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    http://cpj.sagepub.com/

    Clinical Pediatrics

    http://cpj.sagepub.com/content/40/10/533Theonline version of this article can be foundat:

    DOI: 10.1177/000992280104001001

    2001 40: 533CLIN PEDIATRKarl S. Roth and James C. M. Chan

    Renal Tubular Acidosis: A New Look at an Old Problem

    Published by:

    http://www.sagepublications.com

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    R o t h , Chan

    l o g u i n g o f RT A i s i m p o r t a n t b e -cause o f t h e s e v a r i e d o utco m esand i s b a s e d on t h e u n d e r l y i n gp a t h o p h y s i o l o g y . T h u s , we b e g i nw i t h a r e v i e w o f t h e normalprocesses f o r r e n a l h a n d l i n g o f ana c i d l o a d a n d prog ress f r o m t h i st o a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e p a t h o p h y s i -o l o g y u n d e r l y i n g t h e d i f f e r e n tt y p e s o f R T A . F o l l o w i n g t h i s , wep r o v i d e an u p d a t e d r e v i e w o f m i n -e r a l m e t a b o l i s m i n RT A and endw i t h a d i s c u s s i o n o f our currentu n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e m o l e c u l a rb i o l o g y o f t h e d i s o r d e r .

    P h y s i o l o g y a n dPathophysiologyP r o x i m a l T u b u l e

    I n a f u n c t i o n a l sense, t h enephron r e g u l a t e s a c i d - b a s eh o m e o s t a s i s b y simultaneousprocesses o f b i c a r b o n a t e r e a b -s o r p t i o n and h y d r o g e n i o n secre-t i o n . F o r p u rpos es o f s i m p l i f i c a -t i o n we h a v e c h o s e n t o representt h e s e as b a s e r e a b s o r p t i o n and a c i ds e c r e t i o n ( F i g u r e 1 ) . C o n c e p t u a l l y ,t h e p r o x i m a l t u b u l e i s c h a r g e dw i t h t h e t a s k o f r e c l a i m i n g f i l -t e r e d b a s e ( - 8 5 o f t h e t o t a l ) ;f a i l u r e o f t h i s process l e a d s t o r e-d u c t i o n i n s y s t e m i c b a s e , r e s u l t i n gi n m e t a b o l i c a c i d o s i s . I s o l a t e dp r o x i m a l RT A o f g e n e t i c o r i g i n i suncommon and i s g e n e r a l l y seeni n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h o t h e r a s p e c t so f t u b u l a r d y s f u n c t i o n . The no r -m a l process o f b a s e s a l v a g e pro-c e e d s i n t h e p r o x i m a l t u b u l e w i t h -ou t g e n e r a t i o n o f a s i g n i f i c a n t pHg r a d i e n t . The t h r e s h o l d f o r b i c a r -b o n a t e r e a b s o r p t i o n i n neonatesi s r e d u c e d , d e s p i t e an e v e n t u a ln o r m a l a d u l t r e a b s o r p t i v e capac-i t y . 2 The t h r e s h o l d i s i n c r e a s e dg r a d u a l l y d u r i n g m a t u r a t i o n ,which i s r e f l e c t e d i n i n c r e a s i n gserum b i c a r b o n a t e concentra-t i o n s w i t h a g e. I n t h e normala d u l t , t h e p r o x i m a l t u b u l a r s y s -

    H , H C O - , N a ,H P O - 2 K 1p H 7 . 4

    A c i d ( H + )NH_ s e c r e t o nNa4 HCO 4 - H + DistalN a + + p C 0 7 3 4 0 {Ht J X t u b u l e

    pH 7.4 Baser e a b s o r p t D o nP roxim a ltubule

    pH 7. 4

    F i g u r e 1 . T h e n e p h r o n i n b a s e r e a b s o r p t i o n , a c i d s e c r e t i o n a n d g e n e r a t i o n o f a n a c i d u r i n e . B l o o da t p H 7 . 4 e n t e r s t h e g l o m e r u l a r c a p i l l a r i e s , w h e r e t h e i o n i c c o n s t i t u e n t s s h o w n a r e f i l t e r e d a n d e n -t e r t h e p r o x i m a l t u b u l a r l u m e n , s t i l l a t p H 7 . 4 . T h e r e i s a n e t r e a b s o r p t i o n i n t h e p r o x i m a l t u b u l eo f N a + n d H C 0 3 - w i t h n o c h a n g e i n l u m i n a l p H . U r i n e p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e l u m e n e x i t s t h e l o o po f H e n l e s t i l l a t p H 7 . 4 a n d e n t e r s t h e d i s t a l t u b u l e . A g a i n , a s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e t e x t , t h e g e n e r a t i o no f a m m o n i a a n d t h e n e t s e c r e t i o n o f H + o c c u r i n t h i s s e g m e n t , w i t h c o n s e q u e n t e l a b o r a t i o n o f a na c i d i c u r i n e i n a p H r a n g e o f 4 . 5 t o 8 . 0 . T h e d i s t a l t u b u l e i s a b l e t o s e c r e t e h y d r o g e n a g a i n s t a g r a -d i e n t a s h i g h a s 1 0 0 0 : 1 u s i n g a n a c t i v e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m .

    t e m r e s u l t s i n r ecov e r y o f > 6 0 0 0m E q o f b i c a r b o n a t e / d a y . F i l t e r e dsodium i s a c t i v e l y t r a n s p o r t e dacross t h e l u m i n a l me mb ran e us-i n g a Na+-H+ c a r r i e r molecule( N H E - 3 ) d r i v e n b y t h e concentra-t i o n g r a d i e n t f o r sodium g e n e r -a t e d b y N a + - K + ATPase l o c a t e d a tt h e a n t i l u m i n a l s u r f a c e o f t h e c e l l( F i g u r e 2 ) . T he e x p e l l e d H+r a p i d l y a s s o c i a t e s w i t h f i l t e r e d l u -m i n a l b i c a r b o n a t e t o form H 2 C O 3

    ( m e m b r a n e - b o u n d c a r b o n i c a n h y -d r a s e , CA M V ) , w h i c h j u s t as r a p i d l yd i s s o c i a t e s and l i b e r a t e s CO2 andw a t e r . The CO2 d i f f u s e s i n t o t h ec e l l , where i t i s e n z y m a t i c a l l y c a r -b o n i c a n h y d r a s e , CA I I ) r e h y d r a t e dto form carbonic a c i d , whicha g a i n d i s s o c i a t e s w i t h t h e f o r m a -t i o n o f H+ and H C O 3 - . C A II , or c y -t o s o l i c c a r b o n i c a n h y d r a s e , i s t h epredominant (95 ) r e n a li s o z y m e and i s f o u n d i n l a r g e pro-

    5 3 4 CLINICAL PEDIATRICS O C T O B E R 20013 4 CLINICAL PEDIATRICS O C T O B E R 2 0 0 1at MCMASTER UNIV LIBRARY on August 24, 2010cpj.sagepub.comDownloaded from

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    Renal Tubular A c i d o s i s

    0 N a + - H C O 3 C o t r a n s p o r t e r

    F i g u r e 2 . T h e p r o c e s s o f p r o x i m a l t u b u l a r b a s e r e a b s o r p t i o n . T h e r e a r e t h r e e k e y f e a t u r e s o f t h ep r o x i m a l t u b u l a r e p i t h e l i a l c e l l t h a t e n a b l e t h e a b i l i t y t o r e a b s o r b b a s e : 1 ) a c t i v e t r a n s p o r t o f l u -m i n a l s o d i u m a s p a r t o f t h e N a + - K + A T P a s e s y s t e m ; 2 ) l u m i n a l s u r f a c e a n d i n t r a c e l l u l a r c a r b o n i ca n h y d r a s e c a p a b l e o f p r o d u c i n g l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f b i c a r b o n a t e ; 3 ) a s o d i u m - b i c a r b o n a t e e x -c h a n g e r N B C - 1 ) a t t h e i n n e r b a s o l a t e r a l s u r f a c e . I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t a l t h o u g h b i c a r b o n a t e a p -p e a r s t o b e s y n t h e s i z e d i n o r d e r f o r i t s r e a b s o r p t i o n t o o c c u r , t h e r e i s n o n e t c o n t r i b u t i o n o f b i -c a r b o n a t e m a d e t o t h e a m o u n t o r i g i n a l l y f i l t e r e d ; t h u s , t h e r e i s n e t r e a b s o r p t i o n . U s e d w i t hp e r m i s s i o n f r o m C o h n R M , R o t h K S . B i o c h e m i s t r y a n d D i s e a s e : B r i d g i n g B a s i c S c i e n c e a n d C l i n -i c a l M e d i c i n e . B a l t i m o r e : W i l l i a m s & W i l k i n s ; 1 9 9 6 .

