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18 | Page REVIEW OF LITERATURE Basu et al. (2013) evaluated the gender differential attitude among professionals of Indian IT companies around Delhi. The study analyzed the most debated issues in the IT sector in India that how have the ender differential attitudes persisted in the technology sector which is the most advance sector. It was found that though women have capabilities, well- developed skills as well education, their opportunities are constrained by informal institutions such as caring being solely the women’s responsibility, limited support system/infrastructure, biased laws, rules and regulations and social attitude. The study confirmed the need to eradicate gender malice from the society and the organization for HR Management in highly skilled professions like IT sector. Rahjesh and Ekambaram (2013:87) study revealed that women are not as much interested in negotiation salaries, perks and bonuses, are not very keen in enhancing their niche skills; are not eager to hop jobs rather find it extremely uneasy to move themselves out of the comfort zones and do not have information professional networks as they are not able to put in efforts after office hours to build the same. Domestic responsibilities, distance from home to place of work and various other reasons have been the limiting factors that have contributed to the limiting career. ACHAM and FLEXI (2013) conducted study to understand on gender diversity among American multinationals/organizations operating in India. A total number of 51 organizations considered under study. The

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18 | P a g e

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Basu et al. (2013) evaluated the gender differential attitude among

professionals of Indian IT companies around Delhi. The study analyzed the

most debated issues in the IT sector in India that how have the ender

differential attitudes persisted in the technology sector which is the most

advance sector. It was found that though women have capabilities, well-

developed skills as well education, their opportunities are constrained by

informal institutions such as caring being solely the women’s responsibility,

limited support system/infrastructure, biased laws, rules and regulations and

social attitude. The study confirmed the need to eradicate gender malice

from the society and the organization for HR Management in highly skilled

professions like IT sector.

Rahjesh and Ekambaram (2013:87) study revealed that women are

not as much interested in negotiation salaries, perks and bonuses, are not

very keen in enhancing their niche skills; are not eager to hop jobs rather

find it extremely uneasy to move themselves out of the comfort zones and

do not have information professional networks as they are not able to put in

efforts after office hours to build the same. Domestic responsibilities,

distance from home to place of work and various other reasons have been

the limiting factors that have contributed to the limiting career.

ACHAM and FLEXI (2013) conducted study to understand on

gender diversity among American multinationals/organizations operating in

India. A total number of 51 organizations considered under study. The

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study found the 26 percent of women workforce participation rate found in

the companies that took part in the study. From the total workforce the

study found a dip at the middle level management from 31 percent of the

entry level to 22 percent in the middle management. From the middle

management there is a dip seen in senior management representation of

women i.e., from 22 percent of middle level to 15 percent on an average.

From the data it is found that the organization experienced 33 percent

attrition rate of women employees.

Smith et.al (2012), the study focuses on the discrimination and the

unfairness towards those women seeking leadership positions in the

organization. The study examined the degree to which women employees

are held responsible for the gender imbalance in leadership by classifying

those metaphors according to whether or not they recommend the

characteristics of women play a role in creating glass ceilings. This paper

highlights those obstacles hindering women reaching the top management in

the organizations.

Baneji et al. (2010) in their study reported the percentage of women

directorship on the boards of major companies for which few data are

available. According to this report, India has 5.4 percent of the directorships

being held by women, Canada with 15 percent, USA with 14.5 percent, UK

with 12.2 percent, Hong Kong with 8.9 percent and Australia with 8.3

percent of percentage of women on board.

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Ashcraft and Blithe (2010) conducted a study to examine the key

factors which come in the way of women’s career progress and adequate

mechanisms to address the same were examined. The study found the

percentage of computing occupations held by women has been decline since

1991, in 2009 women made up only 25 percent of the IT workforce, 56

percent of women in technology companies leave their organizations at the

mid-level point i.e., between 10-20 years in their career. It was reported that

wide variation in the salary gap exists by occupation. He report discloses

that women hold only 10 percent of board directors in Fortunie 500

technology companies.

