refocus: soft ionization in gcms
TRANSCRIPT
SOFT IONIZATION:
THE NEW BLACK OF GC/MS
2
Knowledge is our biggest asset. Combining it, leads to new insights, solutions and approaches.
The goal of this newsletter is to providethe creative sparks to ignite serendipitous thoughts, ideas and insights.
Look at our website at www.is-x.com for more valuable resources.
Joeri Vercammen, [email protected]
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Cover article
News
Pages 4-14
01 02Reflections
Xtandards
Pages 15-22
03Network News
ure X
Pages 23-28
04News Flash
a
Pages 29-40
05Gadgets &
Innovations
Pages 41-47
PART 1
Cover article
5
SOFT IONIZATION
As the ancient Greeks already knew:
“Everything returns”. Now that heart-
cutting and GCxGC have lost their
(commercial) momentum, it seems that
soft ionization is the next big thing for
GC/MS users.
There is a lot of truth in this statement, soft ionization really is a great technique, particularly as a complement to 70 eV
electron impact (EI), but it is definitely not a new kid on the block.
Chemical ionization (CI) has been applied for decades, but I have to admit, it requires some expert knowledge to set-up a
proper GC/(CI)MS method. Why are people that much interested in soft ionization, you might ask? Well,
generally, there are two reasons.
Did you know we have a genuine CI expert in house?
“
6
REASON 1
To assist in the identification of unknowns…
True soft ionization preserves the molecular ion, which is particularly beneficial for component families that
fragment substantially in EI and give rise to similar spectra, such as alkanes, alcohols, phthalates, etc. Also the
identification of components of which no EI spectra are available in a library, requires soft ionization, since it allows
calculating chemical formulae.
EI CI
7
REASON 2
To increase sensitivity of target components…
Soft ionization preserves the molecular ion, allowing for more sensitive SIM and MS/MS analyses. Moreover,
particular CI approaches exhibit the capacity to introduce particular selectivity. CI with NH3, for example, induces
electron capture selectivity towards halogenated component, similar to an ECD, with the additional possibility to do
SIM and MS/MS.
CI CI-MS/MS
8
Today, several alternative ionization techniques that preserve the integrity of the molecular ion are proposed for GC/MS.
“
ColdEI
APGC APPI LVEI
ColdEI
APGC APPI LVEI
Cold EI uses a dedicated source design, which can be retrofitted to an Agilent 5975 MSD. The technique is based on the
phenomenon of supersonic molecular beams (SBM), which are formed by the expansion of gas through a small shaped
nozzle into the vacuum of the MS. During this expansion, carrier gas, additional helium make-up gas and heavier sample
molecules obtain the same final velocity, so that sample compounds are accelerated to the helium velocity. This uniform
velocity minimizes collisions, resulting in vibrational cooling. Subsequent EI gives rise to pronounced preservation of
molecular ions. Since the helium make-up flow is that high (100 mL/min), the set-up is often used in combination with
vacuum outlet GC. As a result, fast GC is easily accomplished as well as the analysis of higher MW and polar/labile molecules,
although this is more due to vacuum outlet technology than the SBM.
ColdEI
APGC APPI LVEI
APGC is an ionization source applied by Waters to make their high end MS’es (e.g. QTOF) compatible with GC.
They have been quite successful for the analysis of dioxins, which can be determined more sensitive compared to competitive
techniques such as high resolution magnetic sector instruments. Reduced fragmentation allows higher sensitivity and
specificity, therefore simplifying precursor ion selection in subsequent MS/MS analyses.
Time to check the performance of the new Evoon CI-MS/MS!“
ColdEI
APGC APPI LVEI
Two types of ionization are used, i.e. with water and without. The ionization mechanism is closely related to APCI in LC/MS.
It can be performed with alternate high and low energy so that both the molecular ion and fragment ions can be collected in
the same experiment to allow further structure elucidation. The ionization has two possible mechanisms, i.e. charge
transfer (in which the principal ion is M•+) or protonation (in which the principal ion is MH+). The process can be driven
toward protonation with the use of modifiers such as water or methanol within the enclosure. These modifiers allow “tuning”
of the ionization conditions to confirm the molecular ion under different circumstances and enhancing the ionization of
compounds which would not ionize without a modifier.