    p o r t i o n i n t h e p r o x i m a l t u b u l e s . 3B i c a r b o n a t e e x i t s across t h e a n t i -l u m i n a l me mbrane f o r two r e a -sons: 1 ) mass a c t i o n , b e c a u s e t h ebicarbonate concentration i sl o w e r i n t h e i n t e r s t i t i a l space t h a ni n t h e c y t o s o l ; and 2 ) c a r r i e r - m e -d i a t e d c o t r a n s p o r t ( N B C - 1 ) a l o n gan e l e c t r o c h e m i c a l g r a d i e n t , g en -e r a t e d b y e x p u l s i o n o f t h e p o s i -t i v e l y - c h a r g e d N a + c a t i o n i n t o t h i sspace b y t h e i o n pump. W h i l e t h eeconomy o f t h e system i s mar-v e l o u s , t h e net r e s u l t i s sodiuma nd b i c a r b o n a t e r e a b s o r p t i o n b u tno net e l i m i n a t i o n o f H + .

    A t r a d i t i o n a l v i e w o f p r o x i m a lr e n al t u b u l a r a c i d o s i s h o l d s t h a tt h e t u b u l a r m axi m u m ( T m ) f o r b i -

    c a r b o n a t e i s r e d u c e d , t h u s l o w e r -i n g t h e p l a s m a c o n c e n t r a t i o n andp e r m i t t i n g a g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o nt h a n normal o f t h e f i l t e r e d HCO3-t o escape i n t o t h e u r i n e . A t f i r s tg l a n c e , t h i s i s an a d e q u a t e e x p l a -n a t i o n f o r t h e c l i n i c a l o b s e r v a -t i o n s ; a c l o s e r l o o k l e a v e s u s w i t ht h e d i f f i c u l t y o f e x p l a i n i n g howt h e t u b u l a r maximum ( T m ) i sp h y s i c a l l y l o w e r e d a nd why pa -t i e n t s w i t h t y p e 2 RT A o f t e n canp r o d u c e an a c i d u r i n e . Modernm o l e c u l a r b i o l o g y h a s h e l p e d u st o a d d r e s s t h e c e n t r a l i s s u e o f r e-d u c t i o n i n t h e T m .

    C o n t r a r y t o t h e n a t u r a l ten-d e n c y t o c o n c e i v e a r e d u c e d T m asi m p a i r m e n t o f transport across

    t h e b r u s h b o r d e r s u r f a c e , t h e r e a ld e f e c t i s a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y l o c a t e di n t h e c a r r i e r f o r N a + - H C O 3 - c o -t r a n s p o r t a c r o s s t h e a n t i l u m i n a lo r b a s o l a t e r a l s u r f a c e . T h i s m o l e -c u l e , N B C - 1 ( N a + - b i c a r b o n a t e c o -t r a n s p o r t e r ) , i s a p r o t e i n c o n s i s t -i n g o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 0 0 a m i n oa c i d r e s i d ue s a n d u n d e r g o e s f u n c -t i o n a l c h a n g e s w i t h v a r y i n g pHc o n d i t i o n s . 4 H u m a n g e n e c l o n i n ge x p e r i m e n t s h a v e r e v e a l e d t h e e x -i s t e n c e o f t h r e e m o l e c u l a r i s o -f o r m s i n k i d n e y ( N B C - 1 , N B C - 2 ,a n d N B C - 3 ) ; i t i s u n c l e a r a t p r e -s e n t w h a t t h e p r e c i s e f u n c t i o n a ld i s t i n c t i o n s a r e b e t w e e n e a c h o ft h e t h r e e i s o f o r m s . 5 I t i s a l s o n o ty e t a p p a r e n t w h e t h e r t h e c a u s e s )f o r t h e v a r y i n g c l i n i c a l s e v e r i t y o ft y p e 2 RT A c a n b e a t t r i b u t e d t omixed h e t e r o z y g o s i t y o f m u t a -t i o n s i n t he s e t hr e e i s o f o r m s b e -c a u s e o f l i m i t e d a c c e s s t o t i s s u ef o r s t u d y . N o n e t h e l e s s , i t a p p e a r st h a t t h e mechanism u n d e r l y i n gt h e r e d u c e d t u b u l a r m axi m u mf o r b i c a r b o n a t e i s a c t u a l l y r e -d u c e d t r a n s p o r t o u t o f t h e p r o x i -m a l t u b u l a r c e l l w i t h i n c r e a s e db a c k f l o w e f f l u x ) o f c y t o s o l i c b i -c a r b o n a t e i n t o t h e t u b u l a r l u m e n .The i n a b i l i t y o f t h e p r o x i m a lt u b u l e t o a c h i e v e n e t h y d r o g e ni o n e l i m i n a t i o n r e n d e r s t h e b i c a r -b o n a t e b u f f e r s y s t e m v u l n e r a b l et o a n i m p a i r m e n t i n t h e p r o c e s so f b i c a r b o n a t e r e c l a m a t i o n . I ns u c h c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t h e r e s u l t i s an o n - a n i o n g a p m e t a b o l i c a c i d o -s i s . T h i s i s b e c a u s e t h e b o d y ' sm e t a b o l i c p r o c e s s e s g e n e r a t en o n v o l a t i l e , o r f i x e d a c i d s , w h i c hmust b e b u f f e r e d b y t h e b l o o da n d e l i m i n a t e d t h r o u g h t h e k i d -n e y s . The l a w s o f e l e c t r i c a l n e u -t r a l i t y a l s o de m and t h a t e a c hm o l e o f b i c a r b o n a t e t h a t i s l o s t b ea c c o m p a n i e d b y a m o l e o f c a t i o n ,u s u a l l y p o t a s s i u m a n d , t o a l e s s e re x t e n t , s o d i u m . The s o d i u m l o s sp r o v o k e s a b l o o d v o l u m e c o n t r a c -t i o n a n d a s e c o n d a r y r e l e a s e o f a l -

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    d o s t e r o n e , w h i c h e x a c e r b a t e s t h eu r i n a r y p o t a s s i u m l o s s a nd cre-a t e s a s i g n i f i c a n t h y p o k a l e m i a , a l -t h o u g h t h i s i s g e n e r a l l y m i l d andd o e s not r e q u i r e t r e a t m e n t . T h e s ea r e t h e phenomena u n d e r l y i n gt h e c l i n i c a l e n t i t y t e r m e d p r o x i -m a l or t y p e 2 R T A , d e f i n e d as a s y s -t e m i c a c i d o s i s d e r i v i n g f r o m a r e l -a t i v e d e c r e a s e i n t h e a b i l i t y o f t h et u b u l e t o r e c l a i m b a s e .F i n a l l y , w h i l e b i c a r b o n a t u r i amayb e e x p e c t e d t o p r o d u c e a l k a -l i n e u r i n e , t h i s i s not n e c e s s a r i l yt h e case i n c l i n i c a l p r a c t i c e . A l -t h o u g h t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e p r o x i m a lt u b u l e t o r e c l a i m b a s e i s i m p a i r e di n p r o x i m a l R T A , t h e a b i l i t y o f t h en e p h r o n t o e l i m i n a t e H+ r e m a i n su n a f f e c t e d . T h u s , p a t i e n t s w i t ht y p e 2 RT A and s y s t e m i c a c i d o s i smay p r o d u c e u r i n e w i t h an a c i dp H , r e n d e r i n g u r i n e pH a l o n e ani n a c c u r a t e d i a g n o s t i c t e s t f o r d i s -t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t y p e s I a nd I IRTA. S i n c e t h e b i c a r b o n a t et h r e s h o l d i n c r e a s e s w i t h age, t h er e l a t i v e r e d u c t i o n i n b i c a r b o n a t eT m i n t h e neo na te o f t e n con-t r i b u t e s t o a p i c t u r e o f h y p e r -c h l o r e m i c m e t a b o l i c a c i d o s i s anda c i d u r i n e p H , w h i c h d i s a p p e a r sa s t h e i n f a n t d e v e l o p s . N o t w i t h -s t a n d i n g i t s d i s a p p e a r a n c e , h o w -e v e r , t h i s s i t u a t i o n may r e q u i r e a l -k a l i t h e r a p y i n e a r l y l i f e t o a v o i danorexia a nd permit normalg r o w t h .D i s t a l T u b u l e

