Research Designs &Reading and Writing

with APA Style

Psych 231: Research Methods in Psychology

Announcements

Today’s office hours shortened (2-2:30)

Exam 1 is 1½ weeks away

This week’s labs: Download and read the Assefi & Garry (2003) article before

labs Bring the article to labs

Types of research designs

Case studies Intensive study of a small set of individuals and their

behaviors

Correlational Looking for a co-occurrence relationship between two

(or more) variables

Experimental Investigating the cause-and-effect relationship between

two (or more) variables through the manipulation of variables

Quasi-experimental• Experimental designs with one or more non-random variables

Case Histories

This view has a number of disadvantages There may be poor generalizabilty There are typically a number of possible confounds and

alternative explanations

Intensive study of a single person, a very traditional method. Typically: Descriptive (and non-experimental). Interesting (and often rare) case. Fits well with clinical work.

See: Oliver Sacks’ books for some other great examples

Phineas Gage Sept 13, 1848 Explosion propelled a

railroad tamping rod through his brain Changed personality

Correlational Methods

Measure two (or more) variables for each individual and see if the variables co-occur (suggesting that they are related)

Used for: Predictions Establishing Reliability and Validity Evaluating theories

Problems: Shouldn’t make casual claims

? or or

Causal claims

We’d like to say:

To be able to do this: There must be co-variation between the two variables

The causal variable must come first Directionality problem

• Happy people sleep well

• Or is it that sleeping well when you’re happy? Need to eliminate plausible alternative explanations

Third variable problem• Do Storks bring babies?

• Neyman (1952) reported a strong positive correlation between number of babies and stork sightings

causes

or

Storks and babies

r = 0.63

Source: Kronmal (1993)

• Do Storks bring babies?• Neyman (1952) reported a strong positive correlation

between number of babies and stork sightings

Theory 1: Storks deliver babies

• Is killing storks and effective method of controlling birth rates?

Theory 2: Underlying third variable

The experimental method

Manipulating and controlling variables in laboratory experiments

Must have a comparison At least two groups (often more) that get compared One groups serves as a control for the other group

Variables Independent variable - the variable that is manipulated

• Allows for the testing of causal hypotheses Dependent variable - the variable that is measured Control variables - held constant for all participants in the

experiment

The experimental method

Advantages

Precise control possible Precise measurement

possible Theory testing possible Can make causal claims

Disadvantages

Artificial situations may restrict generalization to “real world”

Complex behaviors may be difficult to measure

Manipulating and controlling variables in laboratory experiments

Reading and Writing with Style (APA)

The Literature Why Review it? What is it? How do you read it? How do you write it?

Why review the literature

What are the underlying motivations for doing a review of the literature? Getting ideas. What has been done? (what has not been done?) Understanding the relevant theories. What variables are important? What methodologies have been used? Avoid past mistakes.

What is the literature?

Primary Sources - essentially reading the original report Journal articles Edited books (sometimes) Professional meetings Electronic publishing (fairly new, pluses and minuses) Faculty members & other personal communications

Secondary Sources - reading a report of the report Literature Reviews

Psychological Bulletin, Annual Review of Psychology Text books Citations in books and articles

What is the literature?

Primary Sources - essentially reading the original report Journal articles Edited books (sometimes) Professional meetings Electronic publishing (fairly new, pluses and minuses) Faculty members & other personal communications

Secondary Sources - reading a report of the report

Advantages• Good starting place• Often reviews a lot of

relevant literature• Relatively brief descriptions

Disadvantages• Somebody else’s description

• May be incorrect • May be biased

• Not enough detail

Reading a research article

What are the goals of a research article? For the reader to:

Know about the research Understand what was done

Allow further testing & replication Be convinced by the research (hopefully)

Standardization of research report format APA style Organization and content reflects the logical thinking in

scientific investigation Standardization helps with clarity

Read with a critical eye Write with clarity in mind

Misconceptions about Scientific writing

Writing the paper is the routine part of the research process Forces you to commit to your evidence and conclusions

Just the facts The facts are just part of the argument that the author is

making

What you say is all that is important, how you say it isn’t important Good writing leads to higher chance of accomplishing your

goals

Writing style

Psychological writing tends to differ from other academic writings

• Not a creative writing exercise• Presenting an argument based on data and logical

reasoning

• Try to avoid using direct quotes, restate things in your own words.

