repetition in political speeches

108
University of Pardubice Faculty of Arts and Philosophy The Use and Function of Repetition in Political Speeches Martina Forraiová Master thesis 2011

Upload: simona-alessandra

Post on 25-Nov-2015

93 views

Category:

Documents


3 download

DESCRIPTION

Repetition in Political Speeches

TRANSCRIPT

  • UniversityofPardubiceFacultyofArtsandPhilosophy

    TheUseandFunctionofRepetitioninPoliticalSpe echesMartinaForraiov

    Masterthesis2011

  • PROHLEN

    Tutoprci jsemvypracovala samostatn .Veker literrnpramenya informace,kterjsemvprcivyuila,jsouuvedenyvseznamupouit literatury.Bylajsemseznmenastm,esenamojiprcivzta hujprvaapovinnostivyplvajcze zkona . 121/2000 Sb., autorsk zkon, zejmna se skute nost, e UniverzitaPardubicemprvonauzav en licen nsmlouvyouit ttoprce jakokolnhodlapodle60odst.1autorskhozkona,as tm,ep okuddojdekuit ttoprcemnounebo bude poskytnuta licence o uit jinmu subjekt u, je Univerzita Pardubiceoprvnna ode mne poadovat p imen p spvek na hradu nklad , kter navytvoendlavynaloila,atopodleokolnostadojej ichskute nve.

    Souhlasmsprezen nmzp stupnnmsvprcevUniverzitnknihovn .

    VPardubicchdne29. ervna2011

    MartinaForraiov

  • PODKOVN

    Natomtomst bychcht lapod kovatvedoucmprce PhDr.Pet eHuschov,Ph.D.zajej cenn rady, vst cnost a ochotu, kterou projevovala v pr bhu zpracovvn ttodiplomovprce.Specilndkypat takmrodin ap telmzaprojevovanoupodporu.

  • ABSTRACTThis diploma thesis deals with the use and function of repetition in political

    speeches. The theoretical part is devoted to the th eoretical background that isfundamental for the analysis conducted in the pract ical part. The theoretical partexplains characteristic of public speeches and rhet orical devices. Then classificationsandfunctionsofrepetitionareexplained.

    Theaimofthepracticalpartistoevaluatespecif icusesandfunctionsofrepetitionaswell as to find outwhat kind of repetition is t hemost commonly used type in thestudiedpoliticalspeechesofBarackObama.Repetit ionmaybeencounteredpositivelyaswellasnegatively.So theappropriatenessof re petition inpoliticalspeecheswillbeverifiedinthispaperhavinginmindtheeffecton listeners.

    KEYWORDSrepetition,functionsofrepetition,rhetoricaldev ice,politicalspeech

  • ABSTAKTTato diplomov prce se zabv uitm a funkc opak ovn vanglickch

    politickch projevech. Teoretick st poskytuje nezbytn nutn teoretick zmez,slouc jako podklad pro druhou praktickou st prce, ve kter jsou teoretickpoznatky aplikovny na vybran anglick politick p rojevy. Teoretick st prcenejdve p edstavuje charakteristiku mluvench projev a enickch figur. Dlensledujepopisklasifikacafunkcjazykovhopro stedkuopakovn.

    Jednmzhlavnchcl prcejekvalitativn zhodnotitpouitjednotlivchfunkcopakovn a dle zjistit, kter typ opakovn se ne jastji objevuje ve zkoumanchpolitickch projevech Baracka Obamy. Vhodnost uit prost edku opakovn je astodiskutovanou tmatikou. Proto je tato problematika opakovn tak hodnocena.Vneposledn ad je vvahu brn i vliv jazykovho prost edku opakovn naposluchae.

    KLOVSLOVAjazykov prost edek opakovn, funkce opakovn, enick figura, politick

    projev

  • TABLEOFCONTENTS

    1 Introduction ..................................... ..........................................................................12 Acharacteristicofapublicspeech.............. ..............................................................23 Anintroductiontorhetoricaldevices ............ ............................................................43.1 Acharacteristicofrhetoricaldevices ......... .......................................................43.2 Theuseandfunctionofrhetoricaldevices..... ...................................................5

    4 Repetition ....................................... ...........................................................................74.1 Themeaningofrepetition ...................... ...........................................................74.1.1 Usefulofuselessrepetitions................ ......................................................9

    4.2 Classificationofrepetition ................... ...........................................................104.2.1 Immediateanddelayedrepetition ............. ..............................................104.2.2 Exactandpartialrepetition................. .....................................................114.2.3 Intentionalandunintentionalrepetition..... ..............................................124.2.4 Self-repetitionandallo-repetition .......... .................................................144.2.5 Differentsizeofunits ...................... ........................................................14

    4.3 Specifictypesofrepetition................... ...........................................................154.4 Functionsofrepetition........................ .............................................................184.4.1 Cohesiverepetition.......................... ........................................................194.4.2 Emphaticrepetition .......................... .......................................................224.4.3 Intensifyingrepetition ...................... .......................................................244.4.4 Hesitationalrepetition ...................... .......................................................26

    5 Practicalpart................................... .........................................................................285.1 Aimsandmethodsoftheanalysis ............... ....................................................285.2 Descriptionofthecorpus ...................... ..........................................................295.3 Analysisofthedata ........................... ..............................................................295.3.1 Cohesiverepetition.......................... ........................................................305.3.1.1 Exactnessandimmediacy .................... ...............................................305.3.1.2 Frequentlyrepeatedpatterns............... .................................................32

    5.3.2 Emphaticrepetition .......................... .......................................................365.3.2.1 Exactnessandimmediacy .................... ...............................................365.3.2.2 Partialimmediaterepetition ............... .................................................39

    5.3.3 Cohesiveemphaticrepetition ................. .................................................435.3.4 Intensifyingrepetition ...................... .......................................................465.3.5 Hesitationalrepetition ...................... .......................................................475.3.6 Specificusesofrepetitioninthestudiedco rpus .....................................505.3.6.1 Alliteration............................... ............................................................505.3.6.2 Polysyndeton ............................... ........................................................525.3.6.3 Continuingrepetition...................... .....................................................53

    5.3.7 Marginalcases ............................... ..........................................................545.4 Summaryofresults............................. .............................................................56

    6 Conclusion....................................... ........................................................................617 Resum ........................................... .........................................................................638 Bibliography..................................... .......................................................................679 Appendices ....................................... .......................................................................709.1 Abbreviations .................................. ................................................................709.2 Corpus ......................................... ....................................................................70

  • 1

    1 INTRODUCTION

    This diploma paper studies the uses and functions o f repetition in politicalspeeches. Repetitioncanbeapproachedfromvariou sperspectives.For thepurposeofthepaper it is narrowedprimarily to the rhetorica l repetitionof sameor similar itemsfromlinguisticperspective.Repetitioninpolitica lspeechesseemstobeconnectedwithrepeated slogans and with drilling politicians ide ologies into audiences mind.Nevertheless,repetitionmayservemorefunctionst hanjustinfluencingtheaudience,aswill be explained in this paper. The aim of the stu dy is to evaluate specific uses andfunctions of repetition as well as to find out what kind of repetition is the mostcommonlyusedtypeinpoliticalspeeches.

    Theuseofrepetitionisdiscussednotonlyonthe scientificlevelbutalsoonmoreusual level,forexampleinwritingclasses. Repet ition, thus,encountersmanypositive

    aswell as negative approaches of various linguists , stylisticians and rhetoricians. Theappropriatenessofrepetitioninpoliticalspeeches willbeverifiedinthispaper.

    The thesis is divided into two main parts. The firs t part is devoted to thetheoretical background that is fundamental for the analysis conducted in the practicalpart in the second part of the paper. The character istics of public speeches and theirpoliticalaspectsareintroducedatthebeginningo fthetheoreticalpart.Thenextchapterexplains rhetorical devices, their functions and th eir importance in political speeches.Then, themaintheoreticalchapterdealingwithrep etitionfollows.Repetitionseemstobeacomplextermthatunderwentmanydiscussions. Tointroducetheterm,itsmeaningis defined. Consequently, the various possibilities of classification are provided andconcrete tools of repetition are explained. Then, f unctions of repetition are dealtwithhavinginmindtheforthcominganalysisofaspoken discourse.

    The practical part reflects the theoretical backgro und provided in the first fourchaptersof thepaper.Selectedpolitical speeches ofBarackObama, the contemporarypresidentoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica,areinve stigatedinthepracticalpartapplyinginformationpresented in the theory.The acquiredd atawill bequalitatively aswell asquantitatively evaluated. The primary concern of th e practical part is to evaluate thefunctions of repetition in political speeches. Howe ver, various possibilities ofclassificationandspecificrhetoricalfigureswill bediscussedaswell.

  • 2

    2 ACHARACTERISTICOFAPUBLICSPEECH

    This paper deals with the use and function of repet ition in political speeches,thereforethetermpublicspeechanditspolitical aspectsareintroducedfirstly.Alsothetypesofpublicspeechesareshortlycommentedon.

    Accordingto TheOxfordCompaniontotheEnglishLanguage ,speechisdefinedasausuallyformaloccasionwhenapersonaddress esanaudienceoftenwiththehelpof notes or prepared text. (McArthur, 1992, p. 965 ). The same book also gives theexplanationforthetermofpublicspeaking.Public speakingincludesboththeactivityandtheartofspeakinginpublic,whetherformally orinmoreinformalsituations,suchasgivingatalkortakingpartinadiscussion.( McArthur,1992,p.821).

    Obviously, the same facts are related to political speeches as well. However,politicalspeecheshappeninaformalsettingrathe rthaninaninformalone.MichaelandSuzanneOsbornstatethatpoliticalspeechestakep laceinasocialsettingandbecomeasocialact.Thesuccessofelectedpoliticians isd ependenton the effectivenessof theirspeeches.(Osborn,M.,OsbornS.,1988,p.6).Ther efore,thespeechesmustbeproperlypreparedbeforehand to reach theneeded results and holdpoliticianspopularity.Clarkstatesthatpublicspeechesareintheformofamo nologue,becausetherearealmostnorequirementsforinteraction.So,thespeechesmust bescriptedforaproperorganization(Clark,1996,p.81).

    TheOsbornsalsomentionother importantaspectsas sociatedwith thisareasuchasthefaithinpubliccommunication,freedomofsp eechandalsoethicalresponsibilityofthespeaker(Osborn,M.,OsbornS.,1988,p.7). Inotherwords,speakersbeliefintothepowerofspeakingisimportantforhisorhers uccess.Otheraccompanyingfeaturestoachievesuccessarespeakerspowerto influence theaudienceandhisorherhonestintentions.

    Schaffnerthenspeaksaboutpoliticaltextsasapa rtofthepoliticallife.Theyareusuallydeterminedbythepoliticalmembershipoft hespeakerandthetopicsarerelatedto politics. These speeches aremeant formembers o f the same political group,widerpublicortheycanbeaddressedtothewholenation .Theaimofthespeakeristogivearelevant message to his or her audience and reach a specific political function(Schaffner,1996,p.201203).Beardagreeswith thesestatementsandpointsoutthat

  • 3

    thepolitical ideascannotbeseparatedfromthela nguagebut thewaylanguageisusedhelpstoshapetheideas(Beard,2000,p.18).Ass uggested,politicalspeakingishighlyinfluencedbyspeakersbeliefsandpoliticalmembe rship.

