determine how their

mathematical understandings were reflected in their written and oral

discussion. An examination of pre and post mathematical writing occurred to

determine the effect the dialogue had on students' mathematical writing.

Findings of the study indicate that student's beliefs about mathematics

evolved from mathematics as simply computing and a silent activity to math

involving strategies and being a sensible activity.

The study by Etsey (2004) indicates "The effects of

comprehension strategy instruction on Ghanaian English language learners'

comprehension processes and text understanding." The purpose of this study

was to investigate the extent to which the explicit teaching of a repertoire of

reading comprehension strategies would (a) improve the comprehension

ability of Ghanaian English language learners on a comprehension test and

(b) improve their comprehension monitoring and the repertoire of strategies

they use.

Based on the results of this study, it is concluded that English

language learners can benefit from explicit comprehension strategies

instruction; however, consideratron must be given to particular issues related

to English language learners, the seiection of texts and the environment for

instruction.

The study by Chon (2005) on "Designing good institutional

contexts for innovation in a technology-mediated learning environment"

develops a research framework to delineate the relationships among

knowledge sharing (KS), coordination and support of technology-mediated

learn~ng environment (CTML) and three antecedents of technology-mediated

learning (TML) innovation. Results indicate that KS has a positive effect on all


the three antecedents of TML innovation, while CTML exerts a positive impact

only on instructors' ability to explore.

"Multimedia cases towards a bridge between theory and

practice" is the title of the study that was carried out by Blijleven (2005). The

study was conducted within the context of MUST project (Multimedia in

Science and Technology). The project develops and investigates multimedia

cases for the professional development of prospective teachers in elementary

science education,

In this study, formative evaluation has been used to test and

improve the quality of colour and light and the guiding task. Finally,

summative evaluation investigates in what way the examination of a

multimedia case via guiding task contributes to a meaningful interaction

between theory and practice.

3.2 STUDIES RELATED TO COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUCTION AND

WEB-BASED TECHNOLOGY

Use of computer-assisted instruction began almost

srrnultaneously and independently in the areas of computer, system sciences,

engineering and psychology. The first demonstration of computer-assisted

instruction was accomplished by Rath et al. (1959) at the Thomas J. Watson

Research Centre of IBM in New York. They developed the computer-assisted

~nstruction programme In Binary Arithmetic and the programme was good

enough to generate of its own exercises for the practice of the students

according to their needs


Koohang (1967) studied the attitudes of pre-service teachers

towards the use of computers in instruction. He tried to know the effect of

gender, duration of computer experience and nature of computer experience

on computer attitudes. The main findings of the study were:

(a) Male subjects showed slightly higher positive attitudes towards

computer-assisted instruction than female students;

(b) Subjects that had more computer experience showed greater positive

attitudes towards using a computer;

(c) Subjects that were exposed to computer programming andlor

instructional applications of computers scored higher mean scores.

Suppes (7968) compared the Stanford achievement test scores

of 925 students who were given an average of ten minutes daily of computer

based Mathematics computation instruction with those of 1028 control

students who received traditional instruction. CAI produced equivalent or

superior results when effects were corrected for t~me spent in instruction.

Vinsonhaler and Brass (1 972) summarised results from 10

independent studies of computer supported drill and practice involving more

than 30 separate experiments with about 10,000 subjects. They concluded

that CAI drill and practice method at the elementary school was more effective

than traditional teaching method raising the standard test scores.

Dudley (1974) conducted a study to test the effectiveness of

CAC for teaching Economics. The objective of the study was to find out

whether the use of GAL would result ~n higher student achievement in

66 - Review of Literature

understanding Economics. The study revealed 20 percent increase in mean

score of those students using computer-assisted learning material. The study

also revealed that the computer is a valuable teaching aid in Economics.

In 70s, the field of computer-assisted instruction was grown

widely in different directions like curriculum development, computer literacy,

counselling, tutoring, testing, etc. Adequate work has been done towards

developing the educational uses of microcomputer by educators and

computer scientists like Jamieson (1994). They developed various packages

of computer-assisted instructions for tutoring as well as for drill and practices.