    A s n o t e d , b a s e r e a b s o r p t i o n i shandled p r i m a r i l y i n t h e p r o x i -m al t u b u l e , w h i c h i s p h y s i o l o g i -c a l l y unequipped t o form a h y -d r o g e n i o n g r a d i e n t b e t w e e n t h eb l o o d and t h e t u b u l a r lumen w i t hw h i c h t o r e g u l a t e b l o o d p H . T h i st a s k f a l l s t o t h e d i s t a l t u b u l e ,where h y d r o g e n i o n i s s e c r e t e dw i t h t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f a s t e e p H+g r a d i e n t . T h u s , t h e r o l e o f t h e d i s -t a l t u b u l e i n a c i d - b a s e h o m e o s t a -s i s may b e c o n c e p t u a l i z e d a s one

    o f a c i d s e c r e t i o n , i n c o n t r a s t t ot h e p r o x i m a l t u b u l e , w h i c h servesas a major s i t e f or r e a b s o r p t i o n ofb a s e . I t i s t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i n r o l e st h a t a l s o accounts f o r t h e d i f f e r -ences i n c l i n i c a l s e v e r i t y b e t w e e nd i s t u r b a n c e s o f p r o x i m a l and d i s -t a l t u b u l a r f u n c t i o n s . H e n c e , a l -though i n c r e a s e d l o s s o f b a s ef r o m t h e p r o x i m a l t u b u l e c a us esd e v e l o p m e n t o f a s y s t e m i c a c i d o -s i s , t h e d e g r e e o f t h e a c i d o s i s i sm i t i g a t e d c o n s i d e r a b l y b y t h ea b i l i t y o f t h e d i s t a l t u b u l e t o e l i m -i n a t e h y d r o g e n i o n . I n c o n t r a s t ,h o w e v e r , when t h e d i s t a l t u b u l e i snot c a p a b l e o f n o r m a l H+ e l i m i -n a t i o n , t h e r e i s a m a j o r a c i d - b a s ed i s e q u i l i b r i u m r e s u l t i n g i n se v e r eacidosis.The k e y t o t h e a b i l i t y o f t h ed i s t a l t u b u l e t o c a u s e ne t a c i d s e -c r e t i o n i s t h e c a p a c i t y t o d i r e c t l ys e c r e t e H+ i n t o t h e t u b u l a r l umeni n d e p e n d e n t o f s o d i u m , u s i n g aH + - A T P a s e p u m p . 6 O t h e r f e a t u r e sd i s t i n c t t o t h e d i s t a l t u b u l e i n -c l u d e t h e f o l l o w i n g : n o n l e a k yt i g h t j u n c t i o n s p e r m i t t i n g g e n e r a -t i o n o f v e r y s t e e p c o n c e n t r a t i o ng r a d i e n t s , and t h e g e n e r a t i o n o fammonia ( F i g u r e 3 ) . I t i s i m p o r -t a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t t h e h y d r o -gen i o n t h a t i s e x p e l l e d i s g e n e r -a t e d b y t h e a c t i o n o f c a r b o n i ca n h y d r a s e on water and C 0 2 , sot h a t t h e r e m a i n i n g HC03- can b ee x c h a n g e d a t t h e b a s a l s u r f a c e f o ra c h l o r i d e i o n . The d e f i c i t l e f t b ye x p u l s i o n o f t h e h y d r o g e n i o n i saddressed b y d i f f u s i o n o f as o d i u m i o n , w h i c h e x i t s w i t h t h eb i c a r b o n a t e i n e x c h a n g e f o r a K + .The s i m u l t a n e o u s p r o d u c t i o n o fNH3 from g l u t a m i n e and i t s d i f f u -s i o n i n t o t h e l u m en c a p t u r e s t h eh y d r o g e n i o n b y f o r m a t i o n o f am-monium r a d i c a l and c o m b i n a t i o nw i t h f i l t e r e d p h o s p h a t e . I t i s t h ef o r m a t i o n o f t he s e a c i d s a l t s t h a tc o m p r i s e s t i t r a t a b l e a c i d and r en-d e r s t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e d i s t a l t u b u l et o p r o d u c e an a c i d u r i n e .

    R e m a r k a b l y , t h e r e i s a d i r e c ts i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n t h e m o l e c u l a rd e f e c t s i n p r o x i m a l and d i s t a lR T A . A s i n t y p e 2 R T A , t h e d e f e c ti n type 1 RT A l i e s not i n t h eb r u s h b o r d e r H + - A T P a s e , w h i c hm i g h t b e an i n t u i t i v e a s s u m p t i o n ,b u t r a t h e r i n t h e C l - HC03- ex-c h a n g e r a t t h e a n t i l u m i n a l sur-f a c e 7 s e e F i g u r e 3 ) . T h i s h a s b e e nd e f i n i t i v e l y demonstrated i nt h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s s h o w i n g an a u -t o s o m a l dominant t r a n s m i s s i o np a t t e r n , 8 b u t i s l e s s c l e a r i n t h o s ew i t h t he a u t o s o m a l r e c e s s i v e v a r i -e t y , i n w h i c h some p a t i e n t s a r et h o u g h t t o h a v e a d e f e c t i n t h eb r u s h b o r d e r H + - A T P a s e . 9 Thef a i l u r e o f c h l o r i d e - b i c a r b o n a t ee x c h a n g e l e a d s t o a c c u m u l a t i o no f i n t r a c e l l u l a r c a r b o n i c a c i d t h a ti m p e d e s f u r t h e r s y n t h e s i s a s w e l las d i s s o c i a t i o n i n t o h y d r o g e n i o nand b i c a r b o n a t e . S o d i u m - p o t a s -s i u m e x c h a n g e w i l l b e a d v e r s e l ya f f e c t e d a s w e l l , s i n c e s o d i u m nor-m a l l y e x i t s i n t o t h e p e r i c a p i l l a r yspace a l o n g w i t h b i c a r b o n a t e .S i n c e l e s s h y d r o g e n i o n i s f o r m e db y d i s s o c i a t i o n , t h e r e i s l e s s ex-p e l l e d i n t o t h e l u m e n t o forma c i d s a l t s and t h e u r i n e pH t e n d st o w a r d t h e n e u t r a l r an g e.

    A s i n p r o x i m a l RTA, t h e d i -minished sodium r e a b s o r p t i o nc a u s es a volume c o n t r a c t i o n , re-duced body s o d i u m , a nd a sec-o n d a r y h y p e r a l d o s t e r o n i s m . Ther e s u l t i n g p o t a s s i u m l o s s l e a d s t oh y p o k a l e m i a , o f t e n o f a r a t h e r se -v e r e d e g r e e . H o w e v e r , t h e r e i s ad i v e r g e n t response o f t h e h y -p o k a l e m i a t o t h e r a p y b e t w e e n t h etwo f o r m s o f R T A ; w i t h volumeand pH c o r r e c t i o n t h e r e i s a d e -c r e a s e i n a l d o s t e r o n e and a cor-r e c t i o n o f p o t a s s i u m w a s t i n g i nd i s t a l R T A . B y c o n t r a s t , i n p r o x i -m a l RT A t h e p o t a s s i u m w a s t i n gi n c r e a s e s w i t h v o l u m e c o r r e c t i o n ,b e c a u s e t h e r e i s i n c r e a s e d d e l i v -e r y o f sodium b i c a r b o n a t e t o t h ed i s t a l t u b u l e , which i s c h a r g e d

    5 3 6 CLINICAL PEDIATRICS O C T O B E R 2 0 0 15 3 6 CLINICAL PEDIATRICS OCTOBER 2 0 0 1at MCMASTER UNIV LIBRARY on August 24, 2010cpj.sagepub.comDownloaded from

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    = C a r b o n i c A n h y d r a s e a ' - K + - A T P a s e h l o r i d e - B i c a r b o n a t e E x c h a n g e r