    To be a successful speaker, it is necessary to tran smit the speakers will to theaudience. For this purpose, the presenter uses diff erent types of speeches. They areprepared in different ways and according to speaker s needs for various occasions.There are three main types of speeches defined by v arious authors. Stephen Lucasdividesspeakingintothefollowingtypes:speaking toinform,speakingtopersuadeandspeakingon special occasions (Lucas, 2008).The sa mecategories areused inOsbornM.andOsbornS.(1988)andVerderberetal.(2007) .

    Thepurposeofinformativespeechesistosharekno wledgeandideas.Informativespeeches are not supposed to change audiences beli efs but they can shape theirperceptionsinthetopicareaandshownewalternat ives.(Osborn,M.,OsbornS.,1988,p. 293-295). The goal of speaking to persuade is to influence or change audiencesbeliefs, values, attitudes or behaviour. This type of speech makes high demands onspeakers.Thespeakershavetomotivatelistenerst obelievethembyprovidingreliableexplanations (Verderber et al., 2007, p. 258). The special occasional speeches areconnected extraordinary situations of daily lives a nd may create a ceremonialatmosphere. (Lucas, 2008, p. 382). All three types of speeches are seen in politicalspeechesaswell.

    Differentspeakingoccasionsleadtotheemployment ofspecificlanguage.Crystalpoints out that the language of politicians uses a mixture of old and new rhetoricalmethods. The rhetoric of a speech is structured in order to give audience chances toapplaud.Thisissupportedbystrongrhythmandint onation.Together,itcreatesasenseofrhetoricalpowerandcompleteness(Crystal,1995 ,p.378).

    Aswasmentioned, political speeches are carefully prepared. The preparation isdoneinawaythatshouldattractaudiencesattent ion,sotheusageofrhetoricaldevicesis frequentlyobserved.Rhetoricaldevicesaremore closelydealtwith in the followingchapter.

  • 4

    3 ANINTRODUCTIONTORHETORICALDEVICES

    Rhetoricaldevicesareanintegralpartofpublics peeches.Therefore,thischapterdealswiththem.Theircharacteristicsareprovided andthentheirfunctionsintroduced.

    Languageisthemostimportantaspectinspeeches. AstheOsbornsclaims,properchoiceofwordshelpsaspeakertoexpresshisorh erthoughtsaccuratelyanddetermineswhether the speakers speech becomes successful or not. Various techniques, whencarefullyusedcanfacilitatespeakerssuccess. It isnotonlythelanguage thatcapturesthe attention; but pauses and vocal emphasis affect s listeners as well. The language,however, must be simple enough and the use of repet ition should guarantee theunderstanding (Osborn,M.,OsbornS., 1988, p. 230- 231).As suggested,many thingsareimportantinthespeech.

    In this paper the concern is on the tools of langua ge and its effects. It can bepresumed that the languagemust be highly adapted t o fulfil speakers intentions andrhetoricaldevicescanmaketheprocessofcreating ahigh-qualityspeechsimpler.

    3.1 Acharacteristicofrhetoricaldevices

    To lookmore closely at rhetorical devices, it is u seful to understand both termsseparately. TheOxfordCompaniontotheEnglishLanguage definesthetermrhetoricasthestudyandpracticeofeffectivecommunication, alsoastheartofpersuasionandlastlyasaninsincereeloquenceintendedtowinp ointsandgetpeoplewhattheywant.(McArthur,1992,p.863). In the samebook the term device is explained in followingwords:

    A linguistic or literary formula that produces an effect, such as afigureofspeech(metaphor,metonymy),anarrative style(firstperson,third-person), or a plot mechanism (flashback, flas hforward).(McArthur,1992,p.288).

    It follows from thesedefinitions that rhetorical d evices areused for an effectivecommunication, for persuading the audience and for arousing particular effect onaudienceviausingspecificfigures.

    TheNewPrincetonEncyclopediaofPoetryandPoetic s saysthatthechiefeffectofusingrhetoricaldevicesinproseissimplytoi mposelexicalandsyntacticstructure.

  • 5

    (Preminger, Brogan, 1993, p. 1349-1350). In other w ords, a variation in words orsentencestructuringhelps thespeaker toexpressh imself/herselfmoreaccurately.This

    isalsosupportedbyKristiinaVolmariwhocharacte rizesrhetoricaldevicesasconcretetools that are used to reach speakers specific pur pose. (Volmari, 2009, s. 46).Subsequently, Verderber et al. state that rhetorica l devices are designed to createaudience attention, hold interest, and aid memory. (Verderber et al., 2007, p. 8).Volmarialsosummarizesthatrhetoricaldevicesare usedforpersuasion,clarification,toattractthereaderandformakingthelanguagemore vivid.(Volmari,2009,s.46-47).

    Rhetorical deviceswere, up to now, characterized b y description of their use. Itarisesthatrhetoricaldevicescanimprovethespee chviachoosingspecificfigures.Thetermrhetoricalfigureisneededfortheuseinpol iticalspeechesbecauseitmorecloselyconnectstorepetition,theprimaryaimofthispap er.

    The definition of rhetorical figure is provided for example by The PenguinDictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory and it closely corresponds to therhetorical repetition.Rhetorical figure is an art ful arrangementofwords to achieve aparticular emphasis and effect (...).A rhetorical figure does not alter themeanings ofwords,asametaphormaydo.(Cuddon,Preston,199 9,p.748).Thus,rhetoricalfiguresaredistinguished fromall figuresofspeech in tha t themeaningofwords is literalandthespecificeffectisachievedduetothearrangem entofwords.Baldickproposesthatrhetoricalfigurescanemphasizeorenlivenapoint inseveraldifferentways:byplacingwords in contrastwithoneanother,by repeatingwo rds invariouspatterns. (Baldick,2001,p.97).

    Fornow,thefunctionsofrhetoricaldeviceswillb eclarifiedshortly.

    3.2 Theuseandfunctionofrhetoricaldevices

    Rhetoricaldevicesservemanydifferentfunctions. Theiruseisdeterminedbythespecific situation and speakers intention. McGuiga n stresses that rhetorical devicesshould seem to be used naturally because the argume nt then seems to be stronger(McGuigan,2008,p. 9-10).Michael andSuzanneOsbo rn focuson the power and thetoolsof languageaswords are themost important e lements in speeches and its usagemay establish speakers triumph or loss (Osborn, M. , Osborn S., 1988, p. 230).

  • 6

    Inconnection, McGuigan suggests four main function s of rhetorical devices topersuade,toinform,toexpressandtoentertain(M cGuigan,2008,p.9-10).Thepossiblefunctionsarediscussedinfollowinglines.

    AstheOsbornsimplyspeakertriestohelpthelist enerstoseewhatheorshesees.Itmeans thatwordsarechosen to reflect thespeak ersopinionand toshowhisorherthoughts.Speakersexpressionsareusually suppose d toevoke feelingsand to supportspeakers claims (Osborn, M., Osborn S., 1988, p.23 1-232). The speaker tries topersuadeaswellasinformtheaudience.

    Another important function provided by the Osborns is to awaken feelings,particularly in persuasive and ceremonial speeches (Osborn, M., Osborn S., 1988, p.232, 240). According to Lucas, skilful selection of tools stimulates strong reactions(Lucas,2008,p.224).VickerspointsoutthatThe credibilityofrhetoricaleffectis()seenasdependingontruthtolifeintheemotionp resented.(Vickers,2002,p.309).Inotherwords,toarouseemotionsisspeakerscrucia ltaskandtheeffectisdependentonhowthespeakerisabletoestablishreallifeemot ions.This,inturn,maybecomparedtoMcGuigansfunctiontoentertain.

    Rhetoricaldevicescanoftenbeusedforcreatings o-calledgroupidentitythatalsotries to stimulate listeners to some action. People naturally tend to unite. Therefore,speakermaydemonstratehisorherclosenesstoawa kenintensivefeelingsinaudiencethat they can change the problem situation together (Osborn,M.,Osborn S., 1988, p.235). McGuigan adds that rhetorical devices also he lp to make sure that speakerconveysexcellentideasorcangettheaudiencewhe reheorsheneeds.Thiscorrespondswiththefunctiontoexpress(McGuigan,2008,p.9- 10).

    Tosumup, thepurposeofusing rhetoricaldevices is tohelp listeners tosee theworld in speakers eyes, to arouse audiences feeli ng and tomake the audience act asone group. To accomplish this, speaker tries to be persuasive, informative andentertaining. Speakers goals may be achieved by de liberate and sensible use ofrhetoricaldevices.Oneoftherhetoricaldeviceth atmayhelptoachievethesefunctionsisrepetitionwhichisdealtmorecloselyinthefo llowingchapter4.

  • 7

    4 REPETITION

    Thischapterfirstlydealswiththemeaningofrepe titionandprovidesexplanationsoftheterm.Secondly,itprovidesvariouswaysof classificationandcloserexpositionofsomesignificantrepetitivefiguresinconnectiont opoliticalspeeches.Thirdly,functionsofrepetitionareidentified.

    Fisherstatesthatrepetitionappearsinordinaryd ailysituationsviadoingthesameroutinesrepeatedly.Variousceremonialoccasionso rcasualritualsaredonewithexactrepetition of words and actions. Nevertheless, man y people are not aware of itspresence and those who are inmost cases do not app reciate it. (Fischer, 1994, p. 9).Bazzanella claims that people repeat when they say hello or when they behaveaccording to social requirements.Repetition is fou nd in language, literature ormusic.From linguistic perspective, words are often repeat ed in spoken discourse withoutspeakers conscious awareness.Whenused intentiona lly repetition canhave rhetoricalorintensifyingeffects(Bazzanella,1996,p.vii) .

    Concerninglinguistics,repetitionisabroadpheno menon.Juckerapproachesitasa comprehensive topic that interests phonologists, morphologists, syntacticians,

    psycholinguists, discourse analysts and pragmatists . (Jucker, 1994, p. 47). As it issuggested,repetitionisacomplexterm.Tomakeit manageable,thispaperconcentratesonrepetitionusedinpoliticalspeechesviewedfro mthepointoflinguistics.

    4.1 Themeaningofrepetition

    The chapter 4 of this paper deals with repetition, therefore it should beemphasised here that repetition is narrower term th an rhetorical device or figure ofspeech.Thestudiedrepetitionmayproduceemphasis orcohesionbypatternsofsound.It may impact the audience and emphasize or awaken speakers points. It should beremindedthatrepetitiondoesnotdifferfromitsl iteralmeaningandfromnormalwordorder. Its concern is not on the differences from t raditional meaning or extendedmeaning of words but on the skilful arrangement of words that can arouse particulareffects.

    Firstly,themeaningofrepetitionshouldbeindica ted.Repetitionissomethingthathappensagain.Perssonevensuggeststhattheterm repetitioncanbeunderstoodasself-

  • 8

    explanatory. (Persson,1974,p.1).Despite this fa ct,severaldefinitionsare includedtoprovidenecessaryinformation. ThePenguin DictionaryofLiteraryTermsandLiteraryTheory definesrepetitionas

    anessentialunifyingelementinnearlyallpoetry andmuchprose.Itmay consist of sounds, particular syllables and wor ds, phrases,stanzas, metrical patterns, ideas, allusions and sh apes. (Cuddon,Preston,1999,p.742).