This tempted the research workers in the fields of education and psychology

to investigate as to how these computer-assisted instructions affected

learning of students.

In the literature, many claims are formulated about what m~ght

be accomplished in actual teaching practice, when microcomputers are used

in a proper and intensive way. Menis (1980) studied 402 Grade X students

having lower achievements in mathematics in the previous class. They found

that the students who were brighter in Mathematics did not on an average

improve their grades On the contrary, it was identified the weaker students

improved their grades remarkably. This concludes that this method was more

effective for low achievers.

Bukatman (1 981) conducted a study on the effects of computer

assisted instruction for mastery of multiplication of facts on {earning disabled

elementary school children differing in locus control. Results revealed that

67 Re view of Literature

students possessing an internal locus control were able to learn more

independently with less teacher intervention and direction than those who

possessed an external locus control.

The purpose of Powell's (1985) study was to determine the

effects of three forms of computer-assisted instruction (drill and practice,

instructional game, flash cards) and traditional teaching on elementary level

disabled students' knowledge of multiplication facts. The results obtained

showed no significant differences among the four groups either in respect of

their achievements or in relation to retention of material.

Whiting (1986) studied the use of the computer programme as a

replacement for a human tutor. Analysis of the responses showed that the

use of the programme met with a tremendous approval only when a detailed

printed handout was provided to support it. Findings also revealed that

females used it as a means of tuition more than males.

The purpose of the research work of Anand and Ross (1987)

was to design and evaluate a computer-based adaptive strategy for teaching

mathematical rules. They inferred that adapting problem context to students'

interests can be an effective means of reducing comprehension problems,

simultaneously improving attitudes towards learning maths. The study also

demonstrated that with the availability of low cost microcomputer, such a

strategy will be pract~cal to use as well as in near future.

68 - Revrew of Literature

Gizara (1989) conducted "A comparison of the effects of student

controlled CAI and computer controlled CAI in a remedial programme for

solving stoichiometry problems in Chemistry."

This study compared the effectiveness of two computer-assisted

~nstruction programmes varying in degree of learner control. The two versions

of the programmes were used as a tutorial supplement to college general

chem~stry instruction on multi-step stoichiometry problems and were prepared

by the researcher for this study. Students were randomly assigned to the two

treatments. Results of the study indicated that students scoring high on the

pre-test did equally well with either treatments, whereas students who scored

Jow on the pre-test scored better when using the student controJled treatment.

A study was conducted by Martin (q989) on "The effects of

computer programming on students' problem solving skills." This study was

designed to determine whether any combination of treatment, cognitive

development level andlor gender had any effect on high school students'

problem solving skills. The research design was a quasi-experimental pre-

test - post-test design w~th non-equivalent groups. Statistical techniques

used in the study were multiple regression and analysis of covariance.

Findings from the present study and prior studies seem to

provide evidence that under appropriate conditions, instruction in computer

programming can iead to an increase in subjects' problem solving skills.

Chan (1989) studied the perceptions of elementary school

teachers on using the computer as a tutor Findings suggested that attitudes


were positively correlated to the duration of the use of computers. All the

elementary teachers were of the opinion that kids love it, but adults fear it,

probably because of the fact that any new idea is welcomed open-heartedly

by the younger generation, while the older generation is reluctant to it.

Furthermore, about 80 percent teachers suggested that CAI is more effective

in developing a positive or negative attitude in students towards computer.

Driscall (1991) compared the relative effectiveness of

microcomputer-assisted instruction and conventional instruction for the

teaching of reference skills to grade VII students. Comparisons were made in

terms of achievements, retention and instruction time. ANCOVA exercises

indicated that there were no significant differences in achievement and

retention levels for both the treatments whereas, CAI classes required less

instruction. Thus, it again confirms that CAI is more effective than the

conventional methods.

