Chapter 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Due to increased human and animal population the natural resources particularly

Soil and other Land resources are under tremendous pressure. Hence, present day

agriculture demands utilization of improved technology, scientific management and

conservation of existing soil and land resources. This requires comprehensive know l̂edge

of the genesis, morphological, physical and chemical properties, geographical distribution

and classification of the soils occurring in nature. Some of the important research work

carried out in India and abroad regarding characterization, classification and genesis of

red and black soils are presented here. The available information is reviewed under

different headings.

2.1 MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS V5 LANDFORM

Sharma and Roychowdhury (1988) while relating soil-landform relationship in a

basaltic terrain concluded that soils on higher topographic situations are shallow to

moderately deep. They are excessively to well drained, reddish brown to dark brown in

colour and medium textured with gravels and exhibit poor profile development. The soils

in the lower topographic situation is deep to very deep, moderate to poorly drained, very

dark greyish brown in colour, fine textured and exhibit good profile development.

Arun Prasad et al. (1989) during their study of profile development with

topography reported that soils on the hill top and mid slope was reddish brown to dark

reddish brown, while soils occurring in the lower slopes and depression were dark brown

to very dark greyish brown in colour. Texture of the soils of the upper slope was gravelly

loam. Mid slope and toe slope soils had extensive greying. Upland soils did not have any

redoximorphic feature indicating free drainage and deep ground water table.

Shyampura et al. (1994) while establishing soil-physiographic relationship on a

transect in Southern Rajasthan observed that soil on very steep slopes are shallow,

excessively drained and coarser in nature. Whereas the soils on gently sloping pediment

and undulating plains are deep, finer in texture and have better structural development.

Presence of clay cutans and fine clay to total clay ratio provided evidence of argillic

horizons in the soils on very gently sloping and nearly level plains. Sand/silt ratio

(>0.2mm) suggests lithological discontinuity between overlying Ap and underlying Bt

horizon.

Gupta and Tripati (1996) studied mineralogy, genesis and classification of soils of

northwest Himalayas developed on different parent materials and variable topography.

They observed that light mineral fi-action comprised highest of the total sand with quartz,

feldspar and muscovite and heavy fraction consisting 11.3 to 0.7 per cent with several

minerals. Plagioclase feldspar was highly weathered. Biotite, augite and hornblende were

also of weathered nature.

While characterizing the soils of different physiographic imits of coastal areas of

Balasore district of Orissa, Maji and Bandopadhyay (1996) reported that soils of inland

plains are lighter in texture, acidic in reaction and have lower salinity. The lower deltaic

soils are heavier in textiu^e, have higher cation exchange capacity, almost neutral pH and

are more saline. The soil properties in the coastal plains are intermediate between inland

plain and lower delta in respect of pH, salinity and cation exchange capacity.

Walia and Rao (1996) have studied the morphology and other characteristics of

six typical Pedon formed on sandstone, shale, granite and colluvium representing

different landforms of Banda district of Uttar Pradesh. They observed that the soils are

deep to very deep, excessively to well drained, reddish brown to red, mildly acidic, low to

medium in cation exchange capacity, medium to high in organic carbon with wide

textural variations depending on parent material and physiography.

Sawney et al. (1996) investigated magnitude of soil variability in morphological

and other characteristics across different landscape in the Siwalik Hills. A statistical

analysis of horizon thickness determinations showed a consistently wide range of

variability within the different landscape position as indicated by high standard deviations

and co-efficient of variations. The soils developed on toe slopes showed thicker horizons

whereas shoulder slope showed thirmer horizons with minimum solum thickness.

During the study of landscape-soil relationship on a transect in central Assam, Sen

et al. (1997) have reported that the soils are derived fi-om sedimentary and metamorphic

parent materials showed variations in pedogenic development of the soils with respect to

their geology and physiographic positions.

Challa et al. (2000) while doing the characterization and classification study of

problematic Vertisols of Maharashtra reported that Khondwad and Kadambhe soils of

piedmont plains are dark greyish brown while Amalner and Valpi soils of floodplain are

dark yellowish brown in colour.

While studying properties and genesis of red and black soils in North Kamataka

Rudramurthy and Dasog (2001) have reported that redder hue, high chroma and

abundance of coarse fragments are the characteristic features of red soils. Yellow hue,

low chroma and less coarse fragments on the other hand characterized black soils.

2.2 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS

2.2.1 Distribution of soil separates

Eswaran and Bin (1978) while studying the soils formed on granite in an area

receiving annual precipitation of 3,257 mm in Malaysia reported that clay content of soil

remains constant throughout the solum indicating least translocation of clay in the profile.

Rajamarmar and Krishnamoorthy (1978) observed that the clay content of the

forest soils of Western Ghats in south India increased with depth of the profile.

While characterizing the red and laterite soils of northern plateau zone of Orissa

formed on highly weathered gneissic parent material, Sahu et al. (1990) revealed that the

content of clay increased with depth in all profile with a simultaneous decrease in sand

content indicating translocation of clay under well drained condition. There was evidence

of argillic horizon because of illuviation of clay.

Reddy et al. (1993) studied morphological and physico-chemical properties of red

soils (Alfisols) of Nagarjunasagar project area of Andhra Pradesh under irrigated and

unirrigated conditions and observed that texture of soils ranged from sandy loam on the

surface to sandy clay loam in the sub soils.