    Similarly The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetic s suggests thatrepetition involves recurrenceofcorrespondingele ments (Preminger,Brogan,1993,p.1035). The Oxford Companion to the English Language also agrees with abovementioned words and in addition to that it says tha t repetition creates rhythm.(McArthur,1992,p.862).Moreover,repetitionisdes cribedbyMcArthuras

    doing, saying or writing the same thing more than once. () Therecurrence of processes, structures, elements and m otifs isfundamentaltocommunicationingeneralandlanguag einparticular.(McArthur,1992,p.861).

    Everythingthatappearsmorethanoncecanregarded astherepetition.Asaresultrepetition is an essential element that appears in speeches and also everydayconversations. The recurrence of sounds, words or s yntactic structures is used forrhetoricaleffects.Italsoservesasaunifyingel ementinwriting.Repetitionappearson

    syntacticaswellasexpressivelevel.

    Aitchison is worth quoting for a useful summary. Sh e implies that repetition ishiddenundermanydifferentnamesthataredependen tonwhoisrepeatingandwhatisrepeated.Forexample:

    When parrots do it, its parroting. () When child ren do it, itsimitation. ()When orators do it, its epizeuxis, ploce, anadiplosis,polypton or antimetabole.When novelists do it, it s cohesion.Whenpoetsdoit, itsalliteration,chimingrhymeorpa rallelism.()Whenmorphemesdoit,itsreduplication.(Aitchison,1 994,p.15).

    Theseare just severalexamples.Aitchisonprovides 27 termsaltogether thatcanbe considered as repetition and she adds that many other terms are to be found inspecialized areas such as rhetoric.Moreover, asma ny kinds of repetition exist, it canevenbesaidthatlanguagedependsonrepeatedpat terns.(Aitchison,1994,p.15-16).

  • 9

    Thetopicofrepetitionisbroad,sothefocusoft hispaperisnarrowedtorepetitioninpoliticalspeeches.Moreconcretely,itisnarro wedtorepeatedsounds,words,phrasesand patterns that supposedly have an effect on audi ence and fulfil specific functions.FowlerandFowlerpresentrhetoricalrepetitionas tryingtosecureimpressivenessandsuggestthatrhetoricalrepetitiondictateswhole structureofthesentence.(FowlerandFowler,1922,p.209-210).

    4.1.1 Usefulofuselessrepetitions

    Arerepetitionsgoodorbad?Manydiscussionsare l edwith theobjective to findthe answer. To begin with, The New Fowlers Modern English Usage explains thatrepetitions in ordinary grammatical structures can be accidental. Repetition can beundesirableifthesamewordsarerepeatedtooclos elytoeachotherandresultfromlackof care (Fowler, Burchfield, 2000, p. 667-668). The improper usage is a frequentlymentionedproblem.ForexamplePremingerandBrogan believethat inappropriateuseis grounded in its overuse by poets (Preminger, Bro gan, 1993, p. 1035). McArthurremindsthatformalwritingordinarilyavoidsrepet itionforthesakeofeconomyandinfavourofatraditionofelegantvariation.(McArt hur,1992,p.862).

    Theabovementionedauthorstakeintoconsideration writtenstyle.Nevertheless,aspokendiscourseofpolitical speeches is analysed in thepracticalpartof thisdiplomapaper. Tannen touches the style of political speech es and mentions the problems ofreading awritten document aloudwhichmay createm ore difficulty in understandingbecause listeners have to pay attention to every si ngle word (Tannen, 2007, p. 59).Preserving the same level of concentration is diffi cult; therefore repetition may beuseful in these situations, as it makes the listeni ng less demanding. Also Fowler andBurchfield state that the repetition of sounds or w ords is reasonable when used forrhetoricaleffects(Fowler,Burchfield,2000,p.66 8).

    Repetitionmaybeoftenconsideredasundesirablea ndshowingcarelessness.Asaresult,itisarguablewhetherrepetitionisuseful ornot.Itappearsinspeeches,writingsand conversations quite often. Generally, it is und erstood that repetition has negativeeffectsbutonlywhenusedinadequatelyorwithcar elessness. Inconnection,Aitchisonstates:Linguistsarethereforefacedwiththepar adoxthatrepetitioniswidelyused,yetwidelyavoided.(Aitchison,1994,p.18).Quirket al.contrastthatlexicalrecurrenceis

  • 10

    generallyavoidedasitmayseemobtrusive.Theyal sostressthatrepetitionistoleratedinlegallanguagetoescapemisinterpretation.Neve rtheless,repetitioniscommonlyusedinnon-specializedtexttoproduceemphasis(Quirk etal.,1985.p.1441).

    The question of repetition being positive or negati ve is not to be answeredstraightforwardly.FowlerandFowlerintheirbook TheKingsEnglish summarizethatwehaveinstancesofrepetitionthataregoodint hemselves;wehaverepetitionthatareneither particularly good nor particularly bad in t hem, but that offend simply byrecurrence. (Fowler H. W., Fowler F. G., 1922, p. 211). To summarize thesediscussions, repetition may be perceived as useful but also as useless in many casesdependingonthespeakersskilfulusage.

    4.2 Classificationofrepetition

    Assuggestedbyvariousauthors,forexampleTannen (2007),Aitchison(1994)orJohnstone et al. (1994), repetition can be analyzed frommany different perspectives.Thissubchapterprovidesvariousformsofclassific ation,asmentionedbytheseauthors.These authors take into considerationmainly conver sational style. Some features are,however,thesameforpublicspeakingusage.Itis alsoimportanttoemphasizethateachdistinctionisconcernedonslightlydifferentling uisticareas.

    4.2.1 Immediateanddelayedrepetition

    Aitchisonprovidesanumbrellatermcalledtemporal scale,whichdefinesthegapbetween repeated elements. (Aitchison, 1994, p. 19) . Tannen speaks about temporalscale,too.Sheseesdelayedrepetitioninawider sense.Shepointsoutthatdelayedcanrefertodelaywithinadiscourse,ordelayacross days,weeks,monthsandyears.Somewidelyused fixedexpressions, forexamplewellkno wnmetaphors, famoussayingsorclichs, are repeated through time by multiple spea kers (Tannen, 2007, p. 64).Johnstoneet al.draw theattention to the function sofdisplaced repetitionandsuggestthat it seems to serve as a cohesive device. For in stance, anaphora 1 signals displacedrepetition and may indicate also a topic change. Rh yming in poetry is also type of

    1Thetermanaphoraisexplainedindetailinchapter4.3

  • 11

    delayed repetition (Johnstone et al., 1994, p. 14). The sentence (1) shows delayedrepetitionwhereaphraseisrepeatedintwoconsec utivesentences.

    (1) Wecanstop sendingourchildrentoschoolswithcorridorsof shameandstartputtingthemonapathwaytosuccess .Wecanstop talkingabouthowgreatteachersareandstartrew ardingthemfortheirgreatnessbygivingthemmorepayandmoresu pport.(Speech1,14-15) 2On the opposite scale stands immediate repetition. Obviously, it refers to

    situations when elements are uttered straight away. The elements can be of any sizefrom a sound to a whole sentence or text. Immediate repetition is connected withpluralityor intensificationorwithwhatever ispr onouncedagain. Immediate repetitionmay be felt as poetic and focussing on audience (Jo hnstone et al., 1994, p. 13-14).Immediaterepetitionisillustratedonthefollowin gexample(2).

    (2) Thereissomethinghappening.There'ssomethinghap pening whenAmericanswhoareyounginageandinspirit,who'veneverpa rticipatedinpoliticsbefore,turnoutinnumberswehaveneverseenbecausethey knowintheirheartsthatthistimemustbedifferent. (Speech1,6)Both immediate and delayed repetitions are applied in the analysis of political

    speeches in the practical part. Sometimes there are longer text passages betweenrepeated expressionswhich canmake the identificat ion a bit difficult.For this reason,authorsasBazanella(1994),Persson(1974)andTan nen(2007)tendtoavoidstudyingdelayed repetition.However, no exceptionwill be p ut in this paper and both types ofimmediate and delayed repetition will be studied. S upposing, each type provides afunction.

    4.2.2 Exactandpartialrepetition

    Tannen places exact and non-exact repetition to be connected to the scale offixity.Exactrepetitionconcernsonthesameword sthatarespokeninthesamepattern(Tannen, 2007, p. 63). Sentence (3) illustrates the use of exact repetition. Aitchisontakes into consideration also partial repetition, a lso named repetitionwith variation(Aitchison,1994,p.19).Partialrepetitionisref erredtobyJohnstoneetal.asnon-exact

    2Theexampleistakenfromthecorpusenclosedinappend ices9.2.Speech1referstothenumberofthespeech.Thenumber6referstoparagraphwhere thes entenceorsentencesarefoundinawidercontext.This method is used also in all other examples taken from th e corpus. Examples not from the corpusfollowordinarycitingnorms.

  • 12

    repetition and it involves alteration of somewords and pronouncing sentences in thesamepattern(Johnstoneetal.,1994,p.14-15).Se ntence(4)showsthepartialrepetition,where the samestem isadjustedandslightlydiffer entwordcreated.A careful lookattheexamplenumber(3)revealsthatitcanbeconsi deredaspartialrepetitionaswellduetotheirsimilarstructures.

    (3) Those are the battles that we need to fight. Those are the battles that wewillinglyjoin.(Speech2,46)

    (4) And I know that in this crowd today, there is no sh ortage of patriots, or ofpatriotism.(Speech2,38)Paraphraseisplacedontheothersideof thescale .Aitchisonisnotsurewhether

    to includeparaphraseto repetitionsornot (Aitchi son,1994,p.15).Ontheotherhand,Tannen (2007) and Johnstone et al. (1994) do not ex press any doubts and decidedlyinclude it. Paraphrase is recognized when similar i dea is said in different words(Tannen,2007,p.63).Johnstoneetal.thenshowa technicalpointofviewonexactnessof repetition and state that we could count lingui stically or otherwise analyticallysegmentable forms and see how many of them are repe ated from model to copy.(Johnstone et al., 1994, p. 15). They add that para phrase is seen as repeating onsemantic levelnot on segmentable forms (ibid). It is explained that paraphrase shouldbeconsideredasaspecifictypeofrepetition.

    Bothexactandpartialrepetitionswillbestudied inthepracticalpartofthispaper,whereasparaphrasewillnotbeincluded.Thereason sforexcludingparaphrasearethatit does not have clearly identifiable form in the s peech and its aims seem not to berelevanttothisstudy.

    4.2.3 Intentionalandunintentionalrepetition

    These two opposite types of repetition are commonly encountered both inconversation and in speech. Biber et al. mention th e difficulty in deciding whetherrepeats areplannedorunplannedandwhether they a re the resultsof hesitationor not(Biber et al., 1999, p.1056). Aitchison supports th is admitting that it is not easy todistinguishwhether specific repetition is used con sciously or not (Aitchison, 1994, p.21).Bothauthorsassociatethisproblemmainlywit haspokenutterance.