Buddhapriya (2009) states, although conflict between career and

family roles can be a potential source of stress for both and men manager it

affects women in India more than men because of many reason. While

social, legal and economic reforms have helped women to join the

workforce in India, the continuing influence of normative attitudes and

values have prevented them from altering the perceptions of the society as

well as their own regarding their sex roles (p 34). He explained how family

responsibilities have hindered many women from entering the workforce, he

states that the talent pool of women candidates at the top level is very

shallow and the Indian organization must understand that societal

expectations and family responsibilities do come in the way of the women

professionals and their career decisions.

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Warren (2009) in his assessment of talent management systems

describe that gender bias permeates the promotion and performance review

process. He found that almost half of technical women reported that gender

bias influences performance evaluations. Similarly one in four women

reported that women were often seen as intrinsically less capable than men

in the IT companies.

NASSCOM-Mercer report (2009) emphasized that Glass ceiling still

prevails in the Indian IT industries as most women stagnate at the junior and

the middle levels of their career alongside factors like women still feel less

competent and experience personally the career break as a trend which hold

them back to re enter the labor market.

Susan b. Hansen (2009), the emphasized the importance on

individual strategies helps to eliminate the various barriers caused by family

responsibilities, discrimination and gender stereotypes. To be succeed in the

profession woman has be twice as good as a male counterpart in their

organization. To get advance in the women employee career, she has to

develop leadership skills, to be a leader competence is an important quality

where women have to be more trained up in the organization. In order to

advance in their profession, organization structures expects employees to

work longer hours and especially these long work hours may impede

women’s advancement in their profession.

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Accenture’s global research study (2009) found that 46 percent of

female executives are inadequately challenged. Women accept additional

responsibilities to advance in their professional growth. Women seek new

challenges and stretch themselves to beyond their comfort level to remain

competitive. They found that women employees are less successful in their

profession; they are less innovator.

Hewlett et al. (2008) the study found that, the key barriers for the

advancement of women employee is found to be the lack of mentorship from

the top management and the lack of role models in the organization. The

appropriate mentorship will have an impact on the retention and

advancement of women employees in their professional growth. from the

study it is found that 40 percent of women employees form technical

experience reported lacking role models, lacking of mentors and 84 percent

reported that lacking sponsors or someone who would help them to make

their accomplishments visible throughout the organization.

Gary et.al. (2008), found that advancement to the managerial

position it is necessary for an employee to get international experience. In

the US and many other developed countries women took their steps in

breaking the glass ceiling barrier by getting expatriate experience and

reaching top management positions. In most of the multinational companies

very few employees are utilizing this expatriate experience, due to the lower

percentage of women expatriates will de-motivating the lower level women

managers to not utilizing the opportunity and they will leave the

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organization. Due to this lack of expatriate women managers there is lack of

opportunity for women employees to advance into the top management

position.

Fassinger (2008) posits that in organizations women employees face

an unfriendly work environment. The study conclude that women

employees are excluded from the social networks, corporate activities and

organizational information where these activities were act as barriers for

women employees career growth opportunities. Where these category of

activities will enhance the employees promotional opportunities. Women

employees feel that as they are not entertained in the old boys club, social

networks and so on where women are extra scrutinized will act as barriers

which are normally act not in favor of women employees.

Strategic Direction (2008), found that those women who become

pregnant during their career require a reasonable period for their maternity

and most of the situation women will take a break in her career to take care

of her family, to spend time with a pre-school child and to complete their

families. For women employees motherhood remains a vital element in their

life in spite of the ideals of shared parenting and household management

responsibility, even though these bulk of household work, continues to be

done by women. The societal expectations expect women to take time off

from their work when a child needs during any health issues; come home

early enough to spend time with children and that mothers act as chauffeurs,

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getting children to various extracurricular activities like sporting events,

dancing classes and so on.

Alison, Krista (2008), found that supportive co-workers can serve to

make balancing work and family easier by helping to pick u the slack if an

employee needs to leave early for family reasons. Women working in the

paid labor force confront different evaluations of their behavior by society.

Women workers working in sex-atypical occupations and industries may be

reluctant to take advantage of available programs because they view the

workplace environment as being unsupportive of taking such an action.

They suggested that as the percent of women in an occupation and industry

decreases, that women will be more likely to encounter work and family

conflict.

Eagly and Carli (2007) in their study found that women are les

suitable to leadership positions. The perception about women were create an

ideology in women by promoting women as they are wonderful effect, they

are the better care takers of children, better in handling household

responsibilities and by placing women in a highly favorable light. But these

stereotypical images initially appear to place women in highly favorable

light and making women to go out of the boundary to prove them as a good

leader.