• Avoid digression• Footnotes are rare, they’re used to elaborate/clarify

a point. Try to do so in the text.• If long digressions, use the appendix

Writing resources

The ultimate resource for APA style is the APA Publication manual

Chapter 8 of your textbook is good too. Also websites to help too.

New 6th ed.

Writing resources

A great book for Psychological writing

Sternberg, R. J. (2003). The psychologist’s companion: A guide to scientific writing for students and researchers. Cambridge University Press, NY.

Why a structured format?

To ease communication of what was done Forces a minimal amount of information Provides a logical framework (for argument) Provides consistent format within a discipline

• People know what to expect• Where to find the information in the article

Allows readers to cross-reference your sources easily

Major goal: Clarity

Communicate with clarity

Major goal: Clarity

Communicate with clarity

Major goal: Clarity

Communicate with clarity Write for the reader

• Think about your audience, what do they already know, what don’t they know

Avoid overstatements• Be conservative in your claims

Emphasize the positive• Focus on how the data supports a theory not just on

how it refutes another theory

Major goal: Clarity

Communicate with clarity Avoid

• Jargon when possible• Slang and colloquialisms• Sexist and biased language

Try to be concise • Don’t use a whole paragraph when two sentences will do• Longer papers don’t mean better papers• Eliminate unnecessary redundancy• Use simple words (sentences) rather than complicated

words (sentences)

Major goal: Clarity

Use concrete words and examples Check your work!

• Read it over, make sure that you say what you mean to say

Use a consistent format (APA style)• It helps your reader understand your arguments and

the sources they’re built on. • It also helps you keep track of your sources as you

build arguments

Communicate with clarity

APA style: Parts of a research report

• Title Page

Adolescent Depression 1

Running Head: ADOLESCENT DEPRESSION

Adolescent Depression and Attachment

Ima G. Student and Soyam Eye

Purdue University

• Abstract

Adolescent Depression 2

We explored attachment in a family context by applying family systems principles to the investigation of multiple attachment relationships within families. This study focused on maternal adult attachment with respect to family of origin experiences. We examined associations between maternal adult attachment and three levels of family functioning including individual maternal depression symptoms, dyadic marital satisfaction and family unit functioning. We found that attachment security with respect to particular relationships was differentially associated with different levels of family functioning.

• Body

• References• Authors Notes• Footnotes• Tables• Figure Captions• Figures

Adolescent Depression 29

References

Barnett, P. A., & Gotlib, I. H. (1988). Psychosocial functioning and depression: Distinguishing among antecedents, concomitants, and consequences. Psychological Bulletin, 104. Beck, A. T. (1978). Beck Depression Inventory. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation. Benoit, D., Vidovic, D., & Roman, J. (1991, April). Transmission of attachment across three generations. Paper presented at the Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development. Benoit, D., Zeanah, C. H., & Barton, M. L. (1989). Maternal attachment disturbances in failure to thrive. Infant Mental Health Journal, 3, 185-202. Benoit, D., Zeanah, C. H., Boucher, C., & Minde, K. (1989). Sleep disorders in early childhood: Association with insecure maternal attachment. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 86-93.

The anatomy of a research article

The basic parts of a research article: Title and authors - gives you a general idea of

the topic and specifically who did it Abstract - short summary of the article

Title Page

Running Head: ADOLESCENT DEPRESSION 1

Adolescent Depression and Attachment

Ima G. Student and Soyam Eye

Topnotch University

Published title pages will look a bit different, but you’ll find these pieces of information. Typically the body of the article will begin as well.

Title should be maximally informative while short

(10 to 12 words recommended)

Running head – will go on each page of published article,

no more than 50 characters

Affiliation – where the bulk of

the research was done

Order of Authorship sometimes

carries meaning

Abstract

Abstract: Short summary of entire paper• 100 to 120 words • The problem/issue• The method• The results• The major conclusions

Recommendation: write this after you’ve finished the rest of the paper

Good first contact, but remember that it is short on detail Shows up in PsycInfo Gets skimmed before reading the article

Body

Hourglass shape

BackgroundLiterature Review

Start broad

Body

Hourglass shape

Statement of purposeSpecific hypotheses (at least at conceptual level)

Narrow focus

Body

Hourglass shape

- Methods- Results

Most focused

Body

Hourglass shape

DiscussionConclusionsImplications

Broaden

Body

Introduction - gives you the background that you need Issue and Background

• What is it? Why is it interesting/important? Literature Review

• What has been done? What theories are out there? Statement of purpose

• What are you going to do and why? Specific hypotheses (at least at conceptual level)

• What do you predict will happen in your research?