While characterizing the soils in a toposequence over a basaltic terrain of southern

Rajasthan, Sharma et al. (1996) observed that the soils at elevated topography were

shallow to moderately shallow, clayey to loamy-skeletal in texture and yellowish brown.

While a lower topography soils were deep to very deep, fine loamy to clayey texture and

greyish colour.

Sahu and Mishra (1997) while characterizing the soils of an irrigated river flood

plain in the eastern coastal region, observed that sand and silt content in all pedon

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decreased from the surface downwards whereas clay content gradually increased with the

depth indicating pedogenic soil development.

Mahapatra et al. (2000) concluded that the soils vary greatly in texture from

loamy-skeletal on steep slopes to silty clay loam and clay loam in piedmont plain in

various physiographic imits in the sub humid eco-system of Kashmir region.

While studying rubber-growing soils of Tripura, Gangopadhyay et al. (2001)

stated that increase in clay content with depth and the development of soil structure,

indicate the development of cambic horizon.

2.3. CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS

2.3.1 Soil reaction (pH)

Reddy et al. (1993) reported that soils of Bangalore district were found to be

acidic to near neutral and showed decreasing trend with depth.

In Vijayapura and Tyamagondlu soil series of Kamataka, pH values ranged from

moderately acidic to slightly acidic and increasing trend with the depth of the profile

(Prakash et. al., 1993).

Kudrat et al. (1995) while studying the laterite soils of a part of Ajoy catchment in

West Bengal indicated that soils have acidic surface with pH values ranging from 5.95 to

6.80. The acidity decreases with depth.

Maji and Bandopadhyay (1996) during the characterization and classification of

coastal soils of Balasore district of Orissa concluded that soils of inland plains are acidic

in reaction and have lower salinity, lower deltaic soils have almost neutral pH and are

more saline. The soils of costal plain between inland plain and lower delta are

intermediate in respect of pH.

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In a study on red soils of Bundelkhand region of Uttar Pradesh, Walia and Rao

(1996) mentioned that there is a tendency in pH to increase with depth possibly due to the

leaching of bases.

During the study of landscape - soil relationship on transect in central Assam, Sen

et al.(1997) observed that soils in general are acidic in nature and show regular increase in

pH down the profile.

Shivaprasad et al. (1998) while characterizing the soils of Kamataka state revealed

that soils derived from granitic gneiss parent material were foimd to be slightly acidic to

near neutral in soil reaction.

Characterization and classification of soils of lower Palar-Manimuthar watershed

of Tamil Nadu by Arun Kumar et al. (2002) reported that soil reaction ranged from

strongly acidic to strongly alkaline.

Dipak Sarkar et al.(2002) while characterizing and classifying soils of Loktak

catchment area of Manipur observed that soils developed from shale found to be

moderate to slightly acidic (p H 4.6-5.4) in the surface.

2.3.2 Electrical conductivity

Krishnamoorthy and Govindarajan (1977) while working with red and black soils

of Andhra Pradesh reported that in red soils electrical conductivity values vary from less

than 0.15 to 0.25 dS m'' and did not show any trend with depth, while electrical

conductivity of black soil ranged from 0.15 to 0.80 dS m"' and showed increasing trend

with depth.

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While characterizing the laterite soils of Dakshina Kannada district of Kamataka,

Satisha (1991) reported that the electrical conductivity of these soils was very low

ranging from 0.08 to 0.32 dS m"' and did not show any relation with depth of the profile.

Sivasankaran et al. (1993) while characterizing the soils of Western Ghat in

Kamataka observed that the electrical conductivity values varying from 0.1 to 0.4 dS m"

indicating no accumulation of salts in soils.

2.3.3 Organic Carbon (OC)

While working with black and red soils of Andhra Pradesh, Krishnamoorthy and

Govindarajan (1977) noticed that higher organic matter in second horizon than the first

horizon in red soils, which later decreased. In black soils accumulation of organic matter

was noticed in the fourth horizon due to its movement along with clay.

During the characterization of three soil profile of Darjeeling forest soils. Pal et al.

(1985) found that a sharp decrease of organic matter with depth in two profiles while in

the other organic carbon was more in second layer than in first layer but decreased with

fiirther increase in depth.

Sivashankaran et al. (1993) while studying the red and laterite soils under

plantation crops in South India reported that organic carbon content of soils varied

between 1 and 10 per cent and it varies with altitude and cultivation practices.

While characterization of Western Ghat soils of Kamataka, Satisha and Badrinath

(1994) noticed that the organic carbon decreases with elevation. Soils situated at higher

elevation in Agumbe were rich in organic matter followed by soils situated in hillocks.

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While working with red soils of Bundelkhand region of Utter Pradesh, Walia and

Rao (1996) stated that the organic carbon content of soils (0.5% to 1.5%) decreased with

depth. The distribution is mainly associated with physiography and land use.

Shivaprasad et al. (1998) while studying the laterite soils (Bangalore plateau)

mentioned that the organic content of these soils varied between low to medium and

showed decreasing trend regularly down the profile.