Stone (2007) in their study found that women do take career break to

raise her family and to rise their children. Women employees leave their

prestigious jobs due to the gender inequality they face in their homes. The

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study found that male employees are not willing to compromise or adopt

their own career to get involved in the family responsibility and child care as

women employees do for their family responsibilities.

Upadhya and Vasavi (2006a) study indicated that the workforce was

less heterogeneous than in commonly assumed. The regional diversity in the

IT workforce was addressed and the report disclosed that though the

proportion of women in the software industry has been growing steadily

over time, and a limited number of women IT managers have a presence,

they are still under represented constituting about 24 percent of the IT

workforce. Further the report also shared insights of women who are

underrepresented at the middle and senior levels.

Upadhya (2006), found that the foremost factor hindering the career

growth for women in IT sector is the requirement of women having to attend

short/long/on-site work commitments. He points out unmarried women are

preferred over the married ones for obvious reasons and as unmarried

women find difficulty to adjust with male colleagues abroad while married

women prefer not to take up these assignments due to domestic and social

obligations. Thus non-availing of assignment or continuous refusal therefore

ultimately affects career growth of women and costs their promotion

prospects.

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Verma et.al (2006) studied those factors which will hold back

women executives from accepting international assignments such as safety

and security concerns, potential negative interactions with freight

subordinates, and positive loneliness.

Department of trade and Industry (2005) conduct the research on

retention of women employees in the industry. The study found that the

management has to put more effort in understanding the needs of a women

employee, especially where family commitments are concerned.

Management should maintain gender biases in their organizational policies.

Management should have an equality and fairness among pay, flexible

working, distribution of project work and promotions between genders.

Management should create more opportunities for women employees to

work part-time, and management should involve women in the corporate

activities and should make women to feel included in a male dominated

industry.

Ryan and haslam (2005) in their study used the term as Glass Cliff

for the hurdles for women seeking promotions within their organizations.

They hypothesize women are not often promoted to secure leadership

positions. They study observed that women are promoted, but glass cliff

phenomenon only takes place after women are in leadership positions. The

glass cliff concept relates to those women who have broken through the

glass ceiling and put their step to the top positions which are not

predominant positions. The existence of a these glass cliff in an organization

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indicates that even though promotion is provided to women employees it

may increase the possibility of failure for women leaders in the organization.

South Asia Pre-WSIS Seminar (2005) a research paper submitted at

the seminar criticized that the current working environment and existing

managerial structure, systems, policies, procedures pose greater obstacles to

women than as compared to men. Women also experience hardship in terms

of career entry, to be retained in the organization, and growth prospectus

also poses its own challenges. High work pressures, meeting deadlines,

frequent visits out of country etc compelled women either getting dropped

out or stagnating in the lower level jobs impeding their career growth.

Ghosh et al. (2005) found that in India various factors are responsible

for women employees’ career right from their education to their career.

Mainly socio economic factors are responsible for women lower grade

education, which include direct cost, the necessity for female labor, low

expected returns and social restrictions. In Indian society, the position of

women can be measured by their less participation in decision making and

by the degree of access they have with their outside world.

Niederle (2005) studied that women are less willing to compete with

their co-workers as women dislike and shy away from the competition. This

shyness and not participating in the competition will decrease the chance of

women employees’ career growth as they are not succeeding in competition

for promotions and higher jobs. This in turn will not allow women

employees’ to not take part in the higher positions.

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Maume (2004) noted that glass ceiling is a unique form of gender

and racial bias against women and this bias is more serve at later stages of

career development than at the entry level.

Arflen et al. (2004) studied on the glass walls that are present in the

organization. The study found that these glass walls act as barriers and

restrict women’s career growth in the organization. The study examined that

these walls will hold back women employees by not moving into the next

level in the corporate hierarchy and also to the senior positions. The barriers

were found to be such as lack of informal networks, male preconceptions

and stereotypes among women act as the greater limitations for women

employees in the organization.

Arfken et.al (2004) found that women are almost nonexistent in the

board rooms. They found that 63% of the companies surveyed have no

women directions on their board.