Body

Introduction - gives you the background that you need

Writing checklist• Be cohesive

• Be relevant (why are the reviewed studies relevant?)• Work on the transitions (make the flow logical)

Reading checklist1) What is the author's goal?2) What are the hypotheses?3) If you had designed the study, how would YOU have done it?

Method - tells the reader exactly what was done Enough detail that the reader could actually replicate the

study. Subsections:

Participants - who were the data collected from How many, where they were selected from, any special

selection requirements, details about those who didn’t complete the experiment

Apparatus/ Materials - what was used to conduct the study Design

Suggested if you have a complex experimental design, often combined with Materials section

Procedure What did each participant do? Other details, including the

operational levels of your IV(s) and DV(s), counterbalancing, etc.

The basic parts of a research article :

Body

Method - tells the reader exactly what was done Reading checklist

1 a) Is your method better than theirs? b) Does the authors method actually test the hypotheses? c) What are the independent, dependent, and control

variables? 2) Based on what the authors did, what results do YOU expect?

• Writing checklist• Is it clear why the procedures were selected?• Are any assumptions explicit and defended?• Is the level of detail sufficient for replication?

The basic parts of a research article :

Body

Body

Results (state the results but don’t interpret them here) Verbal statement of results Tables and figures

• These get referred to in the text, but actually get put into their own sections at the end of the manuscript

Statistical Outcomes• Means, standard deviations, t-tests, ANOVAs, correlations, etc.

Body

Results (state the results but don’t interpret them here)

Reading checklist1) Did the author get unexpected results?

2 a) How does the author interpret the results?

b) How would YOU interpret the results?

c) What implications would YOU draw from these results?

• Writing checklist• Is it clear how the hypotheses are tested by the analyses?• Would a graph or table help clarify the results?• What questions might the reader still have, and how could

I answer them in this section?

Body

Discussion (interpret the results) Relationship between purpose and results Theoretical (or methodological) contribution Implications Future directions (optional) Reading checklist

1 a) Does YOUR interpretation or the authors' interpretation best represent the data?

b) Do you or the author draw the most sensible implications and conclusions?

• Writing checklist• Have you stated your most convincing argument?

• Do the conclusions follow straightforwardly from the results?

The rest

References Author’s name Year Title of work Publication information

• Journal• Issue• Pages

Adolescent Depression 29 References

Barnett, P. A., & Gotlib, I. H. (1988). Psychosocial functioning and depression: Distinguishing among antecedents, concomitants, and consequences. Psychological Bulletin, 104. Beck, A. T. (1978). Beck Depression Inventory. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation. Benoit, D., Vidovic, D., & Roman, J. (1991, April). Transmission of attachment across three generations. Paper presented at the Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development. Benoit, D., Zeanah, C. H., & Barton, M. L. (1989). Maternal attachment disturbances in failure to thrive. Infant Mental Health Journal, 3, 185-202. Benoit, D., Zeanah, C. H., Boucher, C., & Minde, K. (1989). Sleep disorders in early childhood: Association with insecure maternal attachment. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 86-93.

When something odd comes up, don’t guess. Look it up!

The rest

References Authors Notes (new guidelines put these on

title page) Footnotes Tables Figure Captions Figures

Figures and tables

These are used to supplement the text.

To make a point clearer for the reader.

Typically used for: The design Examples of stimuli Patterns of results

Checklist - things to watch for

Clarity Acknowledge the work of others (avoid

plagiarism) Active vs. passive voice

Active: Summers and Jordan (2009) hypothesized that speakers use to much passive voice

Passive: It was hypothesized by Summers and Jordan (2009) that speakers use to much passive voice

Checklist - things to watch for

Avoid biased language APA guidelines:

• Accurate descriptions of individuals (e.g., Asian vs. Korean)• Be sensitive to labels (e.g., “Oriental”)

Appropriate use of headings Correct citing and references Good grammar

APA style checklist