    F i g u r e 3 . T h e p r o c e s s o f n e t H + e x c r e t i o n i n t h e d i s t a l t u b u l e . T h e r e a r e f o u r k e y f e a t u r e s o f t h ed i s t a l t u b u l e t h a t c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e a c i d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e u r i n e : 1 ) a b r u s h b o r d e r H + A T P a s e ; 2 ) i n t r a -c e l l u l a r c a r b o n i c a n h y d r a s e ; 3 ) a b a s o l a t e r a l C l - - H C O 3 - e x c h a n g e r ; 4 ) a b i l i t y t o s y n t h e s i z e N H 3 .D e t a i l s a r e c o n t a i n e d i n t h e t e x t . M o d i f i e d a n d u s e d w i t h p e r m i s s i o n f r o m C o h n R M , R o t h K S . B i o -c h e m i s t r y a n d D i s e a s e : B r i d g i n g B a s i c S c i e n c e a n d C l i n i c a l M e d i c i n e . B a l t i m o r e : W i l l i a m s &W i l k i n s , 1 9 9 6 .

    w i t h s o d i u m - p o t a s s i u m e x c h a n g e .A r e v i e w o f t h i s d i s c u s s i o n now a l -l o w s e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e c l i n i c a lf i n d i n g s o f p o l y u r i a a n d c o n s t i p a -t i o n i n a f f e c t e d p a t i e n t s . The re-d u c t i o n i n volume causes u p r e g u -l a t i o n o f t h e r e n i n - a n g i o t e n s i ns y s t e m ; i n c r e a s e d a n g i o t e n s i n I Ih a s a d i r e c t e f f e c t on t h e t h i r s tcenter i n t h e b r a i n , 1 0 w h i l e d e -c r e a s e d i n t e r s t i t i a l p o t a s s i u m a ndd e c r e a s e d c h l o r i d e e x c h a n g e d i -m i n i s h e s c o n c e n t r a t i n g a b i l i t y i nt h e r e n a l l o o p o f Henle w i t h t h etwo phenomena combining t oc a u s e p o l y u r i a . The c o n s t i p a t i o ni s a d i r e c t consequence o f h y -p o k a l e m i a , w i t h consequent d e -crease i n gu t m o t i l i t y .

    A f i n a l p a t h o g e n i c i s s u e i nb o t h f o r m s o f RT A i s t h a t o f c a l -cium-phosphorus metabolismand s e c o n d a r y e f f e c t s on t h e k i dney. Common t o b o t h p r o x i m a land d i s t a l RT A i s a s t a t e o f c h r o n i cm e t a b o l i c a c i d o s i s , r e q u i r i n g t h a tH+ b e b o t h b u f f e r e d a nd e x c r e t e db y a l t e r n a t i v e means The most d i -r e c t e f f e c t o f a c i d o s i s i s t h e d i s -p l a c e m e n t o f p r o t e i n - b o u n d c a l -cium b y h y d r o g e n i n t h e b l o o d ,t h e r e b y i n c r e a s i n g both t h eamount o f i o n i z e d c a l c i u m l l , 2and i t s f i l t r a t i o n b y t h e g l o m e r u -l u s . H o w e v e r , c h r o n i c a c i d o s i sp r o v o k e s d i v e r g e n t responses t ot h i s i n c r e a s e d c a l c i u m l o a d i n t h ep r o x i m a l and d i s t a l segments, i n -

    c r e a s i n g r e a b s o r p t i o n i n t h e f o r -m er a n d i n h i b i t i n g i t i n t h e l a t t e r .The n e t e f f e c t i s t o c a u s e h y p e r -c a l c i u r i a , w h i c h c a n r e a c h s t r i k i n gp r o p o r t i o n s i n t h e d i s t a l RT Af o r m b u t u s u a l l y r e m a i n s o f n oc o n s e q u e n c e i n i s o l a t e d t y p e 2d i s e a s e . T y p e 1 RT A i s d u e t o f a i l -u r e t o e l i m i n a t e h y d r o g e n i o n ,w h i l e t y p e 2 i s a c o n s e q u e n c e o fd i m i n i s h e d b a s e r e a b s o r p t i o n ;t h u s , t h e m a r k e d d i f f e r e n c e i n d e -g r e e o f s y s t e m i c a c i d o s i s m ay a l s op l a y a r o l e .The s e v e r e a c i d o s i s o f t y p e 1d i s e a s e a l s o i n h i b i t s p r o d u c t i o na n d r e l e a s e o f m i t o c h o n d r i a l c i t -r a t e , 1 3 w h i c h i s n o r m a l l y p r e s e n tt o r e a c t w i t h c a l c i u m a nd e n -h a n c e i t s s o l u b i l i t y . 1 4 I n c r e a s e df i l t e r e d l o a d a n d i n h i b i t e d r e a b -s o r p t i o n c a u s e s s e v e r e h y p e r -c a l c i u r i a , w h i l e t h e r e d u c t i o n i ns o l u b i l i t y l e a d s t o a m a r k e d t e n -d e n c y t o w a r d n e p h r o c a l c i n o s i s .M o r e o v e r , t h e n e e d t o m a i n t a i nserum c a l c i u m n e c e s s i t a t e s i n -c r e a s e d t u r n o v e r o f b o n e m a t r i xand r e s u l t s i n o s t e o m a l a c i a . I nc o n t r a s t , b o n e d i s e s e i n t y p e 2RT A i s r e l a t i v e l y m i ld , g e n e r a l lyr e s u l t i n g f r o m p h o s p h a t e l o s s a n ds e c o n d a r y h y p e r p a r a t h y r o i d i s m .P h o s p h a t e , a major u r i n a r yb u f f e r , i s f i l t e r e d b y t h e g l o m e r u -l u s a n d e n t e r s t h e p r o x i m a l t u b u -l a r lumen w h e r e i t b e c o m e s a v a i l -a b l e t o b u f f e r h y d r o g e n i o n s .H o w e v e r , a m m o n i a g e n e s i s i s s u b -maximal i n c h r o n i c a c i d o s i s ,w h i c h r e s t r i c t s t h e u s e f u l n e s s o fN H 3 a s a u r i n a r y b u f f e r , e s p e c i a l l yi n a n a l k a l i n e u r i n e s u c h a s t h a tp r o d u c e d i n t y p e 1 R T A . I n a d d i -t i o n , t h i s r e d u c e d s y n t h e t i c r a t el i m i t s c a t i o n s r e q u i r e d f o r f i x e da c i d e x c r e t i o n a nd o b l i g a t e so t h e r c a t i o n s , s u c h a s C a + + , t o a c ti n i t s p l a c e .R a t e - D e p e n d e n t D i s t a l RTA

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    m ent, s u c h a s i m p a i r e d sodiumu p t a k e , can a l s o a l t e r t h e r a t e a tw h i c h H+ i s s e c r e t e d i n t o t h e l u -men, a n d a r e e t i o l o g i c a l l y d i s t i n c tf r o m t h e g e n e t i c a l l y t r a n s m i t t e dd i s o r d e r a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d . S t r i f eand a s s o c i a t e s l 5 h a v e demon-s t r a t e d i n c h i l d r e n w i t h d i s t a l RT At h a t d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f t h e c l a s s i c a ld i s e a s e f r o m r a t e - d e p e n d e n t d i s -t a l RT A on c l i n i c a l g r o u n d s w i l l b ed i f f i c u l t . I n r a t e - d e p e n d e n t d i s t a lRT A t h e k i d n e y can e l a b o r a t eu r i n e w i t h a pH l e s s t h a n 4 . 5 , l e a d -ing t o misdiagnosis of proximalR T A . D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r -ence between u r i n e a nd b l o o dp a r t i a l pressure o f CO2 w i l l a i d i nd i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , s i n c e a l l p a t i e n t sw i t h d i s t a l RT A w i l l h a v e a d i f f e r -ence o f l e s s t ha n 2 0mm g , w h i l en o r m a l s u b j e c t s a n d c h i l d r e n w i t hp r o x i m a l RT A w i l l h a v e a d i f f e r -ence g r e a t e r t h a n 2 0 mm g . 1 5

    D i a g n o s t i c A p p r o a c hI d e n t i f i c a t i o n and a p p r o p r i -

    a t e c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f p a t i e n t s w i t hRTA r e q u i r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f ane x t e n s i v e l i s t o f d i f f e r e n t i a l d i a g -noses ( F i g u r e 4 ) . The i n i t i a l t a s k i st o d e t e r m i n e t h e presence o f a h y -p e r c h l o r e m i c m e t a b o l i c a c i d o s i sa nd a b s e n c e o f any s i g n i f i c a n tp l a s m a a n i o n gap ( [ s o d i u m ] [ b i c a r b o n a t e ] + [ c h l o r i d e ] ) . Thed i f f e r e n t i a l l i s t o f e n t i t i e s f i t t i n gt h i s d e s c r i p t i o n i s p r e s e n t e d i nT a b l e 1 .The most common cause o ft h i s s i t u a t i o n i n p e d i a t r i c s i s acuted i a r r h e a l d i s e a s e . Potassiuml o s s e s can b e s u b s t n t i l enoughi n e i t h e r RT A or d i a r r h e a l d i s e a s et o cause h y p o k a l e m i a , m a k i n g t h etwo d i f f i c u l t t o d i s t i n g u i s h frome a c h o t h e r when t h e y c o e x i s t i nt h e i n f a n t . The most d i r e c t m e a n st o a p p r o a c h a d i f f e r e n t i a l i n sus-p e c t e d RT A i s b y d e t e r m i n a t i o no f t h e u r i n a r y a n i o n gap, d e f i n e d