Linehan et al. (2004) in their study found that many female managers

do no actively engage in the self-promotion and development of social

network need to be considered for expatriate assignments as the same degree

of their male counterparts do in the organizations.

Deborah et al. (2004) observed the state of Tennessee as a case

study, the authors collected data on the large composition of publicly traded

corporations and compared the collected data to an original study conducted

in 1995. This article enlightens the various reasons for the minimal number

of women on boards. The study recommended organizations to enhance

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women employees to participate in strategic decisions; and population on the

board should reflect the Organizations consumer population. Thus, women

employees are a vital asset for the organization, but they are over-looked

resource in corporations.

Selmer and d leung (2003) in the study those corporate activities that

were available to men and were less available to women are as follows

Fast track programs

Individual career counseling

Career planning workshop

Lind and Kimberly (2003) showed that the women employees have

changed their goals over the years in response to the context of the lives.

Their goals had changed to adjust for real life and their career goals had

altered over time. The reasons for changing plans included financial

constraints that precluded college, greater interest in marriage and family, or

simply finding work at a good wage preferable to more career preparation.

This study evident that women participants had made multiple adjustments

in their own career plans to accommodate family needs and women

pointedly said that they had no regrets about their decisions to put their

families before their career. The participant expressed a strong desire to stay

with what they know to be a secure job with good benefits, putting off

additional schooling or career advancement opportunities until children are

older or more self-sufficient.

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Cotter and collegues (2001) examine three criteria for discerning the

effects of a glass ceiling. First, a glass ceiling exists when an artificial

barrier impede the advancement of women and minorities. In measuring

discrimination, analysts often control for education, work experience, tenure

with current employer, and family factors affecting productivity e.g. marital

or parental status. A second criterion for investigating the concept of a glass

ceiling is that one must use longitudinal data to examine job transition over

time. A third criterion for the existence of a glass ceiling is that inequality

grows over the life course; this implies that the barriers to mobility existing

early in a career become more severe later in the career.

Tharenou (2001) study found that women employees with the help

from their co-workers and top management can grow in their profession and

reach the top management positions. The study found that in organizations

where male hold higher percentage in number in the top management there

is less percentage of women employees are seen in top management. Those

women employees who work closely with women executives in top or those

women who were employed in companies where women employees hold a

higher percentage in the top management have a higher chance of getting

promotion into the high level in the organization.

Rothboeck et al. (2001) in their study identified factors act as hurdles

for women employees in their professional growth in the software industry.

The study concluded that work life balance is found to be the most

prominent factor that acts as an obstacle among the factors that hinders the

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career growth for women employees in the software industry. From the

study it is found that for women employees due to societal requirement and

commitment towards their family they are unable to put more effort by

working off time when compared to their male counterparts.

Fountain (2000) women are more likely to experience a break in

their career due to marriage, child birth while choosing to work for short

durations and not accepting long term and outbound assignments shunning

themselves from high potential careers and loosing away the critical hour

and job segment. She also stated that the untimely shifts and long working

hours have been major detrimental factors impeding their career growth.

Researchers studied Glass Ceiling under different terminologies.

Nath (2000) in the study used the term ‘glass moulding’ to describe the

attitude of Indian managers in the organization. The woman managers are

pragmatic in recognizing and accepting that as women managers; they are

different from their male counterparts. Instead of attempting to emulate

their male colleagues, they use their differences to add value to the

organization in unique ways.

Susan et al. (1999), the study investigates that during the screening

stage of the selection process the gender of the evaluator, applicant, and

reference source have significant effect on the selection process. During the

selection process of an assistant principal, the authors hypothesize that there

exist a gender bias like male prefer male applicants and female prefer female

applicants. This hypothesis was based on the sex similarity-attraction

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paradigm. The authors anticipated that according to sex similarity-attraction

a relation exists between the gender of the applicant and the rater. Thus,

from the study results it was found that the evaluations of administrative

positions of female applicants are improving to the amount that female

applicants were more likely to be offered employment interviews than male.

Huffman (1999) study finds that even though women are well

equipped with education, work experience they are not willing to take

supervisory positions or responsibilities. The study emphasized that for

women employees the work decisions are mainly influenced by their family

factors like the presence of the dependents to take care off, their marital

status. Based on these influential factors women employees are less likely

to hold supervisory authority at work.