Mahapatra (1997) carried out a study on "Development and

effectiveness of computer-aided instruction in terms of achievement and

abstract reasoning of Class IX students." The study found that the CAI

proved quite effective and the students' retention towards CAI material were

pos~ t ive .

A study by Schick (1991) an "The use of computer-assisted

interactive video instruction with linguistic-minority students" was done to

measure the effectiveness of computer-assisted interactive video instruction

in the transmission of content-area concepts and vocabulary to Irngu~stic-


minority students. Results of Hotelling's T~ tests on content and vocabulary

measures, as well as on the repeated attitude questionnaire, indrcated no

significant difference between treatment groups. These findings would seem

to suggest that while computer-assisted interactive video is, in fact, an

effective medium of instruction for linguistic-minority students, the degree of

programme control, as revealed in these programmes, does not significantly

affect attitude or achievement.

A study was conducted by Lamazares (1991) on "The effects of

computer-assisted instruction on the writing performance and writing anxiety

of community college developmental students." This study set out to

investigate whether the writing performance and writing anxjety of

developmental community college students could be significantly affected by

the use of computers in a networked environment. Analyticai scores

revealed that the content of the computer essays produced by the CAI group

was rated significantly higher than the content of the paper-and-penc~l essays

produced by the same group.

Mickens (1991) conducted a study on the "Effects of

supplementary computer-assisted instruction on Basic Algebra 1 and Basic

Algebra 2 achievement levels of mathematics at-risk minority students " The

purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of supplementary

computer-assisted instruction materials on the achievement level and attitude

of Basic Algebra 1 and 2 urban minority students who have previously failed

in a semester of Basic Algebra. The f~ndings of the study indicated that

7 1 Review of L~terature

students in the experimental group receiving supplementary computer-

assisted instruction had greater academic achievement than students in the

control group. The achievement level was greater for the female students of

the experimental group than for the male students of the experimental group.

Wills (1992) conducted a s tudy on t h e topic "A comparison of

student performance between an integrated learning-system computer

approach and traditional teacherltextbook with computer-assistance

approach." The purpose of this study was to ana ly se the performance

difference among students receiving direct math instruction from a network

computer approach using an integrated software programme and students

receiving direct instruction from the traditional teacherltextbook computer-

assisted approach.

Student reactions were positive to both computer approaches.

A majority of teachers preferred using the integrated learnjng system

approach due to the self-paced instruction in a multimedia format.

A study was conducted by Moriarty (1992) on the topic: "The

relationsh~p between teacher in-service training and the integration of

educational software into the elementary school curriculum." Findings of the

study indicated that teachers who received in-service ranked their in-service

train~ng low on the key software integration items, writing performance and

behavioural objectives, selection and use of a variety of educational

technology and use of educational software as part of curriculum

development.

72 Revte w of Literature

Peach (1996) conducted a study on "The effects of knowledge

and type of instructional objectives on intentional learning with World Wide

Web-based linear and hypermedia instruction." This study explored the use

of different types of instructional objectives with learning from linear and non-

linear instruction presented in the World Wide Web.

There were no significant differences found in this study as a

result of the instructional objectives. Other significant factors influencing

learning were found. Students who reported prior computer experience had

greater overall learning in both treatments and students who had prior

hypermedia experience had greater high-order learning in the non-linear

treatment.

B~elema (1996) conducted a study on the topic: "Factors

affecting ~mplementation of ~nteractive, computer-mediated jnstructional

techniques for instructors and learners at a distance." Efforts related to

planning the needed electronic infrastructure and the course design and

efforts related to implenientation of computer-mediated cominunicat~on are

described in the qualitative study. Recommendations include instructional

design for the CMC context, activating self-directed learn~ng, providrng

feedback and developing collaborative electronic projects.

Hall (1996) conducted a study on "Differential effects of

prediction versus reading in support of learning from a computer-based

conceptual model." The purpose of this study was to compare two

instructional strategies that included use of a simulation of a one-way ANOVA


One strategy caused learners to make predictions before using the simulation,

while the other strategy left prediction a suggestion option. The results

suggest that for the population of this study, the embedded strategy of making

predictions before using a computer simulation does not influence

achievement on statistics concepts.