Arun Kumar et al. (2002) while characterizing and classifying the soils of lower

Palar-Manimuthar watershed of Tamil Nadu observed that these soils were low in organic

carbon content.

While characterizing the soils of Loktak catchment area of Manipur, Dipak Sarkar

et al. (2002) reported that soils are rich in organic matter.

2.3.4. Cation exchange capacity and exchangeable bases

While studying the acidic catenary soils of old flood plains of Assam, Walia and

Chamuah (1988) reported that cation exchange capacity values are low which were

attributed to predominance of kaolinitic clay in the soil. Under heavy rainfall and

intensive leaching, variation in cation exchange capacity values with depth in both the

profile was related to clay content.

Sahu et al. (1990) observed that increase in cation exchange capacity with depth

was noted in red and laterite soils of northern plateau of Orissa and it was attributed to

gradual increase in clay content with the depth of the profile.

While comparing the cation exchange capacity of soils formed fi-om different

parent material, Srikanth and Bapat (1993) observed that the cation exchange capacity of

soils formed from sandstone ranged from 24.3 to 25.8 cmol (+) kg"' and slightly increased

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with depth whereas soils formed from basah decreased from 53.8 cmol (+) kg"' in surface

to 51.0 cmol (+) kg" in subsurface layer. Alluvial soils recorded the cation exchange

capacity of 38.1 to 56.7 cmol (+) kg"'. Exchangeable calcium remained constant

throughout the depth with values of 11.0 and 37.38 cmol (+) kg"' for soil derived from

sandstone and basalt respectively. Whereas exchangeable magnesium recorded the values

of 4 cmol (+) kg"' for sandstone and 10 to 12 cmol (+) kg"' for basah. Exchangeable

potassium and sodium ranged from 4 cmol (+) kg"' and 1.6 to 1.9 cmol (+) kg"'

respectively for sandstone and 0.5 to 0.8 cmol (+) kg"' and 1.3 to 1.8 cmol (+) kg"'

respectively for basalt.

Narayan Rao et al. (1993) while characterizing the laterite soils of North

Kamataka observed that both cation exchange capacity and per cent base saturation

values showed regular increasing trend down the profile.

Kudrat et al. (1995) during the characterization, and classification of laterite soils

of West Bengal found that cation exchange capacity of these soils are low, varying from

8.5 to 17.5 cmol (+) kg" . Calcium is the dominant exchangeable cation followed by

magnesium, sodium and potassium.

While studying genesis, characteristics and taxonomic classification of some red

soils in Bundelkhand, Walia and Rao (1996) noticed that these soils are low to medium in

CEC.

Arun Kumar et al. (2002) during characterization and classification of soils of

lower Palar-Manimuthar watershed of Tamilnadu reported that soils are having CEC

values ranging from 14.8 to 20.5 cmol (+) kg"'.

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2.3.5 Available Nutrients

2.3.5.1 Available Nitrogen

While studying some salt affected soils of Cauvery and Vanivilas Sagar command

areas of Kamataka, Mruthyunjaya (1991) reported that available nitrogen in the profile

ranged from 30.7 to 105.1 kg per ha and it showed a decreasing trend with depth.

Shivaprasad et al. (1998) during their study in Kamataka observed that about 10.3

per cent of soils fall under low category, 35.8 per cent under medium and 53.9 per cent

under high category of available nitrogen status.

While studying the distribution of organic carbon and nitrogen in Terai soils of

West Bengal, Saha et al. (2000) stated that the available nitrogen in the soil profile

decreased with depth, this follow similar trend as that of organic carbon. A relatively

higher content of nitrate nitrogen in the surface horizon may be on the other hand due to

high nitrification.

Dipak Sarkar et al. (2002) while characterizing and classifying the soils of Loktak

catchment area of Manipur reported that all the soils except the foot hill soils are high in

available nitrogen which may be due to high organic matter content.

During a detailed soil survey of upper Maulkhad catchment in Himachal Pradesh

Sharma and Anil Kumar (2003) reported soils were medium in available nitrogen content.

2.3.5.2 Available Phosphorus

While studying the soils of Challakere taluk of Chitradurga district, Gangappa

(1989) reported that available phosphorus content in red sandy loam and black clay soils

were found to vary from 2.69 to 80.64 kg/ha. In profile samples, it ranged from 2.72 to

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41.20 kg/ha. The available phosphorus was found to increase with depth in all the

profiles.

Satisha and Badrinath (1994) during characterization of Western Ghat soils of

Dakshina Kannada district, Kamataka observed that low status of available phosphorus

was mainly attributed to its higher removal than replenishment and also high P fixing

capacity.

Shivaprasad et al. (1998) reported that the available phosphorus status in the soils

of Kamataka was low in 83 per cent of the soils and remaining falls under medium

category.

Dipak Sarkar et al. (2002) during the characterization of soils of Loktak catchment

area of Manipur observed that all the hilly soils are low in available phosphorus which

may be due to its fixation by free oxide and exchangeable aluminium. Higher amount of

phosphate in the plain land soils may be due to the presence of free iron oxide and

exchangeable aluminum in smaller amounts.

2.3.5.3 Available Potassium

Sahu and Mishra (1997) while characterizing and classifying soils of an irrigated

river flood plain in the eastern coastal region, reported that the available potassium

content varied from 171.0 to 211.7 kg /hectare and was in medium level.