  • 13

    Also psycholinguists differ between automatic and controlled processes.Controlledorintentionalrepetitionreferstothin gshappeningconsciouslyaccordingtothe speakers choice of words. Moreover, intentiona l repetition is seen in writtenlanguage and particularly in poetry (Aitchison, 199 4, p. 21-22). Biber et al. proposesthat deliberate repetitions are used for emphasis, maintaining attention or for clarity(Biber et al., 1999, p.1056). In example (5) the ph rase Yes, we can is repeated threetimesanditisdefinitelyperceivedasintentional .

    (5) Forwhenwe have faced down impossible odds,whenw e've been toldwe'renot ready or thatwe shouldn't try or thatwe can't , generations ofAmericanshaverespondedwithasimplecreedthatsumsupthe spiritofapeople: Yes,wecan.Yes,wecan.Yes,wecan. (Speech1,27)On theotherhand,unintentional repetition isused randomly in spoken language

    (Kjellmer,2008,p.40).Aitchisonunderstandsunin tentionalrepetitionasasimpleform,often occurring as slips of the tongue (Aitchison, 1994, p. 22). Biber et al. add thatunplannedrepetitioncanbetermedasfalsestart, meaningthatspeakerreturnsinhisorherspeechandbeginsonceagain(Bibetetal.,199 9,p.1062).Tannencommentsontheautomaticity of repetition and presents a neuroling uistic research originally conductedbyWhitaker.Theresearchconcentratesonaphasicp atientswhodue tobraindamagescannot spontaneously express themselves and so they can only repeat with a simplevariation.Theresearchshowsthatshadowingofap riorutteranceisautomatic.Similarautomaticity appears inordinary conversations (Tan nen,2007,p.92-93).Sentence (6)illustratestheuseonunintentionalrepetition,wh erethephraseisrepeatedwithnoclearpurposeinspeakersmind.

    (6) Wewillfinishthejob--wewillfinishthejob againstAlQaidainAfghanistan.(Speech1,18)Biber et al. (1999), Aitchison (1994) and Kjellmer (2008) comment on

    conversational utterances. It can be concluded from their findings that repetition inpolitical speeches is mainly intentional because sp eeches are carefully prepared andrehearsed before being delivered. Ehrlich states th at repetition in public speeches ismore likely to be intentional because random repeti tion ismore typical for unplanneddiscourses (Ehrlich, 1994, p. 88)Nevertheless, uni ntentional repetitionmay appear inpublicaddressesaswell,incasesofslipsofthe tonguesorfalsestarts.Bothcaseswillbeanalyzedinthepracticalpartofthispaper.

  • 14

    4.2.4 Self-repetitionandallo-repetition

    This type of repetition is commonly used in convers ations. However, its use isfunctional also for speeches. It is suggested that self-repetition functionsmainly as aself correction (Johnstone et al., 1994, p. 15-16) or in caseswhen speakers say againwhat theyhavesaidbefore (Bazzanella,1996,p. ix ).Sentence(6)aboveservesas theexampleofself-repetition,thespeakersay Wewillfinishthejob forthefirsttime,thenpauses and starts the sentence once again.Other re petition, also called allo-repetition,includesechoingofthesamewordsbyanotherspeak er.Thisoftenhappensindialogues(Bazzanella,1996,p.ix).Thisiscommonlyseenin childlanguagewhenchildrentrytoimitate(Aitchison,1994,p.29).Theexample(7)p resentstheuseofallo-repetitioninaconversation.

    (7) Deborah:Youknowwhoelsetalksaboutthat?Didyo ueverreadR.D.Laing?TheDividedSelf?Chad:Yeah.ButIdont/??/.Deborah: Hetalksaboutthattoo.Chad: Hetalksaboutittoo. (Tannen,2007,p.68)Johnstoneetal.alsoconsiderselfandotherrepet itioninwritingstyle.Ifthewriter

    is using thewords of someone else, itwould count as other repetition. Self-repetitionoccurswhenthewriterparaphraseshisorherwords .However,theconsiderationofthisisslightlyvagueinwrittentext(Johnstoneetal. ,1994,p.16).

    theconcernisbroughttoself-repetitionusedins pokenutterancesinthispaper,itmay serve as self-correction or it may repeat previ ous words to reach differentfunctions.Variousfunctionsofrepetitionwillbe introducedinthesubchapter4.4.

    4.2.5 Differentsizeofunits

    Anothervariableofrepetitionisthesizeofther epeatedunit.Kjellmerseesawiderange of possible elements that can represent repet ition. It includes sounds, syllables,words,phrasesandalsosentences.Thereisnolimi ttothehighestnumberofrepeatingwords (Kjellmer, 2008, p. 39). Tannen deals quite c losely with the repetition ofphonemes,morphemes,phrasesand longerdiscourse s equences.Sheproposes that theemploymentofrecurringpatternsisabasiccompone nt in theworkof literaryscholars

  • 15

    (Tannen, 2007, p. 34-35). Johnstone et al. describe it similarly but refer to units onphonological,grammatical,lexicalorsyntacticall evel(Johnstoneetal.,1994,p.11).

    Next,figuresofrepetitionaredividedintothree categoriesbasedontheunitsizein the book AHandlist of Rhetorical Terms . The categories are: repetition of letters,syllables, and sounds; repetition of words; repetit ion of clauses, phrases, and ideas(Lanham,1991,p.189-191).Eachcategorysupplies alonglistofrhetoricaldevicesthatbelong to repetition. Some specific figures are exp lained below in the subchapter 4.3.For illustration,example(8)shows the repetition ofphonemesandexample(9)showstherepetitionofaphrase.

    (8) Itwasacreedwrittenintothefounding documents that declared the destinyofanation. (Speech1,28)

    (9) Itwas acreedwrittenintothefoundingdocumentsthatd eclaredthedestinyofanation.It was whispered by slaves and abolitionists as they blaz ed a trail towardsfreedomthroughthedarkestofnights.(Speech1,2 8-29)Johnstoneetal.sumupthatRepetitionis thusa basicstructuralprincipleonall

    levels. Repetition ismore available, so itsmore likely to be used (Johnstone et al.,1994,p.11).Followingthisstatement,repetition isseenasimportantinutterancesanditsroleissignificant.Therefore,somebasicfigu resandtheirfunctionsareexplainedinthefollowingsection.

    4.3 Specifictypesofrepetition

    Vickers comments on rhetorical repetition and claim s that it seems safe to saythatnotheorycouldeverembracealltypesofrepe titionusedinrhetoric,inliteraryorinother texts. (Vickers,1994,p.98).Agreeingwith thisstatement, figuresarecarefullychoseninthispaper.Thechoiceisinfluencedbyt heiroccurrencesinpoliticalspeechesenclosedinappendicesandalsobythefrequencyof referenceoffiguresmentionedbyauthors dealing with repetition and public speaking such as Tannen (2007), Vickers(1994)orOsbornMandOsbornS.(1988).

    Thefunctionsofvariousfiguresmaybewide,Vicke rsemphasizesthatrhetoricalfigures are polysemous. He then adds that the form of devices is fixed, but theirmeaning and feelings are not. Those depend on the l anguage itself and on speakersintentions(Vickers,2002,p.307).Now,selectedr epetitivefiguresaredefined.

  • 16

    Alliteration

    The first figure is alliteration, illustrated on th e example (10).According to theOsborns, it is a technique that uses the repetition of sound at the beginning ofwords.Alliterationpossesses thepowerof capturing liste ners attentionandstrengthening thespeakersintentions.(Osborn,M.,OsbornS.,1988, p.247).

    (10) middle-agedfolks were willingto walkinsteadofridethebus(Speech3,64)

    Anaphora

    Anaphora is defined as the repetition of the same words or phrases at thebeginningofsuccessivephrases,clauses,sentences orlines.(Preminger,Brogan,1993,p.73).Itsuseisshownontheexample(11).

    (11) Wehavebeen toldwecannotdothisbyachorusofcynics.(26) We'vebeenasked to pause for a reality check. We've been warned against offering thepeopleofthisnationfalsehope.(Speech1,27)

    PremingerandBroganfurthercommentthatanaphora isfavouredbecauseitsstructurereinforces the meaning of words; foregrounds sequen ce of sentences and arrangessentencesinasimilarway.Itmaybealsoundersto odasaformofparallelismduetoitsrepeatingpattern(ibid).TheOsbornsthinkthatit issuitableforconclusionstoconfirmandconnecttheideasformedthroughthespeech(Os born,M.,OsbornS.,1988,p.247).

    The opposite of anaphora is epistrophe which repea ts words at the ends ofclauses, linesorstanzas(Preminger,Brogan,1993 ,p.73)Leannealsodefinesa termmesodiplosis in which word or phrase is repeated ar ound the middle of successivesentences.(Leanne,2009,p.110).

    Polysyndeton

    PolysyndetonisdefinedbyBaldickasatermforr epeateduseofconjunctionstolink together a succession of words, clauses, or se ntences. (Baldick, 2001, p.199).Polysyndetonisdemonstratedontheexample(12).

    (12) agenerationthatusestheirowncreativity and talent and technology(Speech4,87)

    PremingerandBroganstatethatconjunction and isoftenapplied.However,someotherconjunctions are suitable aswell, for example prep osition or which presents variousoptions. Polysyndeton may add emphasis to the item s in an enumeration or may

  • 17

    represent the flow and continuity. (Preminger, Bro gan, 1993, p. 968). Quintilianobserves thatsentences incorporating thisdeviceb ecomemoredynamic, intensiveandfilled with affection. Through repeating, the rhyth m becomes important. (Quintilian,2006,9.3.53).Leanneadds thatpolysyndetonserve sasaveryvaluable technique forbuildinguporamplifyingapoint.Thesentenceth usseemstobelongerandthelistofwordsislongeraswell(Leanne,2009,p.118).

    Parallelism

    Parallelism is distinguished in The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry andPoetics as the repetitionof identical or similar syntact icpatterns in adjacentphrases,clausesorsentences.Thepatternofparallelismi susuallydoubledbutmayberepeatedmore times (Preminger, Brogan, 1993, p. 877). It ar ises from the definition thatparallelismisdistinguishedbytherepeatedsyntac ticformsthatareinequivalence.Theinstance(13)indicatesitsuse.

    (13) It starts with changing our hearts, and changing our minds, broade ning ourspirit.(Speech3,53)

    Fabb deals with parallelism more closely and sugges ts three subcategories. One issyntactic parallelism and the two other are lexical and phonological parallelism.Syntacticparallelismisoftenaccompaniedbylexic alparallelismandinvolvesapairofparallelwords, one in each section of the text (F abb, 2003, p. 462-463). Thewordsmay have similar form or number of syllables. The s entencesmay look the same butsome elementsmaybe changed or differentword cate goriesmaybe used.Thewordschanging and broadening in theexample (13) represent lexicalparallelism. Moreover,Fabb continues that similar structures seem to be c omplex and aesthetical (ibid). Itmeans that parallelism used in rhetoric seems convi ncing andmakes the speech lookgood.TheOsbornsdevelopthatparallelstructures helptofocusonthemainpointsandservemanyadvantages,suchasprovidinganoutcome whichisclearlynoticeableduetothe slight variation, emphasizing the main points o r developing contrast. Thesestructuresareeasilyremembered(Osborn,M.,Osbor nS.,1988,p.189).Johnstoneetal.sees the importance of patterned speaking in manipu lating and calling audiencesattentiontothespeakersutterance(Johnstoneet al.,1994,p.13).