It is yet unclear if APGC suffers from similar ion suppression effects ubiquitous to LC/MS, but at least worthwhile to cast
some doubt s here [obviously this effect is absent in dioxin-analysis due to the extensive clean-up].
APGC does not seem to be a competitive alternative to EI for demanding applications such as pesticides in food and environmental multimethods.
“
ColdEI
APGC APPI LVEI
Thermo is working on a source that applies soft atmospheric pressure photoionization (APPI) in order to hyphenate GC
with the Orbitrap MS. It is a joint project of Thermo Scientific/Bremen, MasCom/Bremen, iGenTraX/Haan, and the
Physical and Theoretical Chemistry group at the University of Wuppertal, Germany. A certified commercial GC/APPI
interface for operation with Thermo mass spectrometers will become available in 2015.
Earlier work on this interface was carried out by Prof Ralf
Zimmerman (Helmholz Munich) some years ago. His group
applied repetitive PI/EI ionization to achieve comprehensive
separations of diesel, comparable to GCGC.
They conveniently named this approach GCMS, which is
actually valid due to the true soft nature of the APPI
ionization mechanism.
IGenTraX provides commercial APPI sources for
Waters and Bruker.
ColdEI
APGC APPI LVEI
EI ionization carried out at reduced electron voltages as proposed by Markes in their BenchTOF instrument.
It is possible due to a unique source design in which additional ion optics are placed between the filament and the ion source.
As a result of this modification, electrons are decelerated before they are transmitted to the ion source. Without the use of
these optics, lowering electron voltages reduces emission efficiency and as a consequence ionization efficiency as well.
Moreover, electrons begin to cluster around the filament as well, further shielding the potential difference.
In the Select-eV configuration, electrons are efficiently channelled into the ion source at all ionisation energies.
This overcomes electron clustering and ensures a high electron density in the resulting beam. Select-eV is proprietary to the
Markes BenchTOF instrument.
Filament
Cathode Vacuum
Electric current density
Select-eV electron optics
We are currently running a project to evaluate the potential of Select-eV for the analysis of polychlorinated alkanes (PCAs).
“
CONCLUSION
Soft ionization is everywhere these days. So it is best to be prepared.
Important things to consider:
• All Thermo instruments can accommodate chemical ionization
• No fear: technology has changed substantially the last couple of years
• All gases controlled by MFCs
• Specific tune algorithms and specs
• No need to break MS vacuum when switching between modes
“
PART 2
Reflections
16
GEIGER CHROMATOGRAPHY?
The CEA is the French Alternative Energies
and Atomic Energy Commission
(Commissariat à l'énergie atomique et aux
énergies alternatives). It is a public body
established in October 1945 by General de
Gaulle. A leader in research, development
and innovation, the CEA mission statement
has two main objectives: To become the
leading technological research organization
in Europe and to ensure that the nuclear
deterrent remains effective in the future.
CEA Valduc is specialized in military applications.
Their mission is to develop and maintain
the nuclear weapons of France.
The goal of this CGC is to analyze the impurities contained in 3He.
“
17
GEIGER CHROMATOGRAPHY?
Validating the CGC proved to be a daunting
task. The system contains two PED
detectors from Plasma Detek and
requires high resolution chromatography
and accurate channel switching to allow
detection of all target components.
The system was validated by means of a
calibration standard provided by CEA. The
standard contains various impurities, such
as neon, oxygen, nitrogen, methane,
ethane, krypton, CO, CO2, argon and
helium.
The sensitivity of the PEDs is phenomenal. “
18
GEIGER CHROMATOGRAPHY?
“Chromatography recorded in the front channel”
19
THERMAFLEX
Thermaflex manufactures innovative
solutions for efficient distribution of heat
and cold. Core product are isolation
foams, which are applied in a multitude of
forms and configurations. An important
parameter to check the quality of the final
product involves the quantitative analysis of
the amount of isobutane
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isobutane).