The available potassium is medium to high in most of the soils of Kamataka state

except in laterite soils of coastal region, Westem Ghats and in shallow red and black soils

as reported by Shivaprasad et al. (1998)

Mapping of available potassiimi in the soils of Assam, Vadivelu et al. (2002)

reported that resultant spatial distribution of K showed that about 6 per cent of the state

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has soils with potassium content less than 39mg/ kg and about 59 per cent of the soils

with potassium contents are in the range of 39-78 mg/ kg.

Dipak Sarkar et al. (2002) during characterization and classification of the soils of

Loktak catchment area of Manipur, reported that the available potassium content is high

in high hill soils whereas in rest of the area it is rated low to medium.

While characterizing and classifying the soils of upper Maulkhad catchment in

wet Temperate Zone of Himachal Pradesh, Sharma and Anil Kumar (2003) observed that

available potassium content is low to high in surface and subsurface horizon.

2.3.6 Micronutrients

Muneshwar Singh and Shekhon (1991) while investigating DTPA extractable

micronutrient cations status in six soil series occurring in different parts of the country

reported that among the four micronutrient cations, widespread deficiency of available Zn

was observed in all the six soil series, while Fe, Cu, Mn, was adequate in all the six

series.

While studying the distribution of DTPA extractable Zn, Cu, Mn and Fe in some

soil series of Maharashtra and their relation with some soil properties, Dhane and Shukla

(1995) indicated that compared to Zn and Fe deficiency, the deficiency of Mn was

limited, while Cu was found to be adequate in all soil series.

Sahoo et al. (1995) during their investigation to assess the status of available Zn,

Cu, Fe and Mn and their relationship with important soil properties in different landforms

of Malwa plateau of Rajastan concluded that soils are adequate in all the available

micronutrient except Zn which is deficient only in 6 per cent of the soils. The results

18

further indicated that the concentration of all the micronutrients except Fe was lower in

the soils of plain land as compared to the soils of other landforms.

Chattopadhyay et al. (1996) while studying the available micronutrients status in

the soils of Vindhyan scarplands of Rajasthan in relation to soil characteristics reported

that soils situated at higher elevation contained more micronutrient cations than the soils

at lower elevation. Copper and zinc were significantly and negatively correlated with pH,

iron and manganese showed significant negative correlation with pH, ECand CaCOs.

While investigating the status of micronutrients in some dominant soils of

Manipur, Sen et al. (1997) observed that the soils are inadequate or marginally adequate

in available Zn but have enough Fe, Mn, and Cu content.

During the characterization and classification of soils of Loktak catchment area of

Manipur, Dipak Sarkar et al. (2002) mentioned that available iron and manganese were

high and Cu and Zn were low particularly in subsurface horizon.

Sathyavathi and Suryanarayana Reddy (2004) during the study of distribution of

DTPA extractable micronutrients in soils of Telangana, Andhra Pradesh reported that as

per critical limit prescribed for Zn and Fe, 44 and 20 per cent of the soils could be rated as

deficient in available Zinc and Iron respectively. Copper and Manganese were found to be

adequate.

2.4 Genesis of soils

Dokuchaiev (1883) appreciated the role of natural agencies in soil formation.

Since the soil is the combined product of parent material, climate, living organisms, relief

and time, different combination of these factors would produce different soils.

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Climate is often considered to be major factor determining the formation of great

soil groups. Climate includes rainfall, temperature, humidity, wind, evaporation, length

of dry season, sunshine hours and others. Of these constituents' rainfall and temperature

play major role. When a monsoon type of climate prevails, there is much variation in

distribution of rainfall, which in turn affects soil formation.

From the soil formation viewpoint, the concept of parent material must stem from

internal characteristics of raw materials, which makeup the mass of the soil body in

relation to other factors of soil formation. Jenny (1941) defined parent material as the

initial state of soil system and thus avoided special reference to the strata below the soil,

which might or might not be the parent material. Parent material influences the

morphological, physical, chemical and mineralogical properties of soil.

Karale et al. (1969) observed the formation of two distinct soil types under varied

rainfall conditions over the same basaltic parent material. They observed that under low

rainfall (620-1250 mm) conditions very dark greyish brown to black soil and under high

rainfall (1620 mm) acidic soils were formed. The difference in soil characteristics may

be considered as the direct reflection of differential weathering and developmental

process as conditioned by the amount of precipitation.

Topography controls the distribution of soil in the landscape to the extent that

soils of markedly contrasting morphologies and properties can merge laterally with each

other. The topography influences both external and internal drainage conditions,

differential transport of eroded material, leaching and translocation, which uhimately

determine soil characteristics.

The role of micro relief in the formation of diverse type of soils in close proximity

has been shown in some localities of India (Raychaudhuri and Mukherjee, 1945). The

20

occurrence of diverse type of soils, such as red and laterite, on the one extreme of a slope

and black soil on the other extreme is not uncommon in tropic and subtropics (Mohr and

VanBaren, 1954).