    M e t a b o l i c A c i d o s i s

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    E l e v a t e d N o r m a l ( 1 0 - 1 2 m e q / 1 )W o r k u p f o rh i g h a n i o nga p a c i d o s i s

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    N o r m a l s m a l l t o n e g a t i v e )R / O T y p e II RT A

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    E l e v a t e d p o s i t i v e )

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    Evaluate EvaluateU r i n e p H Urine pHU r i n e : B l o o d p C O 2 U i n e : B l o o dP C O 2F i g u r e 4 . A l g o r i t h m f o r d i a g n o s i s o f R T A . F r o m H a n n a J D , S a n t o s F C h a n J C M . R e n a l t u b u l a r a c i -d o s i s . I n K h e r K K , M a k k e r S P e d s ) : P e d i a t r i c R e n a l D i s e a s e : D i a g n o s i s a n d M a n a g e m e n t . N e wY o r k : M c G r a w - H i l l , 1 9 9 2 , p p . 6 6 5 - 6 6 8 .

    somewhat d i f f e r e n t l y from t h eserum a n i o n gap, a s t h e sum o f( u r i n e [ N a + ] + u r i n e [ K + ] ) u r i n e[ C 1 - ] . Ammonium e x c r e t i o n i su s u a l l y i n c r e a s e d a s a c i d o s i s d e -v e l o p s , most commonly i n t h eform o f c h l o r i d e s a l t s , a l t h o u g hurinaryammonium is consideredan unmeasured c a t i o n . T h u s , i n as t a t e o f a c i d o s i s , t h e u r i n a r y a n-i o n gap s h o u l d d e c r e a s e a s t h ec h l o r i d e e x c r e t i o n i n c r e a s e s i nconcert w i t h a m m o n i u m . T heu t i l i t y o f t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n r e f l e c t s

    t h e f a c t t h a t a m monium g en e r a -t i o n b y t h e k i d n e y occ u r s i n t h ed i s t a l t u b u l e , so t h a t i n a l l f o r m so f d i s t a l RT A i t w o u l d b e a n t i c i -p a t e d t h a t no d e c r e a s e i n u r i n ea n i o n ga p would b e seen. I n con-t r a s t , a n o r m a l r e n a l response t og a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l b i c a r b o n a t el o s s e s , or i n a k i d n e y a f f e c t e d b yT y p e I I R T A , w o u l d b e i n c r e a s e dammonium p r o d u c t i o n , in -c r e a s e d c h l o r i d e e x c r e t i o n , a ndh e n c e , a d e c r e a s e d v a l u e o f t h eu r i n a r y anion gap.

    5 3 8 C L I N I C A L P E D I A T R I C S 2 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~O C T O B E R 2 0 0 13 8 C L I N I C A L P E D I A T R I C S

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    C l > N a + K + C l V > N a + K + C l V > N a + K +1 0 0 + 5 - 1 5 0 - 4 5 1 0 0 + 5 - 1 5 0 - 4 5 1 0 0 + 5 - 2 0 0 - - 9 5

    The u s e o f t h i s p a r a m e t e r i nc h i l d r e n h a s b e e n d i s c u s s e d ; 1 6 i t i sa d v i s a b l e t o u s e c a ut i on i n i n t e r -p r e t i n g t h e u i r i n e a n i o n g a p i nc h i l d r e n , and e s p e c i a l l y i nn e o n a t e s s i n c e ammonium g e n e r -a t i o n m a t u r e s d u r i n g p o s t n a t a ld e v e l o p m e n t .

    I n c h i l d r e n w i t h a r e l a t i v e l ym i l d d e g r e e o f s y s t e m i c a c i d o s i s a serum b i c a r b o n a t e c o n c e n t r a -t i o n no l o w e r t h a n 1 7 m E q / L ) , i tm a y b e h e l p f u l t o p e r f o r m ana c i d - l o a d i n g t e s t . The c l a s s i c a lmethod f o r t h i s h a s b e e n a n o r a l

    l o a d o f N H 4 C l ; r e c e n t l y , t h e i n t r a -venous a r g i n i n e h y d r o c h l o r i d ei n f u s i o n t e s t ( 1 0 0 - 1 5 0 m E qH+/m2 b o d y s u r f a c e a r e a ) h a sb e e n u s e d . 7 The o v e r a l l p u r p o s eo f t h e s e t e s t s i s t o c r e a t e s y s t e m i cc o n d i t i o n s t h a t w i l l m a x i m i z e r e -n a l h y d r o g e n i o n e x c r e t i o n , andt o d e t e r m i n e s y s t e m i c a n d u r i n epH u n d e r t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s . I fu r i n e pH f a l l s b e l o w 5 . 5 , t h e p a -t i e n t c a n b e a s s u m e d n o t t o h a v ed i s t a l R T A . So m e p a t i e n t s w i t hp r o x i m a l RT A c a n a c h i e v e a n o r -mal u r i n e pH r e s p o n s e undert h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , s o t h a t t y p eI I RT A c a n n o t b e r u l e d o u t b y t h i st e c h n i q u e .

    A n o t h e r t e s t o f t h e a b i l i t y o ft h e d i s t a l t u b u l e t o s e c r e t e H+ i s t o

    a l k a l i n i z e t h e u r i n e a n d m e a s u r et h e s e c r e t o r y c a p a c i t y a l o n g a h y -d r o g e n i o n g r a d i e n t w h e r e b l o o dpH s h o u l d b e l e s s t h a n u r i n e p H .C l a s s i c a l l y t h i s w a s a c h i e v e d u s i n ga n o r a l s o d i u m b i c a r b o n a t e d o s e ,b u t o r a l a c e t a z o l a m i d e a s a u r i -n a r y a l k a l i n i z i n g a g e n t ( 1 7mg/Kg) h a s be en found t o b emore e f f i c i e n t . 1 8 D i s t a l l y s e c r e t e dh y d r o g e n i o n s e n t e r t h e t u b u l a rlumen and combine w i t h b i c a r -b o n a t e a n i o n s t o f o r m c a r b o n i ca c i d , w h i c h s l o w l y d e h y d r a t e s i n t ow a t e r a n d C O 2 b e c a u s e o f t h e a b -s e n c e o f l u m i n a l membrane c a r -b o n i c a n h y d r a s e i n d i s t a l t u b u l a rc e l l s . A c c u m u l a t i o n o f l u m i n a lCO2 b e c a u s e o f d e l a y e d d e h y d r a -t i o n o f c a r b o n i c a c i d i s f u r t h e r e n -h a n c e d b y d i m i n i s h e d d i f f u s i o nd u e t o a n u n f a v o r a b l e v o l u m e t os ur f a c e a r e a r e l a t i o n s h i p i n t h em e d u l l a r y c o l l e c t i n g d u c t . 7 A s ar e s u l t o f t h e s e t w o f a c t o r s , t h epCO2 o f t h e u r i n e i n c r e a s e s a n d ,m e a s u r e d i n s u f f i c i e n t l y a l k a l i n eu r i n e , i t c a n b e u s e d a s a r e l i a b l ei n d e x o f d i s t a l h y d r o g e n i o n s e -c r e t i o n . Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s ,n o r m a l i n d i v i d u a l s a r e c a p a b l e o fi n c r e a s i n g u r i n e pCO2 a b o v e 7 0mm Hg a n d a c h i e v i n g a pCO2 d i f -f e r e n c e b e t w e e n u r i n e a n d b l o o do f 2 5 t o 3 0 mm H g . G i v e n t h es a m e c o n d i t i o n s , a d i f f e r e n c e o fl e s s t h a n 2 0 mm Hg s t r o n g l y s u g -g e s t s d i m i n i s h e d H+ s e c r e t o r y c a -p a c i t y , w h i c h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o fd i s t a l R T A .Normal i n d i v i d u a l s g i v e nf u r o s e m i d e ( 1 - 2 m g / k g ) g e n e r -a t e a m a r k e d l y a c i d u r i n e and as i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n n e t a c i d e x -c r e t i o n w i t h i n 2 t o 3 h o u r s . T h i se f f e c t i s b a s e d on f u r o s e m i d e - i n -d u c e d i n c r e a s e d s o d i u m d e l i v e r yt o a n d i n h i b i t i o n o f c h l o r i d e r e -a b s o r p t i o n i n t h e d i s t a l t u b u l e . A sa c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e i n c r e a s e ds o d i u m l o a d r e s u l t s i n g r e a t e r e x -c h a n g e f o r H+ a nd t h e g r e a t e rp r e s e n c e o f c h l o r i d e i n d u c e s a