Currently, isobutane analysis is carried out
by taking samples at various locations in
the foam with a gastight syringe. Each
sampled is injected manually and analyzed
by means GC/TCD with a packed column.
Obviously, this approach is tedious,
time-consuming and highly prone to
errors. In order to determine to which
extent these challenges could be addressed,
an IS-X feasibility study was proposed.
Our IS-X team in Breda, represented by Cedric, was asked to:
Suggest an alternative capillary column
Evaluate the possibilities of automated sample introduction
Consider the use of nitrogen as carrier gas
20
THERMAFLEX
It took us some time to fine-tune the method but in the end all three questions were addressed successfully.
“
Instead of a packed column, a Restek RT
Q-BOND was applied (20 m 0.53 mm
I.D., 20 µm df, # 19742). The advantages
are apparent: reduced consumption of
carrier gas, faster analysis and improved
separation.
The manual sampling procedure was
translated to our Triplus RSH platform
giving rise to extremely precise results (<1
%RSD). It is even possible to take multiple
samples from the same foam at various
locations, which is a huge timesaver.
Last but not least, the carrier gas question
too was addressed properly. Changing from
argon to nitrogen eliminates the use of
bulky and expensive gas cylinders and
allows the use of a simple nitrogen
generator. Another job well-done!
21
Beginning of September, I attended a workshop on the application of sensor techniques for food analysis. A
remarkable application dealt with potential authenticity issues of apricot puree. Apparently, apricot puree is a valuable
good and, therefore, often mixed with purees of less expensive fruits, such as apples, pears and pumpkins. The range in
which this mixing occurs is quite substantial ranging between 10 to 20% by volume. In order to control the quality of
purchased purees, companies operating in the production of glazes, fruit fillings, fruit compotes and jams,
are looking for analytical solutions that are capable of quantifying product authenticity.
A common approach to detect the addition of fruits of secondary quality involves the analysis of the aroma emanating from
the paste. Traditionally, these analyses are carried out by means of GC/MS after static headspace extraction with SPME. By
identifying various aroma components and applying statistical techniques such multivariate analysis, specific profiles can
be constructed, which differ significantly enough to determine the composition of the paste. Reports discuss the
differentiation of apple puree in strawberry puree.
Classic GC/MS often takes too long to be really valuable for fast control of incoming goods. Although portable GC/MS
might be a more efficient alternative, SIFT-MS seems to be the best approach for in-line process control.
Next year we hope to participate in a project that focuses on food authenticity & process control.
APRICOT FRAUDE
22
GCxGC ON THE WAY BACK?
Last month I followed a thread appeared on the GCxGC
group at LinkedIn (see here).
The discussion was initiated by Lorne Fell from Leco as a
reflection on the past GCxGC course in Riva. He admits
that GCxGC lacks broad industrial application, which is
according to Lorne, due to the lack of standardized
methods and conditions. An interesting discussion
appeared in which several people proposed their own
‘standard conditions’. Remarkably, many responses
came from Holland (JSB, Envantage, PAC).
Many people are not aware of the intrinsic subtleties of
GCxGC as well as what makes a proper contour plot,
which results in a myriad of methods, conditions and
opinions. Really great for universities and PhD students
but not really that what an industrial laboratory is waiting
for. The level of general chromatography knowledge was
touched as well, but let’s leave that aside.
I participated as well, dropping some names (Jan Beens,
Petrobras) and opening the door to new potentially
interesting contacts. I mentioned in my reply that anyone
interested in a free copy of our GCxGC course could send
me an e-mail. I’ve gotten twelve responses, the ones from
our kind competitors I politely declined, the others were
very happy with their copy.
It’s clear that GCxGC remains a niche technique but let’s not forget that we have the knowledge and the contacts to assist any customer that expresses its interest in this powerful technique.