Jagadish Prasad et al. (1995) while doing characterization and classification of

soils of Nasik District of Maharashtra reported that soils developed fi-om basalt spur of

Western Ghat under hot-humid climate are dark reddish brown in colour with argillic

horizon and qualified for Typic Rhodustalfs. The other group of soils those developed on

interfluves under sub humid zone is very deep, dark reddish brown, clayey and qualifies

for Typic Ustropepts. Soils on piedmont plain experiencing semiarid climate is very deep,

moderately well drained, clayey and are placed in subgroup Chromic Haplusterts.

2.5. Soil classification

Soil is the collection of natural bodies on the earth's surface, comprising mineral

and organic constituents evolved by the interaction of soil-forming factors and processes

and any change in one such factor or process results in a different soil. The various kinds

of soils thus formed are the result of assorted combinations of the different soil-forming

factors and processes.

Any natural object having many variants may not be easy to classify. The

multitude of characteristics involved in variants make the grouping difficult. Soil is a

typical example where in the number of variants influencing its origin is too many.

Therefore, in order to understand differences, similarities and relationships among

different members, it is necessary that these be grouped in some orderly manner.

Classification is the grouping of objects in some orderly and logical manner into

compartments. It is based on the properties of objects for the purpose of studying.

21

identifying and grouping them. The properties are selected in accordance with the

purpose of the classification. They are termed as differentiating characteristics and serve

to differentiate one class from all others (Sehgal, 1996).

The first classification of soil was proposed by Dokuchaiev of Russian School. He

divides soils into three categories i.e. normal, transitional and abnormal soils. These

categories were later termed as Zonal, Intrazonal and Azonal soils respectively. Coffey of

USDA in 1912 classified soils into five classes on the basis of properties. Marbut of USA

was the first to advocate classification on the basis of soil properties rather than on the

basis of soil forming factors.

Soil Survey Staff of USDA brought out comprehensive system of soil

classification as Soil Taxonomy in the year 1975. According to this, soils are classified

into ten orders based on their properties, which have been recently classified into twelve

orders. Each order is fiirther divided into suborder, great groups, subgroups, families and

series.

Raychaudhuri (1961, 1962) and Govindarajan and Datta Biswas (1968) initiated

classification of red soils of India. They classified red loamy soils as Paleustalfs,

Rhodustalfs and Haplustalfs and red sandy soil as Rhodustalfs and Haplustalfs.

Manickam (1965) observed that the difference in parent rock composition in

association with climate, vegetation and slope produced different kinds of soil profile in

the Nilgiris. The varied nature of the soils indicated that the characteristics of soil were

predetermined by parent rock.

Govindarajan and Datta Biswas (1968) identified red soils of Machkand basin in

Koraput district of Orissa as Latosols of high base status.

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Murthy et al. (1982) classified red and lateritic soils of Kamataka as Paleustalf

(Tyamagondlu series), Haplustalf (Vijayapura series) and Rhodustalfs (Channasandra

series).

Choudhari (1988) studied the genesis of pedons of two Aridisols (Gajsinghpura

and Pipar) in Rajastan on two distinct regions of rock formation on aggraded alluvial

plain of middle to early Pleistocene period. Micromorphological studies confirmed the

mineral alteration and illuviation of clay, showed distinctness in microstructure,

groundmass and pedofeatures. In situ formed calcitic segregations are pure in Pipar soils

and impregnative in Gajsinghpura soils.

The red and laterite soils of Bangalore district (Kamataka State) were classified as

Kandic Paleustalfs and Kandic Rhodustalfs by Reddy et al. (1993) while studying their

distribution, characterization and classification.

While characterizing and classifying the soils of Mahsani Island of the

Sundarbans in West Bengal, Dipak Sarkar et al. (1993) classified taxonomically as Vertic

Halaquepts, Aerie Haplaquepts and Typic Haplaquepts.

Bhattacharyya and Ghosh (1990) studied the genesis of Alfisol profile in

Konanakunte village of Kamataka in relation to parent material and climate. The

dominance of Kaolinite in the clay and silt fraction and its abundance in the coarser

fraction of the soils in various proportions clearly indicated that kaolinization was the

major process operative during the weathering of the Granitic gneiss.

Patil (1994) had studied the pedogenesis of laterite and associated soils of North

Kamataka and has showed that climate is the major factor and followed by topography

and drainage are responsible for the formation of these soils.,

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Jagdish Prasad et al. (1995) while characterizing and classifying the soils of Nasik

District of Maharashtra, reported that soils developed from basalt on spur of Western

Ghat under hot humid climate are dark reddish brown in colour with argillic horizon and

qualified for Typic Rhodustalfs. The other group of soils those developed on interfluves

under subhumid zones is very deep, dark reddish brovm, clayey and qualifies for Typic

Ustropepts. Soils on piedmont plain experiencing semiarid climate are very deep,

moderately well drained, clayey and are placed in subgroup Chromic Haplusterts.

During the detailed soil survey of Ajoy catchment in West Bengal, Kudrat et al.

(1995) classified these soils as Modhudanga and Jamuria series (Typic Haplustalfs),

Churulia series-(Typic Ustochrepts) and Rakhukura series-(Aeric Haplaquepts).

While studying the genesis of lateritic soils of peninsular India, Natarajan (1995)

reported the predominance of kaolinite in all the pedons studied and concluded that

climate and topography are the main soil forming factors. Desilication was the major

process responsible for formation of soil when rainfall was heavy, and topography was

favourable for intensive leaching.