  • 18

    Asaconsequenceofpresenteddefinitions,itshoul dbestressedthattheusesandfunctionsof listeddevicesarebasedon speakers will andhisorherdeliberateusage.Thefunctionsofthesedeviceswillbeverifiedin thepracticalpartofthethesis.

    4.4 Functionsofrepetition

    This subchapter firstly provides an overall descrip tion of various functions thatrepetition may serve and contrasts different opinio ns of linguists. After the generalexplanation,thefunctionsrelevanttotheaimoft hispaperarechosenandexplainedinmoredetail.

    Johnstoneetal.trytoansweradifficultquestion aboutfunctionsofrepetitionandprovideawiderangeoffunctionsasfollows:

    Repetition functions didactically, playfully, emot ionally,expressively, ritualistically; repetition can be us ed for emphasis oriteration,clarification, confirmation; it can inco rporate foreignwordsinto a language, in couplets, serving as a resource for enriching thelanguage.(Johnstoneetal.,1994,p.6).

    The listed functions do not cover all possible func tions, though. Other usesincludeacademicscopyingquotes,serving,orfors ustainingconversation.Itservesasapersuasive device as well (Johnstone et al., 1994, p. 6). The long list of functionssuggests a variety of uses. As a result the functio ns change according to differentspeakerspurposes.

    Ashintedabove, thenumberofpossiblefunctionss eemstobealmostunlimited.Tannenisworthquotingsuggestingthat:itwould behubris(andhopeless)toattemptto illustrateevery formand functionof repetition . (Tannen,2007,p.64).Kjellmer isalso aware that it is not possible to try to analys e all functions of repetitions becausetherearesomanyofthem.Somefunctionsmaybeca rriedouttogetheranditisdifficultto distinguish which one is the more prominent. The transcription of speech makesdefining the function even more difficult, because intonation is not provided there(Kjellmer, 2008, p.43). These arguments are applica ble also for the analytical part ofthispaper.Audiorecordingwillbeconsulted,ifa vailable.

    Johnstoneet al. (1994) try todescribe the functio nsof repetitionmoregenerallyandinabroaderperspective.Theymainlynotifyth ereaderabouttheinfiniteamountof

  • 19

    possibleusages.Nevertheless,havinglistedpossib lefunctions,aneedforcategorizationappears.Aitchisontriestosummarizethefunctions ofrepetitionintothreeoverlapping

    categories.

    First, repetitionmayextendexisting language re sources;Second, itpromotestextualcohesionandcomprehensibilitywit htextusedin itswidest sense to include spoken speech; third it fac ilitatesconversationalinteraction.(Aitchison,1994,p.1 9).

    The first two terms concentrate mostly on self-repe tition; the latter term

    concentrates on other repetition (Aitchison, 1994, p. 19). The characteristic of publicspeech is that it does not require interaction, the type of conversational interactionwhichAitchisonsuggestsisnotdealtwithinthis paper.

    From Perssons point of view, six different functio ns of repetition can bedistinguished. These are intensifying, emphatic, co njoined, mimetic, simple andpurposive repetition (Persson, 1974). Perssonswor k Repetition in English provides acomprehensive description and division of repetitio n and explains the most commonfunctions of repetition in awider perspective of s poken discourse and other texts.Onthe contrary, Bazzanella (1996) or Tannen (2007) co ncentrate only on conversationalstyle.

    To theauthoress knowledge, the functionsdealing withpublic speakingarenotdescribed indetail inasinglebook.Therefore,va riousfunctionspresented in this textare put together from various authors points of vi ews and chosen according to theirrelevance for theuse inpolitical speeches.Persso nsdivision is primarily used in thisdiploma paper. However, not all of his classificati on is used and other is added. Forinstance,Perssondoesnot includecohesive functio nwhich ismentionedbyAitchison(1994)orHoey(1991)andwhichisincludedinthe functionshereaswell.

    4.4.1 Cohesiverepetition

    Functionof repetitionnamedcohesive ismentioned shortlybyAitchison (1994)andmore extensively by Halliday andHasan (1980), or Hoey (1991) who devoted awholebooknamed PatternsofLexisinText tothistopic.

    Firstly the termcohesionmustbe introduced.Cohes ion is definedbyHoey as agrammaticalorlexicalpartofthetextthatconnec tssentencestoothersentencesinthe

  • 20

    text (Hoey, 1991, p. 266).Halliday andHasan expla in that cohesion can be achievedpartly through grammar and partly throughvocabular y. (Halliday,Hasan, 1980, p. 5).Grammaticalcohesionwillnotbedealthere.Theco ncernofthisworkisbroughtonlytolexicalcohesionbecauseitdealswithrecurring lexis.

    Now, the lexical cohesion or the term repetition in connection to its ability tocreateaunified textwillbeexplained.According toHoey, repetitionpromotes textualcohesionandshowstherelationsamongsentences(H oey,1991,p.35).Hedefinesthisuseofrepetitionasoccurrenceofitemsinsentenc es.Reoccurringitemsareusedagainso that something newmay be said about themor add to them (Hoey, 1991, p. 268).This is illustrated on example (14) where the phras e Ive seen introduces twoconsecutivesentencesandservestostructurethet extandaddnewinformation.

    (14) Iveseen goodlegislationdiebecause goodintentionswerentenough,becausetheywerentfortifiedwithapoliticalmajorityan dpoliticalwill. Iveseen thiscountry--thiscountrysjudgmentcloudedbyfear. (Speech3,63)AlthoughTannendoesnotspeakclearlyaboutcohesi on,shestatesthatrepetition

    allowsaspeakertosetupaparadigmandslotinn ewinformation,andthusitenablesthe speaker to produce a fluent speech (Tannen, 200 7, p. 58). The description sheprovides corresponds to what is mentioned here as c ohesive function of repetition.HallidayandHasanthenusethetermreiterationfo rreferringtorepetitionintheirworkand define it more concretely. According to them, reiteration is a form of lexicalcohesion which involves the repetition of a lexical item. (Halliday, Hasan, 1980, p.278). The following example (15) shows the reoccurr ence of words my grandfather .The phrase cannot be substituted and have to be rep eated. It also serves to make aconnectionbetweenparagraphs.

    (15) His father -- mygrandfather --wasa cook,adomestic servant to theBritish.But mygrandfather hadlargerdreamsforhisson.(Speech5,96-97)Comparing the terminology, the authors agree on bas ic termof repetition.What

    Hoey calls repetition Halliday and Hasan treat as repetition of a lexical item.Moreover,HoeydevelopsHallidayandHasanstheory ofreiterationofthesamelexicalitems. He divides it into simple and complex lexica l repetition. Simple repetition,example (16), occurswhen itemsare repeatedwithn obig alternation.The alternationcanbeforinstanceinchangesfromsingulartoplu ral.Thewordsinsimplerepetitiondo

  • 21

    not change the word class. The context of simple re petition can be compared to theexactrepetitionmentionedinthesubchapter4.2.2.

    (16) That's why tonight belongs to you. It belongs to the organizers, and thevolunteers, and the staff who believed in this jour ney and rallied so manyotherstojointhecause.(Speech1;24)Complexlexicalrepetition,ontheotherhand,as i llustratedontheexample(17),

    concernswordsthatshareamorphemebutcanberep resentedbyadifferentwordclassandsohaveadifferentgrammatical function.Words thatare identical in formbutareusedindifferentgrammaticalfunctionalsobelong tocomplexlexicalrepetition.Itmustbepointedoutthattherepetitionofprefixorsuf fixdoesnotfitintothiscategory(Hoey,1991,p.53-58).

    (17) Throughhardworkandperseverancemyfathergota scholarship tostudy inamagicalplace,America, thatshoneasabeaconoff reedomandopportunitytosomanywhohadcomebefore.While studying here,myfathermetmymother.(Speech5,97-98)The characteristics ofHoeys classification of the complex lexical repetition are

    the same as a rhetorical device named polyptoton. A ccording to The New PrincetonEncyclopediaofPoetryandPoetics polyptotonincreasespatterningwithoutwearyingtheear,andittakesadvantagesofthedifferingf unctions.(Preminger,Brogan,1993,p.967).Inotherwords,usingthisdeviceisseenas positiveandnotbotheringthelistenersbut rather helping the text to seem coherent. Compl ex lexical repetition can be alsounderstoodaspartialrepetitiondealtwithinthe subchapter4.2.2.

    Lexical cohesion does not include only the iterated items but, as Halliday andHasandescribe, it includesalso theusageofdiffe rentwordswith the samemeaning -synonym, near-synonym, and also the usage of a gene ral word for more specificmemberofthegroupsuperordinate.Collocational sobelongstolexicalrepetitionanditconcernslexicalitemsthathaveacommonwordm eaning(Halliday,Hasan,1980,p.278,284-285).

    The short explanation of the use of synonyms and co llocations is included toprovideacompletebackgroundof lexicalcohesion. Thesetermswillnotbedealtwithintheanalysiscloselybecausetheuseofsynonyms andcollocationseemstogotoofarfrom the repetition of words. The use of synonyms m ay be even understood as theavoidance of repeating and as such it is not the st udy aimof this paper. The sameor

  • 22

    similar itemsaresupposed tobemore influentiala ndmoreeasily recognizable for thelisteners.

    As to the advantages of cohesive repetition, Tannen states that repeated itemsfacilitatebettercomprehensionbyprovidingnotso demandingtextforthehearer.Ifalluttered words carried new information it would be m ore difficult for the listener tounderstand thespeech.Suchredundanciesnotonlyc reatecohesionbutalso thehearerreceives thespeechmoreeasily (Tannen,2007,p.5 9).On theotherhand,Quirketal.speak about lexical recurrencemainly negatively.A ccording to them, an ironic effectmay be created by overuse of one word and it may be come disturbing (Quirk et al.,1985,p. 1441).Their negativeview is influencedb y taking into considerationmainlyunintentionalrepetition,whichisnotseenasposi tive.Moreover,theyalsopointoutthat

    especially in legal language thisprocess is tolera ted toavoidmisunderstanding (Quirket al., 1985, p. 1441). TheOsborns also indicate t hat repetition is avoided in writingclasses for creating redundancy but in communicatio n it is seen positively because ithelpsunderstandingandachievingclarity(Osborn, M.,OsbornS.,1988,p.250).Theydo not acknowledge rhetorical effect of repetition as their concern is based more onwritten than on spoken discourse. Contrastively, Ta nnen takes into consideration thespoken discourse and states that repetition is perc eived positively because it serveslistenersforbetterorientationinthespeechand helpsthemtopayattentionmoreeasily.

    4.4.2 Emphaticrepetition

    According to Persson, emphatic repetitions have emo tive connotations. He alsopoints out that the emotions aroused via repetition are natural and considered as alinguisticuniversal.(Persson,1974,p.166).Pe rssonexplainsthatemphaticrepetitionreinforces or draws extra attention to a concept. (Persson, 1974, p. 50). Similarsuggestion is alsomade by theOsbornswho state th at by repeating sounds,words orphrases listeners attention is caught and its freq uent use helps to emphasize thesignificantattributesinthespeech(Osborn,M.,O sbornS.,1988,p.297).Thefollowingexample(18)illustratestheusage.