Wellman (1997) conducted a study on "The use of multiple

representations, higher order thin king skiils, interactivity and motivation when

designing a CD-ROM to teach self similarity." Four areas of focus were

derived for this study. First, CD-ROMs as a vehicle far students to use

multiple representations in the mathematics classroom. Second, CD-ROMs

as a tool for including interactivity in lessons. Third, CD-ROMs to heighten

the level of motivation of the students. Fourth, CD-ROMs as the best tool

available to manifest the most appropriate instructional design for the subject

matter. Findings of the study revealed that in the case of self-similarity, the

use of CD-ROMs added a tool that provided the students with a positive

learning experience that could not have been added with any other tool.

Thompson (1998) conducted a study on "Concerns and usage

of the lnternet by vocational education teachers in Idaho." The purpose of this

study was to examine and describe the current state of availability and use of

the Internet among high school vocational education teachers In Idaho and

evaluate the concerns these teachers have about using the lnternet in

teaching. It was found that the more often teachers use the lnternet In

conjunction with lesson planning, classroom instruction and personal

74 Review of Lderature

development, the more concerned they become about the impact, it will have

on their students, about working with their colleagues and others in

coordinating the use of the Internet.

Dodick (1998) conducted a study on the topic: "A comparative

study of computer networking in two schools in the Toronto Board of

Education." The study seeks to identify the pedagogy accompanying the

technology and the implications for mainstream and non-ma~nstrearn

students. A major conclusion from this study is that approaches to computer

networking in the two case schoots depended largely on the individual

pedagogy of the teachers.

Maya (1999) conducted a study to test the effectiveness of

computer assisted lesson in Biology for Standard Vtll. The main objectives of

the study were:

(1) To study the comparative effectiveness of CAI mode approach and

lecture method based on the topic 'tissue system' In terms of

achievement in realising certain outcomes

(2) To assess the comparative effectiveness of computer ass~sted

instruction and lecture method in realising certain selected educational

outcomes.

The major findings of the study were:

(1) Computer assisted instruction is significantly superior to lecture

method in terms of achievement and in realising educational outcomes

75 Revre w of Literature

categorised under cognitive, affective, psychomotor and social

aspects.

(2) The existing curricular factors are suitable to implement the CAI at

secondary schools.

A study was conducted by Smith Terry (2002) on "The effects of

online time management practices on self-regulated learning and academic

self-efficacy." This study investigates the use of a web-based mechanism that

was designed to attempt to influence levels of self-efficacy by engaging

participants in an experimental procedure. The process encouraged

participants to monitor their time management behaviours and engage in self-

regulated learning process. Although no significant findings were discovered

via the statist~cal analysis, many implications regarding the development and

implementation of future interventions can be inferred.

Balasubramanian and Rangaraj (2002) conducted a study on

"Development and validation of syllabus oriented computer-based

instruct~onal package in teaching Physics." The objectives of the study were:

(1) To develop syllabus-based computer software packages in teaching

Physics at higher secondary level;

(2) To validate the developed computer software packaged from

technical and pedagogical point of view by experts, educat~onists and

practising teachers.

The developed computer software packages have proved quite

effective in teaching Physics.


Chapman (2003) conducted a study on "An assessment of

business teacher educators' adoption of computer technology." The purpose

of this study was to assess and identify the factors that influence business

teacher educators to adopt computer technology methods and utilise them in

their instruction and to determine the extent to which business teacher

educators are adopting computer technology in their teaching.

Findings from this study revealed that the largest percentage of

the business teacher educators were early adopters. They indicated that they

always used word processing and almost always integrated computers,

projectors and e-mail in their instruction.

Card (2003) conducted a study on "Teachers' perceptions of

using ICT (Information and Communication Technology) in the classroom

The investigation found that majority of teachers expressed confidence rn

using computers, but were not confident enough to use them in the

classroom Feelings of vulnerability and poor understanding as to how the

technology can be used in the classroom account for some of this lack in

confidence.