Walia and Rao (1996) studied the genesis of Inceptisol and Alfisol profiles formed

on sandstone, shale, granite and coUuvium representing different landforms of Banda

district of Uttar Pradesh. The depthwise distribution of Si02 indicated the stabilization of

silica content under mildly acidic pedochemical environment. Flat-topped hill and

monadnock exhibit the development of Bt horizon while soils of other landforms show

Bw horizon.

While studying the mineralogy, genesis and classification of soils of Northwest

Himalayas developed on different parent materials and variable topography, Gupta and

Tripathi (1996) observed that the similarity in mineralogy indicated the dominant

24

influence of parent material. They were classified up to sub-group level according to soil

taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff 1975) as profile 1-Vertic Eutrochrepts, profile 2-Typic

Haplustalfs, profile 3- Typic Haplustalfs, profile 4- Andic Dystric Eutrochrepts, profile 5-

Typic HapludoUs and profile 6-Typic Glossudalfs. Calcification/decalcification,

illuviation and humification express the genesis of these soil profiles.

Maji and Bandopadhyay (1996) during characterizaion and classification of

coastal soils of Balasore in Orissa concluded that soils of inland and coastal plains are

taxonomically classified as Typic Endoaquepts but they have differences in the phase

level. The lower deltaic soils are classified as Vertic Fluvaquents.

Sharma et al. (1997) while studying morphological, physical, chemical and

mineralogical characteristics of Inceptisols on five dominant landscape of Punjab State

observed that in udic region, the soils developed on foot slopes are non-calcareous and

those on toe slopes are calcareous in nature. These soils are classified as Dystric

Eutrochrepts and Typic Eutrochrepts. In ustic moisture region (less hot zone) the soils of

Siwalik are calcareous and are classified as Fluventic Ustochrepts and adjoining to this in

piedmont plain soils are classified as Typic Ustochrepts. In ustic region (less hot zone)

the soils developed in internal areas show weakly developed cambic horizon and are

classified as Typic Ustochrepts. The soils developed on alluvial plains have a variable

calcium carbonate content and relatively well developed cambic horizon. These soils are

classified as Typic Ustochrepts. Some of the soils developed on slightly lower

topographic positions are alkaline in nature and are classified as Natric Ustrochrepts.

Fine textured soils developed on alluvial plains in the old fiood plain areas show the

development of strong angular blocky structure with pressure faces and slickenside.

These are classified as Vertic Ustochrepts.

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During the study of landscape-soil relation on a transect in central Assam, Sen et

al. (1997) classified these soils according to USD A soil taxonomy as Udalfs, Udifluvents,

Udorthents, Epiaquepts, Eutrochrepts, Dystrochrepts and Udults.

Shivaprasad et al. (1998) during soil resource mapping of Kamataka identified 7

orders, 12 suborders, 27 great groups, 47 subgroups and 96 soil families. In Kamataka, 27

per cent is covered by Alfisols, 25 per cent by Inceptisols, 16 per cent by Entisols, 15 per

cent by Vertisols, 8 per cent by Ultisols, 5 per cent by Aridisols and one per cent by

MoUisols.

Singh et al. (1999) studied the genesis of soils derived from limestone and their

distribution, transformation, movement and accumulation of carbonate. According to

them calcification is the dominant pedogenic process. These soils are classified under

Sodic Ustic Haplocalcid, subgroup of Aridilsol.soil order.

Patil and Dasog (1999) studied the genesis of six ferruginous pedons from the

Western Ghat and coastal region in south Kamataka where the average rainfall varies

from 1792 to 3854 mm. All pedons were very deep. They reported laterization as the

dominant pedogenic process along with illuviation.

While characterising and classifying the soils of granitic terrain in Jabalpur district

of Madhya Pradesh Gupta et al. (1999) grouped these soils under Typic Haplusterts,

Vertic Ustochrepts and Typic Haplustalfs.

Dipak Sarkar et al. (2001) during the study of soil topo sequence relationship and

classification in lower outlier of Chhotanagpur plateau, classified these soils along the

topo sequence as Ultic Paleustalfs, Rhodic Paleustalfs, Aquic Haplustalfs and Aerie

Endoaqualfs.

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While characterising the soils of Central Research Station, Bhubaneswar, Nayak

et al. (2002) classified five pedons as Ultic Haplustalfs, Ultic Paleustalfs, Typic

Haplustepts and Typic Fluvaquents sub groups.

Dipak Sarkar et al. (2002) during characterization and classification of soils of

Loktak catchment area of Manipur for sustainable land use planning, classified these soils

as Humic Dystrudepts, Humic Hapludults, Typic Haplohumults, Typic Palehumults and

Aquic Haplohumults.

While doing the detailed soil survey of upper Maulkhad catchments in wet

Temperate Zone of Himachal Pradesh, Sharma and Anilkumar (2003) identified six soil

series with 21 phases. These soils were classified as Lithic Udorthents, Typic

Dystrudepts, Typic Hapludalfs, and Typic Paleudalfs.

While characterizing and classifying some typical banana growing soils of

Wardha district of Maharashtra, Kadao et al. (2003) grouped these soils under Typic

Haplusterts, Typic Haplustepts and Fluventic Haplustepts sub groups.