    (18) Forwhenwe have faced down impossible odds,whenw e've been toldwe'renot ready or thatwe shouldn't try or thatwe can't , generations ofAmericanshaverespondedwithasimplecreedthatsumsupthe spiritofapeople: Yes,wecan.Yes,wecan.Yes,wecan. (Speech1,28)

  • 23

    The phrase Yes, we can is repeated three times and creates emphasis. Thisstatement reinforces what the speaker needs to say and emotions in audience arearoused.Withthosewords, thespeakerdrawshearer sattention, tries tomovethemtoactionandpersuadethemtoact.Audiencesawarene ssisincreasedbytherepeatedpart.

    As reportedbyPersson, emphatic repetition can be representedby a single itembut also by a larger unit of speech that is used to contrast, to focus and to arouseemotions. More concretely, this type includes repe tition with emphatic, emotive,assertive, exclamatory, exhortative, insistent, urg ent or contrastive force. (Persson,1974, p. 50). As a consequence, emphatic repetition fulfils not only the function ofemphasis but also arousing various emotions and sho wing vehemence belongs to itsbasic characteristics. The example (18) shows repet ition of a sentencewith an urgentforce. In connection to emphatic repetition, Quirk et al. work with the termreinforcement. Reinforcement features colloquial st yle in which some items are

    repeatedtoproduceemphasis,focusor thematicarr angement. In thesimplestformthewords or phrases are repeated with a stress in spea king for the purpose of clarity oremphasis(Quirketal.,1985,p.1416).Itshouldb ehighlightedthatQuirketal.considernot only the repetition of words but also the accom panying feature of emphasis inspeech.

    Persson then describes that emphatic repetition is recognizable due to itsimpossibility tobeparaphrased.Anotherdistinctio n is that it is not an integral part ofthesentenceanditseemstobemoredisjointed,as illustratedonexample(19)(Persson,1974,p.50-51).

    (19) Themanis afool!Afool! (Persson,1974.p.50)The above paraphrased authors aremainly aimedon g eneral linguistic, not on a

    specific style. Vickers, though, primarily concentr ates on the field of rhetoric andconfirmsthatrepetitioniscommonlyassociatedwit hemphasisandemotionalintensity.He adds that if the repetition is done properly, it changes the listeners by beingemotionally overwhelming (Vickers, 1994, p. 97-98). He is aware of the function ofrhetoricaldevicestoawakenfeelings.Hestatesth atThusfromAristotletotheendofeighteen century the figures ()were regarded () as capturing specific and clearlydefined emotional states. (Vickers, 2002, p. 304-3 05). It is explained that emphaticrepetitionmaybeproducedbyrhetoricaldevicesan dtogetherwithemphasiscanarouse

  • 24

    arangeofdifferentemotions.Perssoncontinuesth atemphaticrepetitionformsemotiveconnotations, such as irony, sarcasm, despair jubi lation, enthusiasm devices thatproducethiseffectarecalledprosodicdevices(Pe rsson,1974,p.55).

    As suggested by Persson and Vickers, various emotio ns are connected withemphaticrepetition.AlsoQuintilianconsentswith thisopinion.Hespecifiesthatwordsmay be repeated for amplification or pity. Then he adds that reiteration can alsofunction forcefully and sound ironically (Quintilia n, 2006, 9, 3, 28-30). AlsoVickersemphasizes that the theory of the emphasis and emot ions is not complete, that thefunctionsarenotlimitedinrhetoricalpracticean dthatitisonlywriterswillhowheorsheemploysthedevices(Vickers,1994,p.97-98). Quintiliancontinuesinthisconcept.Hestates thatvarious figuresmaycause the feelin gofvehemence.Thespeeches then

    became more vigorous and through this they evoke st rong emotions in the audience(Quintilian,2006,9,3,54).

    Thiscategoryofemphaticuseofrepetitionisconn ectedwiththeuseofrhetoricaldevicesbecauserepetitivefiguresmaybeusedtom akethespeechesmorevividandtoawaken feelings. Vickers quotes Demetrious explaini ng that repetition is a valuabledevice which creates vividness and passionate tone and uses forceful figures such asanaphora or climax 3 (Vickers, 2002, p. 305). In his analysis, Vickers mentions thatsimilar or symmetrical sentence structures (paralle lism) are able to produce emphasisand by adding new things, to make the new informati on more prominent (Vickers,1994,p.100-101).

    To sumup, emphatic repetition uses repetition ofw ords, phrases or clauses andmayberepresentedbyawiderangeofvariousemoti onsarousedinaudience.However,theforcefulfeelingsmayappearhandinhandwith emphasisinspeakersspeech.

    4.4.3 Intensifyingrepetition

    As the heading signals, this function serves to int ensify an utterance. Perssonclassifies intensifying repetition as an intensifi cation of degree or extent andintensificationofquantity (Persson,1974,p.15 ).Aitchisonspeaksabout thisuseaswell. She adds that Intensification involves an in crease in quantity or quality, and

    3 The term climax is used for an ascending series of w ords, ideas, or events, in which intensity andsignificanceincreasesstepbystep.(McArthur,1992,p .223).

  • 25

    includes superlatives and augmentative uses. (Aitc hison, 1994, p. 20).The followingsentence (20) illustrates the intensifying use, the utterance a sad, sad dream can beparaphrasedas averysaddream .

    (20) Itwasa sad,sad dream.(Persson,1974,p.51)Perssondifferentiates that this typeofrepetition coverscasesthatexpressdegree

    or quantity and intensify duration (Persson, 1974, p. 20-22). Then, intensifyingrepetitioniseasilyrecognizablebecauseitinvolv esonlyoneword,isparaphrasable,asshowed on the example (20), and the meaning stays t he same. Another typicalcharacteristic is that the repeated item is seenas an integraldevice. (Persson,1974,p.51-52).Healsopointsoutthatintensificationach ievedbyrepeateditemschieflyoccursnot only in areas of adjectives and adverbs but als o in nouns and verbs. Intensifyingrepetitionscommunicatemainlycognitiverathertha nemotiveeffect.(Persson,1974,p.20-22)

    Intensification is also achieved via intensifiers. Quirk et al. suggest that very,much, far and so can be repeated to produce this effect. These item s are used topremodify adjectives or adverbs (Quirk et al., 1985 , p. 473). Perssonworks with theideaaswell(Persson,1974,p.40).AccordingtoQ uirketal.anintensifyingeffectcanbealsoachievedbyrepeatingnounsmorethantwice .Itsuggestsanincreaseinquantityor number, as shown on the example (21). The coordi native use shows continuity inincreasing(Quirketal.,1985,p . 980).

    (21) Wesaw dogsanddogsanddogs .(Quirketal.,1985,p.981)Otherfeaturedenotinggradualincreaseistheuse ofcoordinatedcomparatives(Quirketal., 1985, p. 467) . Perssonmentions more concretely repetition denoti ng continuousincrease in degree. (Persson, 1974, p. 130). He st ates that it includes two or morecomparativesjoinedwithaconjunction and (ibid),asintheexample(22).(22) Seisgetting betterandbetter .(Quirketal.,1985,p.467)

    To make the category of intensifying repetition com pleted, this category ofrepetition includes also statements that denote cha nges in degree, quality or quantity.This may be achieved by repeating the same item one by one, by connectingcomparativeswithaconjunction and orduetotheuseofintensifiers.

  • 26

    4.4.4 Hesitationalrepetition

    The name of this subchapter is adjusted for the pur pose of this paper, so as theheading corresponds to function of repetition. Pers sonmentions the term hesitationalrepetition in his chapter on simple repetition and states that there are similarities infunctions between the two. The hesitational repetit ionmostly concerns items such asarticles, personal pronouns and prepositions with a low informational value andindicatesacognitiveactivity(Persson,1974,p.1 52). In thispaper theinclinationis tohesitationalrepetitionforitsnamebeingmoreexp lanatoryandreferringtoitsfunction.However, the material included under this term will be broader than only articles orpronouns. The following example (23) illustrates he sitational repetition repeatingpronouns.

    (23) I--I putHopeonmycampaignsigns(Speech3,61)Persson defines simple repetition as having an uncl ear function. According to

    him,simplerepetitionputsnothingmoretotheexp ressedutterance.Itdoesnotchangethemeaningeither semanticallyor emotively. It is usuallyusedonly to fill thegap inspeakingortoprovideaspacetothinkaboutwhat tosaynext.Expressionfalsestartisconnectedtoitaswell(Persson,1974,p.152-1 53).Kjellmeralsodescribestheuseofrepetitionashesitationoruncertaintyaswell.He specifiesthatspeakertriestoprocess

    theutterance inhismindbefore saying the intende dpart (Kjellmer, 2008,p. 48).Thenextexample(24)showsahesitationalrepetitiont hatisemployedastherepeatedstart.

    (24) Youknow, awhilebackawhileback ImetayoungmannamedShamusinaV.F.W.(Speech5,118)Thetermhasbeendefined.Itisimportanttoaddt hatthisfunctionissimilartothe

    usageofhesitational repetitioninconversations. Hesitationalrepetitionmostlyappears

    inconversationalstylebutalsoapublicspeakerw ithawellpreparedspeechsometimeshesitatesandneedstimetothink.Slipsoftongue donotavoidhim/hereither.Moreover,also a skilful speaker sometimes needs to think abo ut his next words or, moreconcretely,tofindhis/hernextwordsinthescrip tedspeech.

    Hesitational repetition is the only type of the all the functions presented in thispaperthatencompassesonlystrictlydescribedcase s.Thehesitationalrepetitionimpliesonlytoself-repetitionwhichisexact,immediatea ndunintentional.Thestrictlimitation

  • 27

    is conditioned by the function itself. It should he lp the speaker to start again or toshortlythinkabouthisnextwords.AsBiberetal. state, theserepetitionsare theresultofdysfluencyandareusedinvoluntary.Additionall y,itisoftendifficulttodecidewhatthe result of dysfluency is and what is not (Biber et al., 1999, p. 1056). Biber et al.(1999)andKjellmer(2008)speakaboutthecategori zationdescribedaboveinthesameway.Therefore,itispossibletoclearlystatethe formofhesitationalrepetition.Anothermotive is that public speeches are prepared beforeh and, so the hesitation is clearlyobservableandseenasexact,immediateanduninten tional.

    Kjellmer also tries to identify the position of rep eated items in a sentence. Hestatesthatclauseintroductorypositionisthemos tcommonforplanning;thisrepeatinggives the speaker time for preparation. The plannin g process in speakers mindinfluencestheitemsthatarerepeated.Thosearep redominantlyfoundatthebeginningofanounphrasesandverbphrasesandatthebegin ningofclauses.(Kjellmer,2008,p.48-49).

    The theoretical part described the necessary featur es of repetition from itsclassifications to its functions. The connected asp ects of public speeches and uses ofrhetoricaldeviceswerepresentedaswell.Soapra cticalpartmayfollowtryingtoapplythetheoreticalbackgroundtotheselectedpolitica lspeeches.