“
PART 3
Network news
24
IN THE PRESS
Our contact Dr. Kim Croes from the Centre of Expertise for Environment and Health (VUB) had a marked
passage in the news last month. Her research on the endocrine disrupting effect of pesticides, indicates that adolescents
still carry traces of pesticides in their body which have been banned since the early 70s. The effect on sexual development is
apparent, which was illustrated she was able to demonstrate the effect. You can read the full article here:
http://www.hln.be/hln/nl/33/Fit-Gezond/article/detail/2046324/2014/09/10/Pesticiden-verstoren-hormonale-werking-bij-jongeren.dhtml
Last year, IS-X collaborated with the Centre in the identification of the components responsible for the activity measured
in the CALUX bioassays they carried out on dust samples taken in kindergartens across Flanders.
The Van Geem group at Ghent University published an article detailing their recent research results with respect to the
compositional characterization of plastic waste pyrolysis oil by GCxGC. Their article was published in Journal of
Chromatography A (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25064537).
Abstract
The research was performed with GC×GC coupled to four different detectors: an FID), SCD, NCD and TOF-MS. The
performances of different column combinations were assessed in normal i.e. apolar/mid-polar and reversed
configurations. The information obtained from the four detectors and the use of internal standards enabled the
identification and quantification of the pyrolysis oil in terms of both group type and carbon number, i.e. hydrocarbon
groups and nitrogen-, sulfur- and oxygen containing compounds. Quantification of trace impurities is illustrated for
indole and caprolactam.
25
PUBLISH OR PERISH 1: GCxGC
The analyzed pyrolysis oil included a significant amount of nitrogen containing compounds (6.4wt%) and to a lesser extent sulfur containing compounds (0.6wt%).
“
26
PUBLISH OR PERISH 2: GC/MS
Development and Optimization of an Analytical System for Volatile Organic Compound Analysis Coming from the Heating of Interstellar/Cometary Ice Analogues
Greìgoire Danger e.a., Aix-Marseille Universite
This contribution presents an original analytical system for studying volatile organic compounds (VOC) coming from
the heating and/or irradiation of interstellar/cometary ice analogues through laboratory experiments. The system
brings solutions to three analytical constraints regarding chromatography analysis: the low desorption kinetics of
VOC (many hours) in the vacuum chamber during laboratory experiments, the low pressure under which they
sublime (10-9 mbar), and the presence of water in ice analogues.
The authors thank IS-X for technical assistance in the
development of the injection unit of the VAHIIA interface.
Volatile Components associated with Aging of Brown Shrimps
Ghent Group
The spoilage potential of several Psychrobacter and Pseudoalteromonas species was determined and quantified based on
the presence of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The inoculated samples were stored at 4 °C and the production of
VOCs by the pure strains on the shrimp matrix was identified via GC–MS. VOC production was quantified daily by SIFT-
MS until the bacterial count exceeded 108–109 cfu/g. The sensory profile of Psychrobacter species revealed very low
spoilage potential as measured by the production of VOCs, but these species may nevertheless contribute to spoilage.
Pseudoalteromonas species, especially Psa. elyakovii and Psa. nigrifaciens, have a high spoilage potential and might be
responsible for the off-odours produced during spoilage of brown shrimp. These isolates produced significant amounts of
volatile compounds such as sulphides, acetone, ammonia, and ethanol, which are all involved in seafood spoilage.
PUBLISH OR PERISH 3: SIFT-MS
28
PUBLISH OR PERISH 4: SIFT-MS
Application of SIFT-MS for the Evaluation of Biofilter Performance
Ghent Group
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) are responsible for photochemical smog and the depletion of the ozone layer. Biofilters
are suitable to treat industrial emissions polluted with such VOC. This study analyzes online the performance of a biofilter
treating an air stream contaminated with dimethylsulfide (DMS) and the response of the biofilter on DMS inlet
concentration pulses and concentration step changes by using SIFT-MS. These measurements were performed in a short
period of time (40 hours) to keep the biomass constant.
PART 4
News flash
30
NEW GAS APPLICATION NOTE
Last month our colleagues from GAS releases a new application note entitled
“High Purity Analyzer with PDD”. You can find a copy of the note here:
http://www.gassite.com/High+Purity+Gas+Analyser
31
DETECTING IGNITABLE LIQUIDS WITH GC/MS
Scientists from the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) have demonstrated the application of
PLOT-cryoadsorption (PLOT–cryo) coupled to GC/MS for the analysis of ignitable liquid (IL) residues in fire debris.