    CLINICAL PEDIATRICS 5 3 9CTOBER 2 0 0 1at MCMASTER UNIV LIBRARY on August 24, 2010cpj.sagepub.comDownloaded from

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    h i g h e r d e g r e e o f l u m i n a l e l e c -t r o n e g a t i v i t y . T h u s , p a t i e n t s w i t hRTA s h o u l d show c o n c o r d a n t re-sponses t o a f u r o s e m i d e t e s t . I np a t i e n t s s u s p e c t e d o f h a v i n g t y p e4 RT A i n whom h y p e r k a l e m i ac o u l d become hazardous w i t ha c i d l oa d i n g , f u r o s e m i d e can pro-v i d e a u s e f u l and s a f e a l t e r n a t i v e .

    Growth F a i l u r e in RT AD i s t u r b a n c e s o f g r o w t h aret y p i c a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h RTA o f a l l

    t y p e s a n d w i t h c h r o n i c m e t a b o l i ca c i d o s i s i n g e n e r a l . The e f f e c t s o fa c i d o s i s appear t o f a l l i n t o twoseparate c a t e go r i e s : d i r e c t ( b yc o m m i t t i n g c a l c i u m a s a b u f f e rf o r H + ) a nd i n d i r e c t ( t h r o u g h t h eg r o w t h hormone-IGF a x i s ) . I n t h ec l a s s i c a l v i e w , t h e p a t h o p h y s i o -l o g i c response t o c h r o n i c a c i d o s i sl e a d s t o i n c r e a s e i n t h e i o n i z e df r a c t i o n i n serum, a r e s u l t a n t i n -cr e as e i n g l o m e r u l a r f i l t r a t i o na nd a consequent e n h a n c e d u r i -n a r y l o s s as c a l c i u m s a l t s . The ne tr e s u l t o f t h i s i s o s t e om a l a c i a w i t hb o w i n g o f t h e l o n g b o n e s , p a r t i c -u l a r l y t h o s e i n t h e l o w e r e x t r e m i -t i e s , and g r o w t h f a i l u r e . We h a v ea l r e a d y examined t h e t u b u l a rprocesses l e a d i n g t o t h e s e e f f e c t s ,so t h a t t h i s mechanism f o r t h e a d -verse i m p a c t o f a c i d o s i s upong r o w t h s h o u l d b e c l e a r .

    I n 1 9 8 1 , M c S h e r r y a n d a s s o c i -a t e s 1 9 r e p o r t e d a b l u n t e d g r o w t hhormone r e l e a s e i n c h i l d r e n w i t hR T A , a l t h o u g h no d a t a were i n -c l u d e d on f r e q u e n c y , q u a n t i t y , oro t h e r a s p e c t s o f g r o w t h hormones e c r e t i o n . To u p d a t e t h i s r e p o r t ,C h a l l a and c o - w o r k e r s 2 0 r e c e n t l ydemonstrated t h a t p u l s e a m p l i -t u d e a nd a r e a , a s w e l l a s t o t a lg r o w t h hormone s e c r e t i o n wered i m i n i s h e d i n a c i d o t i c r a t s , com-p a r e d t o c o n t r o l and p a i r - f e d a n i -m a l s , w h i l e t he p u l s e f r e q u e n c yremained u n a f f e c t e d i n t h e a c i -

    d o t i c a n i m a l s . O t h e r f i n d i n g s i n -c l u d e d s u p p r e s s e d serum I G F , h e -p a t i c I G F - 1 mRNA a nd h e p a t i cgrowth hormone receptormRNA, as w e l l as gene e x p r e s s i o no f I G F a t t h e g r o w t h p l a t e o f t h el o n g b o n e s i n t h e s e a n i m a l s . Thechanges i n I G F - 1 mRNA a ndg r o w t h hormone receptors seemt o b e s p e c i f i c t o t h e c e l l u l a r e f f e c t so f a c i d o s i s . T a k e n t o g e t h e r , t h e s efindings a r e representative of ana d d i t i o n a l mechanism f o r t h e a d -v e rs e impact o f c h r o n i c a c i d o s i supon g r o w t h , a l t h o u g h t h e y w i l ln e e d c o n f i r m a t i o n i n h u m a n s .

    G e n e t i c s a n dM o l e c u l a r G e n e t i c sU n t i l r e c e n t l y , e l u c i d a t i o n o f

    t h e g e n e t i c a s p e c t s o f t y p e s 1 a n d2 RT A was hampered b y c o n f u s -ing c l i n i c a l associations ( e . g . ,d e a f n e s s , F a n c o n i s y n d r o m e ) andf a m i l i a l , i n h e r i t e d , and s p o r a d i cp a t t e r n s o f occurrence f o r e a c h .H o w e v e r , w i t h t h e a d v e n t o f m o l e -c u l a r g e n e t i c s , many o f t h e p r e v i -o u s l y p u z z l i n g a s p e c t s o f t h e s e d i s -o r d e r s are now coming intos h a r p e r f o c u s . T he t r a n s i e n t ,n e o n a t a l form o f RT A may b ec a u s e d b y r e l a t i v e i m m a t u r i t y o ft h e a p i c a l N a + - H + e x c h a n g e r m o l -e c u l e ( N H E - 3 ) , w h i c h i s known t ou n d e r g o p o s t n a t a l d e v e l o p m e n ti n a n i m a l s . 2 1 , 2 2 T he gene f o rNHE-3 h a s been m apped t o5 p l 5 . 3 . 2 3 W i t h r e s p e c t t o g e n e t i ct y p e 2 R T A , t h e m o l e c u l a r b a s i sf o r an i n h e r i t e d d e f e c t i s now i nhand w i t h t h e c l o n i n g o f t h e twoh u m a n g e n e s f o r t h e N a + HCO3-cotransporter (NBC) p r o t e i nm o l e c u l e s . T he gene f o r NBC-1h a s been mapped t o 4 p 2 I . 2 4 How-e v e r , i t may r e q u i r e d e v e l o p m e n to f d i a g n o s t i c t e c h n o l o g y t o ascer-t a i n t h e presence o f an a b n o r m a lNBC-1 t r a n s p o r t e r gene i n non-r e n a l t i s s u e from a f f e c t e d i n d i v i d -

    u a l s , s i n c e r e n a l b i o p s y i n t y p e 2RT A i s d i f f i c u l t t o r a t i o n a l i z e . Thev a s t m a j o r i t y o f cases o f p r o x i m a lRT A a r e s e e n i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t ho t h e r g e n e t i c d i s o r d e r s , i n w h i c ht h e a c i d - b a s e d i s t u r b a n c e i s s i m -p l y a part o f a g e n e r a l i z e d p r o x i -m a l t u b u l a r d y s f u n c t i o n c a l l e dt h e r e n a l F a n c o n i s y n d r o m e . 2 5 , 2 6I n t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s , t h e g e n e t i c so f t h e RT A f o l l o w s t h e pattern o ft h e u n d e r l y i n g d i s o r d e r , a l m o s ta l w a y s an autosomal r e c e s s i v et r a i t . I t i s w o r t h n o t i n g t h a t t y p e 2RT A d u e t o a c a r b o n i c a n h y d r a s e(CA I I ) d e f i c i e n c y occ u r s i n asso-c i a t i o n w i t h o s t e o p e t r o s i s andc e r e b r a l c a l c i f i c a t i o n a s an a u t o -s o m a l r e c e s s i v e t r a i t , as w e l l . 2 7 C AI I d e f i c i e n c y may a l s o cause amixed type I - t y p e I I R T A , o r i g i -n a l l y d e s i g n a t e d t y p e I I I, a t e r mno l o n g e r i n use. C A I I h a s b e e nmapped to 8 q 2 2 ; use o f a C A1 I - d e f i c i e n t mouse model h a sp r o v i d e d t h e b a s i s f o r s u c c e s s f u l ,b u t temporary gene t h e r a p y . 2 8