  • 28

    5 PRACTICALPART

    Thischapterprovidesananalysisofselectedpolit icalspeeches,whilereferencingthemtothetheoreticalbackgroundpresentedinthe firstfourchaptersofthepaper.Theaims, methods of the survey and examined corpus are described firstly. Then theanalysisofacquireddatafollows.Mainattentioni spaidtotheexplanationofusesandfunctions of repetition. Lastly, summary of results recapitulates and concludes thefindings.

    5.1 Aimsandmethodsoftheanalysis

    As it ispresented in the theoreticalpart theposs ibleusageof repetition iswide.Thepracticalpartconcernsonstudyingtherepetit iveoccurrencesinpoliticalspeeches.The studied iterated items are sounds,words, phras es and clauses aswell as repeatedsyntacticstructures(parallelism).

    The primary concern is put on the qualitative evalu ation of the studied politicalspeeches.Thequalitativeevaluationdealswithide ntifyingandevaluating theusesandfunctionsofrepetition.Theeffectsofimmediatea nddelayedrepetitionwithconnectionto its functions will be compared. Subsequently, a quantitative analysis is providedmeasuring the occurrences of individual uses and fu nctions; it serves to provide thefrequencyofrepeateditemsinthestudiedcorpus. Moreover,thestudymayalsoprovideinformationwhether repetition in investigatedpoli tical speeches is used appropriately.Minorfocuswillbedevotedtostudyingrhetorical devicesandtheiruse.

    Concerning the structure of analysis, the functions of repetition in political

    speechesarestudiedfirstly.Thesignificantpatte rnsofeachcategoryaredescribedandexplained on few representative samples. The analyz ed functions of repetition are:cohesive, emphatic, intensifying and hesitational. While analyzing the corpus, acategoryofunclear casesarose.Asa result, a cat egorymixingcohesive andemphaticfunctionswas created. Section 5.3.6 is devoted to comments on specific uses.Not alloccurrencescouldhavebeenputintospecificcateg ories.Therefore,themarginalcasesarediscussedseparatelyattheendoftheanalysis beforethesummaryofresults.

    Theremarksonexactnessandimmediacyare included insubchaptersdiscussingspecific functions. Intentionalityof repetition is mentioned in thehesitational function

  • 29

    of repetition.Basedon theassumptionmade in theo reticalpart in subchapter4.2.3 allotherinstancesareusedintentionallybecausethey areplanned.

    It should be emphasized that this study analyzes fi ve political speeches, all ofwhichweredeliveredbythesamepolitician.Thati squitealimitedinvestigatedcorpus.Therefore, any attempts to generalize presented res ults should be carried out withappropriatecaution.

    5.2 Descriptionofthecorpus

    ThestudiedcorpusisbasedonthespeechesofBara ckObama,thecontemporarypresidentofTheUnitedStatesofAmerica.Heiskn ownasaskilfulpublicspeakerandhis speeches are vivid. The choice to concentrate o n Barack Obamas speeches isinfluenced by his rapidly increasing popularity mai nly due to his oratorical power.Among many rhetorical techniques he employs, the us e of repetition is definitelycountedasoneofhisstrengths.LeanneShelldevot edawholebookcalled SayItLikeObama to analysing his speaking style. Leanne claims that A notable hallmark ofBarack Obamas communication style is his use of un ique variations of repetition.Obamadrawsonawidevarietyofrepetitiontechniq uesthatgivepowertohisoration.(Leanne,2009,p.107).

    The corpus includes five Obamas speeches, delivere d during the period from2002to2010.Alltheselectedspeechesareenclose dintheappendices9.2.Therepeateditemsarehighlighted in italics.Eachparagraph in the speeches isnumbered.To leavethespeech intact, the italicizedwordsandphrases are listed incategoriesaccording totheir functions justaftereachspeech. In thecorp us,312 occurrenceswere indentified.281 instances are categorized clearly. The remainin g 31 instances are marginal, notdefinitelyidentifiable.Theyseemtoservemorefu nctionsandthedecisionwhichoneismoreprominentisdecidedwithdifficulty.

    5.3 Analysisofthedata

    In thischapter thestudyofdata isprovided.Each categoryfirstly introduces thefunction,thentherepresentativesampleshelptod rawgeneralconclusions.Theeffectsofexactnessandimmediacyarecommentedoninconn ectiontofunctions.

  • 30

    5.3.1 Cohesiverepetition

    Cohesivefunctionofrepetitionisanimportantpar tofpoliticalspeeches.Forthe

    speechtobesuccessful,oneof itsnecessaryfeatu resisbeingcohesive.Repetitionisavaluable toolnot just forcreatingcohesionbutal sobecause repeating themainpointsmakesthespeechorthemainpointsmoreeasilyrem embered.

    Altogether,cohesiverepetitionintheexaminedcor puscomprises101occurrenceswhichis31% ofallidentifiedrepetitionsandas suchitbelongstothemostnumerouscategory.

    Asexplainedinsubchapter4.4.1,cohesiverepetiti onhelpsthespeakertocreateafluent speech by using the same word or phrase to s how the connections betweensentences. Itemsarerepeatedsothatnewthingsma ybeaddedto them.Thefollowingsentences(1)and(2)exemplifytheuse.

    (1) Andaboveall,wesaw anewgeneration emerge-- ageneration thatusestheirown creativity and talent and technology to call fo r a government thatrepresentedtheirhopesandnottheirfears(Speech 4,87)

    (2) AndsoAshley convincedhermother thatshereallylikedandreally wantedtoeat morethananythingelsemustardandrelishsandwic hes.Andshe--sheconcocted in her own mind at the age of nine that s he would convince hermother thatthatstheonlythingshe wantedtoeat everyday(Speech3,68)

    The example (1) shows the repetition of a word. The first occurrence introduces thesubject; thesecondaddsmoreconcrete information to it.Theexample(2) repeats twophrases convincedhermother and wantedtoeat .Inthiscase,thespeakerretellsastory,andtheitemsarerepeatedforbetterunderstanding andcontinuingthenarrative.

    5.3.1.1 Exactnessandimmediacy

    Comparison of exact and partial, immediate and dela yed repetition found incohesiverepetitionwillbedealtwithnow.Exactd elayedrepetitionisrepresentedin66instances,partialdelayedin34,exactimmediatei srepresentedonce.Itmaybeassumedfrom thesenumbers that delayed repetition function s cohesively.Supportive argumentmaybethatwhentheoccurrencesarerepeatedwith adistanceamongthemselvestheyservetomakethetextmorecoherentandinterconne cted.Thisfindingisalsosupportedby Johnstone et al. (Johnstone et al., 1994, p. 14) . Another reason that supports this

  • 31

    finding is that onlyone caseof immediate repetiti onwas identified as cohesive in thestudiedcorpus.

    Theusageofdelayedrepetitionispresentedonthe selectedexcerptsoftheSpeech3ontheexample(3).Therepeateditem wallanditsvariantsarereoccurringoftenatthebeginningof the speech.Theword is notmentioned in thenextparagraphand then itappearsagain.Whenthetopicof wall seemstobeforgotten,it isremindedlaterinthespeechaswell.Thisusageshowsthatthespeakerh asapurposethathewantstoachieve

    andthattheword wall servestolinkthespeechtogether.

    (3) Thewalls ofthecityweretoosteepforanyonepersontoc limb. themightywalls ofJerichocametumblingdown.(47) thosewalls ofoppressionwouldnotbemoved.maybethecracksin those walls wouldstarttoshow thewalls wouldbegintosway(49)Whatmakesitevenmore difficultisthatwehave a politics in this country that seeks to drive us apart, that puts up wallsbetweenus.(53) thewall thatwemustteardownbeforethehourgrowstoolate.(Speech3,56)

    Similarusagesaspresentedabovewere found in stu diedcorpus.Thoseusagesare forexample: wecan inSpeech1, war inSpeech2, hopeinSpeech3, Egypt inSpeech4andbelieveinSpeech5.Theseexamplesshowthatnotonlywor ds,butalsophrasesthataredetached can make the text united. Sometimes the te xt inserted among the repeatedoccurrencesmaybequitelong.

    As the immediate repetition occurred only in one ex ample, no clear conclusioncanbemade.The instanceof immediate repetition, example(4), is rather rare.Here itservestomakeaconnectionbetweenparagraphs.The phraseismentionedfirstlyattheendoftheparagraphandthentheideacontinuesin theconsecutiveparagraph.

    (4) you made it clear that at this moment, in this elec tion, there is somethinghappening in America . (5) There is something happening when men andwomeninDesMoines(Speech1,6)

    Commentingon exactness andnon-exactness, the stud ied speeches revealed thatexact repetition is usedmore frequently than the p artial one. Partial repetition usuallyappears to change the premodification ofwords, the plurality or theword class in thestudied corpus. The changes appear not only in sing le words but also in longerstructures. Comparison of partial and exact repetit ion is showed on the followingexamples.

  • 32

    (5) He led by challenging our economic structures, understanding that it wouldcausediscomfort.Dr.King understood that unitycannotbewononthecheap(Speech3,59)

    (6) Hetoldthem tostandtogetherandmarchtogetheraroundtheci ty,andontheseventh day he told them thatwhen they heard the sound of the rams horn,(Speech3,47)

    Thewords understanding and understood appearintheexample(5).Thesewordshavethesamestem.Thisusagecanbecalledacomplexl exicalrepetitionorpolyptotonanditrepresentspartialrepetition.Itservestomake theconnectionbetweensentencesandisfollowedbyanewthought.Theexample(6)represen tsexactrepetitionandthefunctionistocontinuetheideaandtoprovidemorefacts. Theexamplesshownaboveillustratewhat appeared in the studied corpus and that no big differences in terms of functionseem to be recognized between exact and partial rep etition in category of cohesivefunction.

    5.3.1.2 Frequentlyrepeatedpatterns

    Fewrepeatingpatternscanbe identified in thecat egoryofcohesiverepetition inthe selected speeches. The significant instances wi ll be discussed together with theexplanationsoftheuses.

    Thefirstcommenteduseofcohesionwillbetoadd informationtothestatements.Thisfunctionispresentitthecorpusinthenumbe rof35instances.Therepeateditemsdonotprovidenewinformationbut thesubsequentw ordsconveyafreshthought.Thefollowingexamples(7)and(8)willhelptogivede tails.

    (7) But the reason ourcampaignhasalwaysbeendifferent, the reason webeganthisimprobablejourneyalmostayearagoisbecaus eit'snotjustaboutwhatIwilldoaspresident.(Speech1,22)

    (8) ButIalsoknowthatSaddamposesnoimminentandd irectthreattotheUnitedStates or to his neighbours, that the Iraqi economy is in shambles, that theIraqi militaryafractionofitsformerstrength(Speech 2,42)

    The repeated word the reason in the example (7) is used to provide the motives forbeginning with the campaign. The repeated phrase in the example (8) also helps tostructurethesentenceinawaythatoutlinesprovi dingnewinformation.Bothexamplesshowthattherepetitionofawordorphrasemaybe abletosignifythatspeakerwilladdnewreasonsornewfacts.Becausethephrasesares aidagaintheaudienceexpectsthatsomethingnewconnectedwiththerepeateditemswil lbestated.