Kapoor et al. (1999), married women employees reported that they

face difficulties in maintaining a balance between work and family and their

careers suffer because of family responsibility.

Lori anne wardi (1999) draws attention to the factors like women

employees not being mentored and lack of senior women sharing their

experiences as a critical factor hindering the growth of women employees.

Most women IT professionals lack networking opportunities with senior

members and had if the same would have been provided they would have

performed better.

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Kaifi & mujataba in their study show that women have an extremely

high score on the technical and human skills than men which allow them to

work effectively than their co-workers at their levels. Women have the

perception that the promotion into the management hierarchy is often linked

to a manager’s ability to acquire the management skills and competencies

that a particular company believes are important.

Vale and gold (1998) found that organizational culture act as the

greatest barrier to women’s professional within the organizational. Women

employees rarely accept for promotions as they want to be out from those

councilors whose style of management is bullying and control. It was found

that a supportive organizational culture will motivate women employees to

accept promotions and in turn will help in their professional growth.

Ragin et. Al (1998), in their study found the 96 percent have indicate

that to get success in the profession and to break glass ceiling barrier by

developing the professional style with which male employees are

comfortable with it. It is found that women managers should adapt those

styles of work where a male employee is comfortable, predominantly male

culture which will help women to succeed in their career.

Alison and stead (1998) found that there are barriers available to

support the notion that the glass ceiling exists for women, intact in many

areas. The study evident that, the ‘glass ceiling’ remains intact in many

corporate areas. The study found that the upper management demonstrates

support for the advancement of women in the organization. This article

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made an attempt to provide evidence of organizations strategies that have

proved successful in making progress toward shattering the glass ceiling.

Kanters (1997) work showed that female tokens were likely to be left

out of important informal networks, to be constantly watched and to be

subjected to ‘boundary-heightening’ exaggerated displays of masculinity

from men meant to demonstrate to women that they did not fit in.

According to kanter, women must be 15% or less of an occupation in order

to truly be considered token.

Huang (1997) used survey data on 950 male and female lawyers

from law schools to determine the sources of male-female earnings

difference. The study found that only part of the earnings differences were

due to occupational segregation (practice setting); females also experienced

different returns to experience. They noticed that females suffered an

earnings penalty for marriage and family where male lawyers experienced

earnings increases from marriage and family. The study argued that

discrimination occurs through practice setting or firm type segregation that

is women are crowded into the lower paying segments.

Filiz (1997), found that in Istanbul, turkey the mean numbers of

women were significantly lower than the mean numbers of men at each

hierarchical level. There was a drop in the proportion of women as the level

in the organizational hierarchy increases and they found that only 2% of the

top management managers were female. In their study, women top

managers indicated that duties of most women at home were barriers for

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them to succeed in their jobs especially if the husband’s job comes first.

Men were not used to seeing women as managers and not even open to the

idea. Women once they were married or had a child, they prefer their home

to the job and necessarily not to take responsibility in a job.

Burke and mckeen (1996) have reported that those women

employees working in managerial positions in organizations with mostly

men percentage were higher in top level positions were less satisfied with

their jobs. These women employees had greater intensions to quit their job

than those women in organizations who worked under a female in top level

positions. They argued that presence of higher number of male employees

in the top or executive position and the absence of women in executive

positions may resulted in the disinclination to create policies which are

supportive for women employees career goals from lower level managerial

to top level managerial positions and their professional growth.

DeBare (1996) studied on the gender inclusivity in the organization.

The study concluded that if women employees have to break the glass

ceiling in the professional ladder, then they have to work in tandem with

men if they have to grow to the same position in the organization as men

grow. The study observed that there are various issues that act as barriers

for women employees’ career growth, ass such as long working hours, low

job content, imbalanced pay scale, gender discrimination, physical illness

from the dual work in office and home, informal networks, lack of role

models, mentors and support from co-workers.

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Foster (1995) stated that “ [the] glass ceiling remains in place largely

due to the professions male-oriented, one-dimensional paradigm under

which only those attorneys able to focus solely on their careers can

succeed”. He also states that “the ideal female lawyer is unmarried and

childless”, because when a women marry or have children, then male

probabilities exceed that of females. Child rearing responsibilities penalize

female more than males in single households.