    I n c o n t r a s t , d i s t a l RTA occ u r sw i t h t h e g r e a t e s t f r e q u e n c y as ani s o l a t e d d e f e c t , o f t e n t r a n s m i t t e da s an a u t o s o m a l dominant t r a i tdu e t o a m u t a t i o n a t 1 7 q 2 1 - q 2 2 . 2 9T he m o l e c u l a r a b n o r m a l i t y i nt h e s e cases i s an i m p a i r e d C l - -HC03- e x c h a n g e r w i t h i n t h e c e l la t t h e a n t i l u m i n a l s u r f a c e , as pre-v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d . Norman and a s -s o c i a t e s 3 0 s t u d i e d two p e d i g r e e si n w h i c h c l i n i c a l l y a f f e c t e d i n d i -v i d u a l s were shown t o b e h y p o c i -t r a t u r i c ; o t h e r , asymptomaticmembers o f t h e p e d i g r e e w i t h i n -c o m p l e t e d i s t a l RT A were f o u n dt o b e h y p o c i t r a t u r i c and were a l s oshown t o h a v e a n abnormal re-sponse t o a c i d l o a d i n g . T h e s e o b -s e r v a t i o n s a r e e n t i r e l y c o n s i s t e n tw i t h an a u t o s o m a l dominant t r a i t .I n a d d i t i o n , d i s t a l RT A can b e i n -h e r i t e d a s an a u t o s o m a l r e c e s s i v et r a i t , w i t h or w i t h o u t a s s o c i a t e ds e n s o r i n e u r a l h e a r i n g l o s s . Thosei n d i v i d u a l s w i t h o u t h e a r i n g d e -

    5 4 0 CLINICAL PEDIATRICS O C T O B E R 20014 0 C L I N I C A L P E D I A T R I C S O C T O B E R 2 0 0 1at MCMASTER UNIV LIBRARY on August 24, 2010cpj.sagepub.comDownloaded from

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  • 8/12/2019 RenalTubularAcidosis_000(1)

    10/12

    Renal Tubular A c i d o s i s

    f e c t s carry m u t a t i o n s a t 7 q 3 3 -q 3 4 . 9 D i s t a l RT A i n a s s o c i a t i o nw i t h h e a r i n g l o s s h a s b e e n s h o w nt o i n v o l v e t h e gene (ATP6B1)c o d i n g f o r t h e B - s u b u n i t o f t h eH + - A T P a s e , 8 w h i c h i s n o r m a l l y re-s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s e c r e t i o n o f h y -d r o g e n i o n i n t o t h e l u m e n . S i g -n i f i c a n t l y , n e i t h e r o f t h e twor e c e s s i v e f o r m s o f d i s t a l RT A i n -v o l v e s a l o c u s even r e m o t e l y conn e c t e d w i t h t h a t which d e t e r -m i n e s t h e c h l o r i d e - b i c a r b o n a t ee x c h a n g e r d e f e c t i n t h e d o m i -nant t r a i t . T h u s , t h e r e a r e c l e a r l ya t l e a s t t h r e e d i s t i n c t a b n o r m a l i -t i e s o f t h e genome w h i c h can a d -v e r s e l y a f f e c t u r i n a r y a c i d i f i c a t i o ni n t h e d i s t a l t u b u l e . W h i l e a g o o dd e a l o f w o r k r e m a i n s t o b e d o n eon t h e m o l e c u l a r b i o l o g y o f R T A ,t h e d a t a a r e a l r e a d y b e g i n n i n g t oh e l p u s t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e c l i n i c a lg e n e t i c s a s w e l l a s t h e p a t h o p h y s i -o l o g y t o a d e g r e e not p o s s i b l e 2 0y e ar s a go.

    V a r i a t i o n on t h e T h e m eI n p a s t l i t e r a t u r e on t h e s u b -

    j e c t , RTA nom e ncl a tu r e h a de v o l v e d t o a d e g r e e o f c o n f u s i o nv a s t l y ou t o f p r o p o r t i o n t o i t s un-d e r l y i n g p a t h o p h y s i o l o g i c com-p l e x i t y . The more recent l i t e r a -tu r e on t h e s u b j e c t d e a l se s s e n t i a l l y w i t h t h r e e t y p e s : 1 , 2 ,a nd 4 . I t i s now c l e a r l y recog-n i z e d t h a t t y p e 4 , a l s o c a l l e d h y -p e r k a l e m i c d i s t a l RT A t o d i s t i n -g u i s h i t from c l a s s i c a l t y p e 1 , i s ana c q u i r e d d e f e c t g e n e r a l l y du e t oe i t h e r a l d o s t e r o n e d e f i c i e n c y orr e l a t i v e a l d o s t e r o n e r e s i s t a n c e . 3 1The f i r s t s i t u a t i o n o f t e n p e r t a i n si n c as es o f c o n g e n i t a l a d r e n o -g e n i t a l s y n d r o m e , w h i l e t h e sec-on d may b e seen whenever r e n a lmass i s d i m i n i s h e d e . g . , o b s t r u c -t i v e u r o p a t h y , d i a b e t i c n e p h r o p a -t h y ) . A l t h o u g h c h r o n i c r e n a l f a i l -ure is a prominent c a u s e of t y p e

    4 RTA i n a d u l t s , i t i s r a r e l y seeni n c h i l d r e n . The mechanism b e -h i n d t h e h y p e r k a l e m i a i s p l a i n l yan i m p a i r e d or i n h i b i t e d exc h a n g e o f p o t a s s i u m f o r s o d i u m ,a process r e g u l a t e d i n t h e d i s t a lt u b u l e b y a l d o s t e r o n e . The samea p p l i e s t o t h e s y s t e m i c a c c u m u l a -t i o n o f H + , s i n c e s e c r e t i on o f h y -d r o g e n i o n i s l i n k e d t o t h e sameprocess t h a t i s i m p a i r e d i n t h ea b s e n c e o f normal a l d o s t e r o n er e g u l a t i o n .

    I n c i d e n c eThe r e l a t i v e i n c i d e n c e o f t h e

    t h r e e t y p e s o f RT A was r e p o r t e db y Brennen a nd a s s o c i a t e s 3 2s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e i n i t i a l d e s c r i p -t i o n o f t y p e 4 R T A . T h e s e w o r k -e r s s u g g e s t e d t h a t type 1 wasmost common, f o l l o w e d b y type4 , w i t h t y p e 2 t h e l e a s t commono f a l l . T h i s o r d e r i s , h o w e v e r , un-l i k e l y because g e n e t i c d e f e c t sr a r e l y , i f e v e r , outnumber a c-q u i r e d ones. T h u s , t h e numbero f e l d e r l y m a l e s w i t h p r o s t a t i c h y -p e r t r o p h y and p a t i e n t s o f a l l a g e sw i t h o b s t r u c t i v e u r o p a t h y whobecome r e l a t i v e l y r e s i s t a n t t o a l -d o s t e r o n e a nd i n whom t y p e 4RT A d e v e l o p s a r e c l e a r l y morenumerous t h a n i n d i v i d u a l s w i t hm u t a t i o n s f o r a c h l o r i d e - b i c a r -b o n a t e e x c h a n g e r ( t y p e 1 ) . A l -t h o u g h i t i s c e r t a i n t h a t e v e r y i n -f a n t i s born w i t h a lowerb i c a r b o n a t e t h r e s h o l d t h a n i t sp a r e n t s , most newborns do notd e v e l o p s y s t e m i c a c i d o s i s i n r e l a -t i o n t o t h e i r a ge c o h o r t s as a consequence. N o n e t h e l e s s , i t i s a tl e a s t a r g u a b l e t h a t t y p e 2 , du e t oa p h y s i o l o g i c i m m a t u r i t y , a p-p e a r s i n t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o nmore f r e q u e n t l y t h a n g e n e t i c a l l yd e t e r m i n e d t y p e 1 . H o w e v e r , i t i sc e r t a i n t h a t a f t e r i n f a n c y , i s o -l a t e d t y p e 1 i s seen f a r more com-monly t h a n i s o l a t e d t y p e 2 .