''A multivariate analysis of students' perceptions regarding web-

based multimedia mater~als as learning tools for human anatomy" was the

study conducted by Jung (2004) to (a) investigate the relationship between

three educational factors and (b) determine which subcategories among the

educational factors significantly affect the learners' perception.

77 Review of L~terature

Judging from the overall responses, it was concluded that the

web-based multimedia materials were useful for both anatomical lab activities

and knowledge construction.

The study conducted by Casanova (2004) made an analysis of

computer-mediated communication (CMC) technologies as tools to enhance

learning. Findings indicated that faculty was mainly using CMC technologies

to support teaching practices and to improve teacher's productivity. ITS were

basically targeted to increase interactivity, open avenues for feedback and

provide online resources, but less used for inquiry-based and active learning.

Fullick (2004) conducted a study on "Knowledge building among

schoai students working in a networked computer-supported learn~ng

environment." This study describes an investigation into the use of online

discussion forums (both asynchronous and synchronous) to support students

(aged 13/14 years) in two English schools as they conducted science

investigations.

The outcomes of the study suggest that students employ a

range of tacit tools and rules when engaging In knowledge-build~ng and that

the process of critical incidental identification and recall used in the research

may be employed as a valuable pedagogical tool when online discussion is

used with students.

Gurvitch (2004) conducted a study on "The development and

validation of a computer mediated simulation (CMS) train~ng application

designed to enhance task modification decisions among pre-service physical

78 Revrew of L~terature

education teachers." The purpose of this study was ( 7 ) to develop the CMS

training application designed to enhance appropriate interactive decisions

among pre-service physical education teachers and (2) to validate the CMS

training application for its purpose.

Findings from this study emphasise the importance of

developing the decision making skills among pre-service teachers and

establish the need for further examination of these skills in teacher education

programmes.

A study was conducted by Moser (2004) on "Theories,

techniques and the impacts of computer-mediated conferencing in a university

writing centre toward a model for training programs." This study started with

the understanding that there are significant behaviour, communication and

tutoring technique differences between online tutoring and f2f tutoring that can

affect tutor training.

Coding scheme was created out of the interview transcr~pts and

the tutorial responses of this study that focused on the techn~cal and soc~al

aspects of the online conferencing, which helped objectjvely the nature of

computer-mediated conference.

Meza (2004) conducted a study on "The use of computer

technology by college-bound seniors graduating from a large urban high

school in a Southwest border community." The purpose of the research was

to describe and examine how college bound seniors use computer technology

to pursue higher education. According to what was found in this study.

79 Rewew of Literature

college bound seniors primarily used computer technology to prepare, select

and apply to college. Therefore, there should be more emphasis placed on

computer technology to assist college bound seniors in their endeavour to

pursue higher education.

A study was conducted by Ellis, Marcus and Taylor (2005) on

"Learning through inquiry: Student difficulties with online course-based

material." This study investigates the case-based learning experience of 133

undergraduate veterinarian science students. Using qualitative methodologies

from relational student learning research, variation in the qual~ty of t h e

learning experience was identified.

A key outcome of this study was that a significant percentage of

the students surveyed adopted a poor approach to learning with online

resources in a blended experience even when their overall learning

experience was related to cohesive conceptions of veterinary science and that

the difference was more marked for less successfu~ students.

Weller (2005) conducted a study on "Students' experience of

components versus integrated learning environments." This study examines

the student experience of two virtual learning environments, one ~ntegrated

approach and the other component. The study suggests that the component

approach is a viable one from a student perspective, the broader context In

which virtual learning environment operates is important in student

perceptions and that poor system performance may have unpredictable

consequences for the learning experience


3.3 STUDIES RELATED TO CO-OPERATIVE LEARNING

One of the largest and longest studies of co-operative learning

was conducted by Weigel (1975) in trio-ethnic Mexican, American and Anglo,

black classroom. They found that co-operative learning reduced teachers'

reports of interactive conflict

Johnson (7976) conducted a study where students engaged in

!earning together activities. It was seen that they made more altruistic choice

on a task similar to the choice made than did the students who had worked

competitively or individualistically.