2.6 APPLICATION OF REMOTE SENSING

Information derived from remotely sensed data is used in various natural

resources like soil, land use/land cover, geological, geomorphological and water resource

studies are given below.

2.6.1 Application of remote sensing for soil mapping

Studies were carriedout on soil resource mapping by Dominquiz (1960) following

the FAQ (1976) guidelines. Later Gemini and Apollo space photographs were used for

soil resource mapping in the late 1960s (Mcphail and Cambell, 1970, Aldrich, 1971).

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Several studies were conducted to prepare soil resource maps using Landsat

(MSS) data, Hilwig, 1975; Singh and Dwivedi, 1986. Soil resource mapping at 1:50,000

scale was prepared by Biswas, 1987, using Landsat - TM data with improved spatial

(30m) spectral (seven bands) and radiometric (8 bit) resolutions.

Sangwan et al. (1988) studied geomorphology, soil and land use in southern part

of Mahendragarh district using aerial photographs. Nasibpur (Fine-loamy, Typic

Ustochrept), Khatripur (Fine-loamy, Udic Ustochrept) and Mirzapur Bacchod (coarse-

loamy, Typic Ustochrept) were the dominant series in the old alluvial plain, Bhankhri

series (coarse-loamy Typic Ustifluvent) dominated the young alluvial plain and Patikara

(Typic Ustipsamments) and Duloth Nimbi (Torripsamment) series were the major ones in

the aeolian plain.

Remote sensing techniques have been employed to identify and delineate soils in a

part of Dibrugarh district of Assam by Sen et al. (1992) using Landsat-4 MSS FCC data

(4,5,7). Dominant soils identified are: Coarse-loamy Aerie Flavaquents and Fine-loamy,

Typic Udifluvents in active flood plain; fine Typic Haplaquepts and fine loamy Aquic

Dystochrepts in recent alluvial plain; coarse-loamy Typic Udorthents and fine Mollic

Hapludalfs in piedmont plain.

Ahuja et al. (1992) carried out soil resource mapping of Bhiwani district (Haryana

state) by visual interpretation of IRS-IA LISS-II; FCC (2,3,4) data at 1: 50,000 scale and

established physiography-soil relationship. Taxonomically, the soils of each unit was

classified and are found - Typic Torripsamments/ coarse-loamy, Typic Camborthids;

Fluvio-aeolian plain - Aridic Ustipsamments/coarse-loamy/fine-loamy, Typic/Udic

Ustochrepts; Alluvial plain - Typic Ustipsamments/ coarse-loamy/fine-loamy Typic/ Udic

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Ustochrepts; Hills and pediments - fragmental Lithic Torriorthents/ Typic

Torripsamments.

Verma et al. (1996) used multi date remotely sensed data both in the form of aerial

photographs and satellite imagery on 1:50,000 Scale was interpreted visually to map

physiography and soils of arid tract of Punjab. The study demonstrated that potential

usefiilness of remote sensing technology in mapping natural resources and to assess the

nature, magnitude and spatial distribution of resource constraints.

Rao et al. (1999) conducted soil and land irrigability assessment of proposed

Krishna-Permar link canal command area using FCC of IRS-IB, LISS II data at 1:50,000

scale. Soils were classified up to family level and evaluated for their suitability to

irrigation using the standard criteria.

While conducting study on utility of satellite remote sensing technique for soil

resource and land evaluation studies in lower Palar-Manimuthar watershed, Arun Kumar

et al. (1999) recognized ten soil series in the area, which were classified as Entisols,

Inceptisols and Alfisol and soils suitability were evaluated for growing different crops.

Goyal et al. (1999) studied the utilization of remote sensing data for soil

characterization and preparation of geomorphic-soil maps of Rewari district of Haryana

state. The major sub geomorphic units identified and mapped were:

I. Aeo-fluvial plain

II. Recent sahibi flood plain and

III. Aravally hills rock out-crop and pediments.

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Nayan Ahmed et al. (1999) conducted reconnaissance survey of a part of IGNP

command area Rajastan using IRC-IC LISS III data in 1: 50,000 scale with the objective

of preparing physiography-soil map of the area and to use GIS for assessment of soil

resources.

Khan and Nepal Singh (2000) carried out visual interpretation of IRS-LISS II data

for the identification and mapping of major physiographic units in an arid watershed of

Jodhpur district of Rajastan. Based on image characteristics seven major physiographic

units were identified and 41 soil mapping units were identified based on physiography

and soil site characteristics. Taxonomically, these soils were classified as Para lithic

Torriorthents, Coarse-loamy, Lithic / Typic Haplocambids, fine-loamy, Lithic/ Typic

Haplosalids and Typic Torrifluvents and Typic Torripsamments.

IRS-IC data was used in the characterization and management of watershed in

Nagpur dist by Saxena et al., 2000. Satellite data was used for large-scale mapping in

basaltic terrain by Srivatsava and Saxena, 2004.

Solanke et al. (2005) studied the application of high resolution IRS-IC PAN

merged LISS III data and GIS in watershed characterization and management of

Ganeshpur micro-watershed near Nagpur, Maharashtra. Based on this study, four major

physiographic units viz. plateau top, escarpment, pediment and valley which was fiirther

subdivided into various subunits based on slope and image characteristics. Based on

physiography-soil relationship, nine soil series were tentatively identified and mapped as

series association.