    T r e a t m e n tThe b s i s f o r t reat ment o f a

    p a t i e n t w i t h any f o r m o f RT A i st h e r e s u l t i n g m e t a b o l i c a c i d o s i s ,w h i c h a l l p a t i e n t s e x p e r i e n c e . I np r o x i m a l R T A , w h e r e t h e f u n d a -m e n t a l p h y s i o l o g i c a b n o r m a l i t y ,a s we h a v e d e f i n e d i t , i s i n b a s e r e-a b s o r p t i o n , i t s t a n d s t o reasont h a t b a s e r e p l a c e m e n t w o u l d b et h e r a p e u t i c . T h u s , b a s e r e p l a c e -ment as sodium b i c a r b o n a t e ort h e more p a l a t a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e ,c i t r a t e or S h o h l ' s s o l u t i o n ( 2 - 1 4mEq/kg/day i n d i v i d e d d o s e s 3 3 )i s u t i l i z e d t o m a i n t a i n p l a s m a b i -c a r b o n a t e h i g h e r t h a n t h e r e -d u c e d Tm a n d o f f s e t t h e i n c r e a s e du r i n a r y l o s s e s . I n b o t h f o r m s o fd i s t a l R T A , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h ed i f f e r e n t u n d e r l y i n g mechanismc o m p a r e d t o t y p e 2 R T A , t h e c l i n -i c a l p r o b l e m r e m a i n s a s y s t e m i cm e t a b o l i c a c i d o s i s . C i t r a t e r e-p l a c e m e n t h a s b e e n u s e d a s an e f -f e c t i v e mainstay of treatment int y p e 1 R T A . F i n a l l y , i n treatmento f t y p e 4 R T A , i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o d e -t e r m i n e t h e u n d e r l y i n g mecha-n i s m , whether h y p o a l d o s t e r o -n i s m vs e n d - o r g a n r e s i s t a n c e . F o rt h e f o r m e r s t a t e , m i n e r a l o c o r t i -c o i d r e p l a c e m e n t i s e f f e c t i v e , b u tt h e p a t i e n t s h o u l d b e m o n i t o r e df o r s o d i u m r e t e n t i o n and v o l u m eo v e r l o a d . F o r t h e l a t t e r , g e n e r a l l yr e s u l t i n g f r o m c h r o n i c r e n a l d i s -e as e, a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o ffurosemide ( 2 mg/kg/day) i sh i g h l y e f f e c t i v e a nd a v o i d s t h ep r o b l e m o f volume o v e r l o a d b ypromoting sodium e x c r e t i o n .

    C o n c l u s i o n sWe p r e s e n t e d a c o n c e p t i o n o f

    t h e two m a j o r t y p e s o f RT A b a s e don t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f u n c t i o n a ld e f i c i t o f e a c h . I n t h e case o f t y p e2 ( p r o x i m a l ) R T A , t h e u n d e r l y i n gg e n e t i c d e f e c t i n s o d i u m - b i c a r -

    O C T O B ER 2 0 0 1 C L I N I C A L P E D I A T R I C S 5 4 1OCTOBER 2 0 0 1 C L 1 7 V I C A L PEDIATRICS 5 4 1at MCMASTER UNIV LIBRARY on August 24, 2010cpj.sagepub.comDownloaded from

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    R o t h , Chan

    b o n a t e cotransporter m o l e c u l e( N B C - 1 ) r e s u l t s i n a d e f i c i t i nb a s e r e a b s o r p t i o n . T h u s , p r o x i -m a l RTA r e s u l t s i n reducedp l a s m a b i c a r b o n a t e a n d s y s t e m i cm e t a b o l i c a c i d o s i s on t h i s b a s i s .B y c o n t r a s t , t y p e 1 d i s t a l ) RT A h a sb e e n p r e s e n t e d as a f a i l u r e t o e l i m -i n t e h y d r o g e n i o n , a concept am-p l y s u p p o r t e d b y t h e m o l e c u l a rd e f i n i t i o n of a g e n e t i c deficiencyo f t h e c h l o r i d e - b i c a r b o n a t e ex-c h a n g e r m o l e c u l e i m p a i r i n g t h ed i s t a l t u b u l e ' s a b i l i t y t o secreteH + . The u t i l i t y o f t h i s c o n c e p t u a l -i z a t i o n l i e s p r i m a r i l y i n t h e f a c tt h a t i t e m p h a s i z e s b o t h t h e no r -m a l and abnormal f u n c t i o n o feach o f t h e two i n v o l v e d seg-ments, w h i l e a l s o h e l p i n g t o e x-p l a i n t h e p h y s i o l o g i c b a s i s f o r t h ec l i n i c a l p r e s e n t a t i o n s .The marked a b n o r m a l i t i e s o fl i n e a r g r o w t h , p a r t i c u l a r l y e v i -d e n t i n d i s t a l RTA, a r e u n d e r -s t o o d as t h e r e s u l t o f a t l e a s t twos e p a r a t e s e t s o f e v e n t s : osteoma-l a c i a and b o w i n g o f t h e l o w e r ex-t r e m i t i e s du e t o calcium l o s s ;a n d , t h e a c i d o s i s - i n d u c e dc h a n g e s i n t h e g r o w t h hormone-IG F a x i s . Ou r k n o w l e d g e o f t h el a t t e r i n f l u e n c e i s s t i l l i n t h e mostrudimentary s t a g e s , a l t h o u g ht e c h n i q u e s o f m o l e c u l a r b i o l o g yp r o v i d e t h e p r o m i s e o f r a p i d a d -vances i n t h e near f u t u r e . T hem o l e c u l a r g e n e t i c s o f RT A h a sp r o g r e s s e d d r a m a t i c a l l y i n t h ep a s t d e c a d e , p r o v i d i n g e v i d e n c eo f t h e a c t u a l m o l e c u l a r d e f e c t s i nt y p e s 1 a nd 2 RT A and f u r t h e r i n gour u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e u n d e r -l y i n g c e l l u l a r e v e n t s . T h e s e o b -s e r v a t i o n s have a l s o helpedg r e a t l y i n our d e l i n e a t i o n o f t h ei n h e r i t a n c e patterns o f bothp r o x i m a l and d i s t a l RTA. T h u s ,t h e progress i n t h e past twod e c a d e s h a s been d r a m a t i c a ndh o l d s d i r e c t i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r c l i n -i c a l care o f p a t i e n t s a f f e c t e d b yRTA.

    REFERENCES1 . Edelmann CM, R o d r i g u e z - S o r i a n o J ,

    B i o c h i s H , e t a l . R e n a l b i c a r b o n a t e re -a b s o r p t i o n and h y d r o g e n i o n excr e-t i o n i n i n f a n t s . JC l i n I n v e s t . 1 9 6 7 ;4 6 : 1 3 0 9 - 1 3 1 7 .

    2 . S v e n n i n g s e n NW. Renal a c i d - b a s et i t r a t i o n s t u d i e s i n i n f a n t s w i t h andw i t h o u t m e t a b o l i c a c i d o s i s i n t h e p o s t -n e o n a t a l p e r o d . P e d i a t r R e s . 1 9 7 4 ;8 : 6 5 9 - 6 7 2 .

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    5 . S o l e i m a n i M , Burnham C E . P h y s i o -l o g i c a nd m o l e c u l a r aspects o f t h eNa+:HCO3- cotransporter i n h e a l t ha nd d i s e a s e processes. K i d n e y I n t .2 0 0 0 ; 5 7 : 3 7 1 - 3 8 4 .

    6 . McKinney T D , B u r g MB. B i c a r b o n a t ea b s o r p t i o n b y r a b b i t c o r t i c a l c o l l e c t -i n g t u b u l e s i n v i t r o . A m J P h y s i o l . 1 9 7 6 ;2 3 4 : F 1 4 1 - F 1 4 5 .

    7 . F i s h e r J L , H u s t e d R F , S t e i n m e t z P R .C h l o r i d e dependence o f t h e HCO3-e x i t step in urinary a c i d i f i c a t i o n b yt h e t u r t l e b l a d d e r . A m J P h y s i o l . 1 9 8 3 ;2 4 5 : F 5 6 4 - F 5 6 8 .

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    9 . K a r e t F E , F i n b e r g K E , N a y i r A , e t a l .L o c a l i z a t i o n o f a gene f o r a u t o s o m a lr e c e s s i v e d i s t a l r e n a l t u b u la r a c i d o s i sw i t h norm a l hearing(rdRTA2) t o7 q 3 3 - 3 4 . AmJHum G e n e t . 1 9 9 9 ;6 5 : 1 6 5 6 - 1 6 6 5 .

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