Wright et al.(1995) in the study hypothesize that for women

employees the presence of dependents in their houses will impact on women

to not to pursue jobs involving authority and responsibility, while for male

employees the presence of dependents in their houses will not much impact

on their selection of positions in the organization.

Alder (1984, 1994) examined that organization should create

international assignments which will include women employees in the

assignments. Most of the organizations assume that due to cultural

prejudices from their home country, women employees are less willing to

take the international assignments.

Ohlott et.al., (1994), in their study found that even though men and

women are present at similar organization levels women are not given the

same amount of responsibility or supervisory tasks as males.

Adams (1993) mention their study that women are unwilling to

relocate for the sake of their career; that women leadership style is not suited

to the executive suite; that a woman natural role is that of the nurturing and

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supporting gender and are more predisposed to the career areas of teachers,

nurses, secretaries, homemakers and so on.

Kabasakal (1991) argues that Turking women’s own attitudes about

what traits comprise a good manager keep them from advancing to more

powerful senior positions. They found that women have difficulty in

identifying with the masculine traits that are traditionally associated with

good management and leadership skills

Murgai (1991) in their study renowned that in an organization the

highly prestigious and fairly paid positions like administrative position were

held by male employees and where as female employees are tend to occupy

with the less paying job and engage in less prestigious position in the

organizations. These placements in turn may act as barriers in women

employees’ professional growth and not allow women to reach the top and

prestigious positions in the organization.

Lim (1990), this study reveals that for women employees the family

act as an obstacle and in turn it makes them feel incapable. The study found

that, based on the data from a number of surveys conducted in the mid-

1980s showed that the percentage of Malay women working outside the

home was not greatly different and did not indicate restriction of Malay

women from the employment sectors that entail contact with men. They

found that Malay women faced the greatest objections from their husbands

and we most restricted in their efforts to assume economic roles outside the

home. They were also least likely to feel confident that they would be able

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to financially support themselves, much less their children, in spite of having

higher mean income from employment.

Neera jain and Shoma MuWierii in their study emphasized that glass

ceiling exist in India as it does in the world. Women despite being highly

educated often remain in lower management position with little access to

challenging assignments and power. Women are often promoted to senior

positions but the job content and compensation remain lower than those

offered to men in similar position. The study found that 84 percent of the

respondents agree that women face career interruption for child and family

responsibility, 73 percent of the women agree that they are reluctant to

relocate and 52 percent agree that women are unwilling to make sacrifice to

retain in top positions. The study concluded that women stop believe in

them-selves and they are conditioned to believe that unless they adopt male

attributes they will not achieve success in their work arena.

Mc Cormack (1985) the study emphasized that women employees

still face glass ceiling barriers in their organization. They discussed that

women employees’ do included in the workforce at the entry level to have

diversified work culture but still women employees face glass ceiling

barriers in the organization. In the top management still men hold a lion

share throughout the world which in turn acts as a barrier for women

employees in reaching the top level in the corporate world. The study

concluded that glass ceiling do present in the career ladder of women

employee who want to put their steps into the top level especially the

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employees who are in middle level of their career. When women employees

want to grow into higher position glass ceiling cannot be seen but when they

strike their heads then cannot grow more beyond it.

Bhalla and kaur concluded that in India labor force participation rate

for women is very low for various reasons like discrimination against

women in the workplace, lower wages; do not get entry into paid jobs. Most

women leave the job once she get married, especially she marries to highly

educated male who earn a substantial income. The study concluded that

once women enter the labor force, the barriers are low. They observed that

women have less experienced than men for the same age and education due

to child bearing. They also pointed out that if given that education levels are

reaching parity with male employees than the future wage gaps will decline

but not because of better non-discriminatory practices of the organization.

Richard martell and Christopher parker examined in their study that

for women employees the stereotypes about themselves act as a major

barrier in their career. The researcher found that perception about women

employees act as barriers for their career and the barriers were found to be

women employees are lacking with those characteristics which are very

necessary for the career progress and women employees have a ideology and

found themselves as they are less qualified than male employees.

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Kanter (1977) in the study examined the representation of women

employees will influence them to get higher work experience in the

organization. The study also found that women’s proportional representation

will influence and support to increase women employee proportion in the

organization and in turn will help to reduce the discrimination against

women employees in the organization.