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2.6.2 Application of Remote Sensing for Hydrogeomorphological studies

Tripathy et al. (1996) conducted geological and geomorphological studies of a

part of Ganjam district of Orissa by remote sensing techniques. Major geomorphic units

delineated are hills, pediments, vallyfills, new flood plains, new coastal plains and old

coastal plains.

Pradeep (1998) studied potential groundwater zones using IRS-LISS-II data. The

results indicated that alluvial plain, flood plain, in filled valley and deeply buried

Pediplain are the prospective zones of ground water exploration and development.

Fractures and faults parallel to drainage courses constitute priority zones for ground water

targeting.

Nag (1998) while conducting morphometric analysis and ground water studies of

Chaka sub basin in West Bengal using satellite remote sensing imagery proved that

moderate Pedi plains and valley fills are good prospective zones for ground water

exploration.

Hydromorphological investigations conducted by Venkateshwara Rao (1998) in a

typical Khondalitic terrain in Andhra Pradesh using remote sensing data suggested that

groimd water prospect areas are located in shallow buried Pedi plains and wash plains in

such way that they are identified on gently sloping uplands situated inbetween the

lineaments.

Shibani Maitra (1999) prepared geomorphological map of part of the upper

Baitarani river basin using aerial photograph and IRS-IA satellite imagery. The landform

units identified and delineated are grouped under two genetic types, denudational and

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fluvial. Ten landform units, each having its own characteristic features were identified

under three geomorphic domains viz. hill, pediment and plain.

Abraham Thomas et al. (1999) during hydrological mapping and evaluation of

ground water prospects of Lehra Gaga block of Sangrur district, Punjab using IRS-IB

LISS II data, indicated that alluvial plain has good to excellent groundwater prospects.

Field observation showed that grovmdwater occurs imder both confined and unconfined

conditions with water table at shallow depth.

Hydrogeomorphological mapping of Varaha river basin (VRB) was carried out by

Murthy and Venkateshwara Rao (1999) to identify relationship between ground water

condition and geomorphology of the area using IRS- lA data. Study showed that area

covered by buried channels has shallow aquifers of good quality water with excellent

yield. Lineaments and fractures may prove to be potential zones for groimdwater

development.

Obi Reddy et al. (2000) evaluated groundwater potential zones in Bhandara dist of

Maharashtra using IRS-IC LISS- III geocoded data on 1:50,000 scale. They showed that

deep valley fills with thick alluvium have excellent, shallow valley fills and deeply

weathered Pediplains with thin alluvium have very good groundwater potential.

Moderately weathered Pediplains with alluvium have a good groundwater potential.

Shallow weathered Pediplains in geological formations of Tirodi and Sausor groups are

grouped under limited ground water potential category, except along the fractures/

lineaments. Structural hills in Tirodi gneisses and Sausar groups have poor groundwater

prospects. Inselbergs and linear ridges are grouped under very poor ground water

prospects zones.

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2.6.3 Application of Remote Sensing for Land use / Land cover studies

Colour infrared aerial photographs and multiband photographs were used for land

use mapping (Quirk and Scarpace, 1982). Apart from the aerial photographs, airborne

multi-spectral scanner data was used for Land Use/Land Cover mapping (Kristof, 1971).

Gautam and Narayan (1983) evaluated Landsat MSS data for land use and land

cover inventory and mapping of Andhra Pradesh. The following land use classes of level-

1 such as built up land, agricultural land, forestland, water bodies and others were

obtained. Level -2 classes such as cropland, dry fallow land and wet follow land were

obtained from agricultural land where as in forest two types were noticed i.e., mixed

forest and scrubs. Water bodies were further classified as river, lake and reservoirs and

others classes categorized into Barren rock outcrop and sand.

Pathak and Kale (1988) prepared land use maps of 15 sq. km area using aerial

photographs. They concluded that large and inaccessible areas could be studied with

limited resources by using air photo technique.

Regional level mapping of land use and land cover has been carried out using

WiFs data. With LISS III data from IRS-IC and ID land use/land cover maps at 1:25,000

scale with abstraction level of land use and land cover categories corresponding to Level

-III, could be delineated and the changes therein occur over a period of time could be

monitored using multi-temporal data (Rao et al. 1996; NRSA, 1997).

Palaniyandi and Nagarathinam (1997) prepared land use/land cover maps of

Thiruvallur area of Chengai-MGR district of Tamil Nadu through visual interpretations of

Landsat -5 TM and IRS- lA LISS II images. They observed that the built up area and

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agricultural land use extensions are on the upward trend, whereas the area under forest

and wasteland has shown a declining trend.

Minakshi et al. (1999) used IRS IB LISS II data and IRS PAN data for land use /

land cover mapping and change detection of Dehlon block, Ludhiana district of Punjab.

Shamsudheen et al. (2005) utilized IRS ID LISS III images to prepare land

use/land cover map of the coastal regions of north Kamataka. The major land use classes

were agriculture crops, plantations and horticulture crops, forests and their types, forest

plantations and their types, water bodies, degraded forests and their types.

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