Blancy (1977) conducted a field survey to assess systematically

the effect of interdependent learning groups as opposed to traditional teacher

taught competitive classes, upon the attitude and interpersonal liking of

elementary school students. The interdependent learning group manifested

higher self-esteem than controls.

DeVrices, Edwards and Slavin (1978) conducted stud~es on

intergroup relations. The samples involved in their studies varied in grade

level and in percentages of minority students. They found positive effects of

Teams-Games-Tournament (TGT) on friendship choices among black

Mexican, American and Anglo students.

Vygotsky (1978) found that collaborative activity among children

promotes growth because children of similar age are likely to be operating

within one another's proximal zone development niodelling in the collaborative

group behaviour more advanced than those who could perform as indrv~duals.

8 1 Revtew of Liferature

Study by Slavin (1990) indicates that while structured group work

appears to be more effective for cognitive gains, it can also lead to social and

affective developments, and be used specifically to promote team work and

co-operative attitudes.

Studies of the effects of co-operation on self-concept, self-

esteem and self-image have tended to have only slight or neutral effects,

however, despite positive anecdotal claims about their benefits (Osguthrope

and Scruggs, 7990).

Finally, positive social benefits have been found in studies of co-

operative grouping in multi-ethnic classes (Sharon, 1990). These involved

improved social relationships, liking for others, more cross-race and cross-

gender preference choices and reduced negative stereotyping.

Deen-Jeanie (1 991) compared cammunication and interaction

patterns in a college in Holland as a second language. The subjects were 16

native English-speaking students. Two lessons, taught using Co-operative

Learning (COL) and one using Teacher-Centred instruction (TC), were

videotaped and analysed. The COL lesson consisted of a review of

comparison structures using guided conversation and a review of some earlier

material. Results show that subjects took many more turns in the COL than In

the TC setting.

Arenz (1991) conducted a study on the topic: "Relationshrp of

computer-assisted co-operative learning to the acquisition of mathematical

problem-solving skills." The purpose of this study was to provide additional

82 Rewe w of Literature

knowledge of the way in which students develop mathematical problem

solving skills within a computer generated co-operative learning environment.

It was found that subjects engaged more frequently in the discussion of

algorithmic and routine procedures, but little time talking about rules of

relevant competencies. They relied more frequently on each other as a

resources for problem-solving, rather than help messages provided by the

computer.

Harward (1991) developed a handbook for High School Teachers

out of a series of seminars to provide in-service staff development on teaching

about the Constitution and the Bills of right to High School students. A section

of co-operative learning describes this approach to integrating students w~th

or without disabilities. It defines co-operative learning, identifies the difference

between co-operative and traditional groups and presents an agenda of

activities for the co-operative learning seminar segment.

Reid (1992) conducted a study to determine the effect of co-

operative learning strategies on mathematics achievement of the 7th graders.

The study concluded that co-operative group learning strategy was more

effective in promoting mathematics achievement.

Berg (1 993) conducted a study of college-bound 7 1 Ih graders and

assessed the feasibility and effectiveness of instruction that used a structured

co-operative learning technique. The study concluded that (1) students can

be expected to respond positively to the experience and to work co-

83 Review of L ! t e r a t u ~

operatively and productively together and (2) 94 percent of the time students

had on task interaction.

Ross (1994) conducted a case study of a grade 7 math class on

the effect of feedback on students' behaviour in co-operative learning groups

on 4 occasions over a 16-week period. After the second and third recordings,

students were given edited transcripts of their discussion and were trained in

how to interpret them. They used an instrument to appraise their group

processes 1-2 times per week thereafter. The self-assessment has a

beneficial impact on the frequency and quality of help seeking and help giving

on students' attitudes towards asking for help.

Sparapani (1 994) conducted a study to examine how teachers

from middle school to high school levels acquired their understanding of co-

operative !earning, how they used it in the dassroom and how they kept

students accountable for performance.