  • 33

    Rhetorical device anaphora seems to be frequently c onnected to the abovementioned pattern. Anaphora appears functioning coh esively in 23 cases, it includesitems that appear either in the beginning of consec utive sentences or paragraphs. It issignificant not only because of the number of occur rences but also because it appealslisteners feeling the most. The following sentence s (9) and (10) illustrate the use ofanaphora.

    (9) Its not easy to stand in somebody elses shoes. Its not easy to see past ourowndifferences.(Speech3,53)

    (10) I thought of the 900 men and women -- sons and daughters, husba nds andwives,friendsandneighbors,whowontbereturnin gtotheirownhometowns.I thought of the families Ive met who were struggling to get b y without alovedonesfullincome(Speech5,120)

    In both selected cases, the phrases initiate the se ntences and the use is to add otherinformation,tosayanewthing.Whenthesentences startinthesameway,thelisteners

    expectnewthingstobesaid.Thiswaytheycanpay attentiontonewinformation.Oneofthereasonswhyanaphoraseemstobewellpercei vedbyaudienceisthatitisoneofspeakers tools that may help him to structure his speech in a way that is easily

    observablebecauseitcreatesafeelingofrhythmi nthespeech.Similarly,therepetitionused for adding information helps the audience to p ay attention to the important partbeing communicated rather than trying to findhidde nmeanings.Anaphora,aswell asthe structure adding information seems tomake the text united. Asmentioned in thetheory4.4.1,thelistenerscannotgobacktorerea dthekeypoints.Therefore,oneofthebenefits of structuring themain ideas in the same way is that they can bememorizedmoreeasily.

    The following pattern also deserves a considerable discussion. The attention isbrought towords and phrases that occur at the end of one paragraph or sentence andthenagainat thebeginningof thenextparagraph t osignalachangeof the topic.Thisuse shows the connectionbetweenparagraphs.The se ntence (11)demonstrateshow itappearsinthecorpus.

    (11) Thereareno falsehopes inthat.(64)Idontbelievein falsehopes .(Speech3;65)

  • 34

    The repeatedwords false hopes appear firstly at the end of the paragraph and for thesecondtimeinthefirstsentenceofthenextparag raph.Theexample(11)illustratesthechangeof the topic; the speaker repeats theword hope several times in theparagraph64. But then hewants to change the audiences awar eness and contrasts it with falsehopes. As clarified on this example, repeating words fun ction to make connectionbetween paragraphs.When the topic is changed once, the expressionmight appear inseveral consecutive paragraphs to interconnect the text. The passages that could beclassified as connecting paragraphs are found in 22 cases. Similarly, the pattern ofconnecting sentences was identified in 15 instances ; it seems to interconnectconsecutivesentences.Thismaybeillustratedont henextexamples(12)and(13).

    (12) Wehavereal enemies in theworld.These enemies mustbe found. (Speech5,122)

    (13) That'swhytonight belongsto you.It belongs totheorganizers(Speech1,2)The words enemies and belong to when mentioned for the first time introduce newideas.Then in the next sentence the idea is repeat ed and developed. Furthermore, thecohesive effect does not have to be only in consecu tive sentences but itmay be alsoseen with few more sentences inserted in between, a s was discussed above inconnection with delayed repetition. Such usage may also make the utterance moreinterconnected.

    Thenextpatternshowsthatwordsarerepeatednot onlytoconnectthesentencesbut may be also used to give more details to the pr eviously mentioned item. Thefollowingexamples(14)and(15)illustratetheusa ge.

    (14) Theword Tahrirmeansliberation. Itisaword thatspeakstothatsomethinginoursoulsthatcriesoutforfreedom.(Speech4;92)

    (15) Andaboveall,wesaw anewgeneration emerge-- ageneration thatusestheirowncreativity(Speech4;87)

    The instances show thewordsbeing introduced in th e first appearance and thenbeingmorecloselydescribedinthesecondoccurrence.Si milarusageisfoundin12examplesinthecorpus.

    An interesting pattern of repetition signalling a p ossible result attracted theattention of the papers authoress. The phrases new American majority and scripturetells us in the following excerpts (16) and (17) are used i n various paragraphswith a

  • 35

    longerdistancebetween the repeated items.Thespe aker firstlysuggests the topic thenspeaks about it and finally shows the result or con clusion which seems to make aclosuretothetopic.

    (16) You,allofyouwhoareheretonight,allwhoputs omuchheartandsoulandworkintothiscampaign, youcanbethenewmajority whocanleadthisnationoutofa longpoliticaldarkness. (11) OurnewAmericanmajority canendthe outrage of unaffordable, unavailable health car e in our time. (13) Ournew majority can end the tax breaks for corporations that ship our jobsoverseas andput amiddle-class tax cut in thepock etsofworkingAmericanswhodeserveit.(14)Wecandothiswith ournewmajority .(Speech1,16)

    (17) Scripture tells us that when Joshua and the Israelites arrived at the gates ofJericho,theycouldnotenter.Thatswhat scripturetellsus .(Speech3,47)Theattempttosignifypossiblesolutionsmightbe connectedwiththepurposeof

    political speeches to influence audience.This form gives audience the feeling that theactions said to be done are carefully planned. Indi cating a conclusion also helps thespeaker to finish one topic and starting a new them e. The demonstration of the aiminfluences the listeners and reminds themofwhatw as saidbefore.For comparison, acategory of cohesive emphatic repetition is dealt w ith later in the analysis, in thesubchapter5.3.3. In those cases, the repeated item sappearmore closely to eachotheranditisnotpossibletodecidewhichofthetwof unctionsismoreprominent.

    After examination of the studied corpus it may be a ssumed that cohesiverepetitionseemstobedelayed.Theitemsarerepea tedthroughoutthespeecheitherwithgreaterorshorterdistancebetweenthem.Nosignif icantdifferencesbetweenexactandpartialrepetitionweredetected.Comparingittot hetheoreticalinput,itwasconfirmedthatthewordsincohesiverepetitionaremainlyre peatedforthepurposeofaddingnewinformationaftertheiterateditems.Thisfunction isoftenrepresentedbyanaphora.Thenext identifiedpatternserved tomakeasuccession betweensentencesandparagraphs.Thewordsmay appear near the end of one sentence a nd then at the beginning of thenext sentence of paragraph or in several consecutiv e paragraph or sentences. Otherdetected usage covers repetition of a word so that more close description can bepresented.Alltheseinstancescreatetheutterance interconnected.

  • 36

    The influence on listenersmay be seen in helping t hem to be better acquaintedwiththespeechandtodirecttheirconcentrationt othepointsthespeakerwantsthemto.Alsotherepetitionofkeywordthroughoutthespee chishelpfulforremembering.

    5.3.2 Emphaticrepetition

    The function of repetition classified as emphatic a ppears to be the secondmostcommoncase. It forms about21%andcontains64 ins tances.As explained in chapter4.4.2, this usage covers a variety of subfunctions. Primarily, it is used for creatingemphasis.Theemphasisisfollowedbyothercompone ntsthathelptoarouseaudiencesemotions, such as showing ideas in contrast, with u rgency or insistently. All theseelements help audience to focus on important parts of the speech and to emphasizespeakersobjectives.(18) AndwhenIampresidentoftheUnitedStates, wewillendthiswarinIraqand

    bringourtroopshome.WewillendthiswarinIraq .Wewillbringourtroopshome.(Speech1,17-18)Theexample(18)showsemphaticrepetition.Thefir stsentenceresemblesthetwo

    others, only in the second occurrence it is divided into two separate sentences. Thespeakerdoesnotput the ideas incontrast,hesimp lysays it resolutelyand itgives theutterancetheemphaticeffect.Moreover,theuseof phrase wewill insteadof Iwill givessignal to the audience that it is their common aim. Such uses evoke emotions andfeelingsofunity.Repeatingtheideawiththesame wordsshowspersistenceandhelpsaudiencetofocus.

    5.3.2.1 Exactnessandimmediacy

    Outof emphatic repetitions, exactdelayed repetiti on covers11 instances, partialdelayed 10 instances. Exact immediate repetition is classified in 11 cases and partialimmediate in 32 cases. These numbers reveal that pa rtial immediate repetition isrepresentedthemostinthestudiedcorpus.Aspart ialimmediaterepetitionisadistinctcategory,itconcernsparallelstructuresinmostc ases,andthereforeitwillbediscussedindividuallyinaseparatesection5.3.2.2.

    Theusesofexact immediate repetitionwillbeexam inedfirstlybecause theyarecomparable to the theory mentioned in the subchapte r 4.4.2. Persson develops the

  • 37

    theoryofemphaticrepetitionindetailandsuggest s thatemphaticrepetitionisamoredisjointed phenomenon. The repeated items are eithe r torn out of their context ororiginateassingle-itemexclamations.(Persson,1 974,p.52). Itshouldbehighlightedhere that Persson studies only exact immediate repe tition. He has a strictercategorization than the one used in this diploma pa per. According to his words,emphaticrepetitionisdislocatedfromthesentence anditisnotanecessarypartofthesentence. His theory is compared with the uses of e xact immediate repetition areillustratedonthefollowingexamples(19)and(20) .

    (19) Thereissomethinghappening . There'ssomethinghappening whenAmericanswhoareyounginageandinspirit(Speech1,7)

    (20) Thankyousomuch.Thankyou.Thankyou.Thankyou somuch.Thankyousomuch.Thankyou.Thankyou.Thankyou (Speech5,94)The example (19) repeats the phrase there is something happening . The phrase

    reoccurs in the Speech 1 at the beginning of severa l consecutive paragraphs to createcohesion.Repeatingwithoutdelay,asintheexcerp t(19),altersthefunctionandservesto prioritize the process of ongoing changes. If th e first sentence was skipped, thefunctionwouldbeonlycontinuingwith listing the shifts thatarehappening.Then, theexample (20) shows an introduction to the Speech 5, the phrases are repeated manytimestoexpressspeakersemotions.Itwouldbeen oughtosay Thankyou or Thankyouso much just once. This way, it seems to be more prominent and the speaker showsstronggratitude.Therepeateditemscouldbedelet edinbothexemplifiedcasesandnodifficultyinunderstandingwouldbecaused.Howeve r,theemphaticfunctionwouldnotbeperceived then.The difference after removing th e repeatedphrasewouldnotbe somarkedintheinstance(19).Ontheotherhand,in theexample(20)wherethephraseisrepeatedmanytimes,thedifferencewouldbemoren oticeable.

    Comparing the above formulated assumptions with Per ssons approach, hisdescriptionseemstobevalidforthecasesofexac timmediateemphaticrepetition.Therepeated utterances seem to be unnecessary features of the sentences. Nevertheless,exactimmediateemphaticrepetitioncoversonly11 instances,whichseemstobeonlyaminornumbertoprovideageneralverificationofP errsonsstatements.

    The option of deleting the repeated item as away o f identifying a statement asemphatic repetition was introduced in the examples of exact immediate repetition.However,similarmethodmaybeemployedinseveral casesofexactandpartialdelayed

  • 38

    repetition in the studied corpus. The cases of dela yed repetition supporting Perssonstheoryareexplainedinthefollowingexamples(21) and(22).

    (21) Iamherebecauseof Ashley. Iamherebecauseof thisyounggirl,andthefactthatshe'swillingtofightforwhatsheb