Pollard (1996), In a unique and original longitudrnal study of f ~ v e

children's first years in school has attempted to bring together evidence about

their social lives with friends, family and teachers, their learning experiences

and their formal school achievements. He has concluded that the children

who learned most effectively could manage their classroom activities so as to

derive support from both teacher and peers. The children could be effective

learners, when their self-confidence is high and the classroom social context

poses manageable risks.

84 Re view of Literature

Rothenberg and Johnson (1997) conducted a study titled

"Changes in pedagogy: A quality result of teaching heterogeneous classes."

This study describes and explains the ninth and tenth grade social studies

and science courses that emerged in the pedagogy of classroom teachers as

a result of participation in a detracting project. Teachers began to change

their practices, using co-operative learning and more student-centred

approaches. Teachers' expectations of students of initial lower tracks rose

and teachers co-operated more fully with each other. The changes teachers

made for these untracked classes affected their overall teaching.

Weber (7997) in her study identified practical strategies for

collaborating with parents, students, teachers and the wider learning

community in using multiple intelligence in the classroom. She listed ten

useful principles of change that provide springboards for improved

collaborations.

The purpose of the study conducted by Suh, Hwui-Suk (1998)

was to ~nvestigate the effects of various structures on achievement,

perceptions of the learning env~ronment and students' interactton behaviours

within a group. The study also examined the relationships among group

interaction behaviours within a group, ach~evernent and perception of the

group learning environment

The result of the study revealed that the weighted-grading

increased student ach~evement on the post-test than did individual-grading

condition


Johnson (2000) found that all co-operative learning methods had

a significant positive impact on student achievement. When the impact of

co-operative lessons was compared with individualistic learning, Learning

Together promotes the greatest effect, followed by Academic Controversy

group investigation, Teams-Games-Tournaments, Teams-Assisted-

Individualisation, STAD, Jigsaw and CIRC. The consistency of the results

and the diversity of the co-operative learning methods provide strong

validation for its effectiveness.

Ocker and Yaverbaum (2001) conducted a study on

"Collaborative learning environments: Exploring students' attitudes and

satisfaction in face-to-face asynchronous computer conferencing settings "

Empjrical f~ndings indicate that although students in both treatments were

equally satisfied with the quality of the collaborative solution that they

produced, students were more satisfied with the face-to-face collaboration

process. Compared to girls, boys were more comfortable with the concept of

collaborative team assignments.

Gopinath (2002) conducted a study on the effectiveness of co-

operative learning on interest and achievement in mathematics. The results

of the study reveal that co-operative learning is more efficient than

conventional method for students' achievement in mathematics and for

improving mathematical ~nterest.

Louis and Balon (2002) conducted a study to examine the

effectiveness of co-operative learning over conventional method of textbook

approach in enhancing achievement in English. Seventy, Vlll standard

students comprised the sample for the experiment. It was found that teaching

of English through co-operative learning is more effective than through

conventional method of textbook approach.

Mangal (2005) advocate co-operative and group learning in place

of the competitive and individualistic approach prevalent in our educational

system by redefining the roles of the teacher and the learner in a particular

teaching learning process. In this study, he examines the features,

advantages and hindrances in the path of co-operative learning.

A good majority of the studies reviewed in this chapter highlight

the importance of modern instructional strategies especially computer-

assisted instruction, €-learning, web-based learning, collaborative learning

and co-operative learning. These studies reveal that traditional teaching

methods should pave the way to modern instructional strategies for bringing

out increased achievement and better results. The review of related literature

enabled the investigator to frame the hypotheses and design the appropr~ate

tools for the present invest~gation.

CHAPTER lV

METHODOLOGY

-

INTRODUCTION

STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES USED L I

METHODS ADOPTED

TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES USED

DESCRIPTION OF TOOLS

SAMPLE FOR THE STUDY

PROCEDURE FOR DATA COLLECTION

review of related literature -...

Documents