According to the study published in the Journal of Chromatography A, the method can simultaneously collect vapors from
up to eight sample vials at the same time.
http://www.chromatographyonline.com/lcgc/News/Detecting-Ignitable-Liquids-with-
GCndashMS/ArticleStandard/Article/detail/849618?contextCategoryId=42339
32
A NEW DETECTOR FOR GC?
A manuscript describing a new detector for gas chromatography (GC) from LCGC Editorial Advisory Board member Kevin
Schug of the University of Texas at Arlington, has been accepted for publication in Analytical Chemistry.
The manuscript, titled “A Vacuum Ultraviolet Detector for Gas Chromatography”, describes the detector’s
analytical performance characteristics, possible applications, and potential for use with spectral diagnostics.
http://www.chromatographyonlin
e.com/lcgc/News/A-New-
Detector-for-Gas-
Chromatography/ArticleStandard/
Article/detail/850717?ref=25
33
GC/MS APPLICATIONS FOR
ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS
Thermo released an application book that collects all recent environmental application notes. The majority is on
LC/MS and LC/MSMS but several GC/MS applications have been included as well.
The entire booklet is available online. I have listed all GC/MS notes for your convenience.
P5: Analysis of Dithiocarbamate Pesticides by GC-MS
P11: Simplifying Complex Multi-Residue Pesticide Methodology in GC-MS/MS
P113: Determination of PCDD/Fs in Environmental Samples using ASE and GC-MS/MS
P151: Determination of 1,4-Dioxane in Drinking Water by GC/MS in SIM mode
P199: Detection and Quantitation of Brominated and Chlorinated Hydrocarbons by DART with Linear Ion Trap and
Triple Quadrupole Technology
P207: Consolidated GC-MS/MS Analysis of OCPs, PAHs, and PCBs in Environmental Samples
P225: Quantitative Analysis of Environmental Air Contaminants Using APCI-MS/MS in Mobile Laboratories
34
VEHICLE INTERIOR AIR QUALITY
Exposure to air pollutants has for many years been recognised as a major cause of health problems.
Historically, pollutants from vehicle exhaust and the burning of fuels were of primary concern, but as urban air
quality has generally improved, attention has shifted to vehicle interior air quality (VIAQ). Emissions of volatile
and semi-volatile organic compounds from car interiors can have an adverse effect on VIAQ, raising concerns
for passenger health and safety.
As a result of these concerns, VIAQ is of growing importance to the automotive industry, and has culminated in
the development of harmonized methods (e.g. ISO 12219 series) to quantitate the release of
chemicals from materials used in car manufacture. Methods generally specify the use of environmental
chambers, vapor sampling onto sorbent tubes and analysis by thermal desorption (TD) with conventional GC–
MS. However, the broad range of sample types and the presence of target compounds at ultra-trace levels, often
within complex matrices, provide a challenge to analytical chemists.
Let’s not forget about the possibilities of our Syft instrument
as an alternative to TD-GC/MS.
ANALYSIS OF EDIBLE OILS
This application note describes the direct thermal desorption of desirable and undesirable aroma
compounds from edible oils. The oil sample is placed in a microvial from where it is directly thermally
desorbed using a GERSTEL Thermal Desorption Unit (TDU). Volatile compounds are transferred
to the GC/MS system while leaving the non-volatile oil matrix behind in the microvial, preventing it
from reaching and contaminating the GC inlet and the GC column. Different designs of microvials were
evaluated for effectiveness of analyte transfer.
Nice application note from Gerstel but if you need a more elegant approach to solve this analytical question more elegantly, then check the Ph.D. thesis of Brett Davis who applied SIFT-MS for
this application (same directory).
“
36
RESTEK’S CHROMATOGRAM DB
The Restek chromatogram database was extended with two chromatograms generated by Jean-Louis when he
was working on a project in Marseille. Yet another example on how important collaboration is, not only with
our customers, but also with our suppliers.
<Click to enlarge> <Click to enlarge>
APPLICATION NOTE
In a recent application note Bénédicte Gaurlat from Thermo France shares her experience with AMDIS
in combination with GC/MS for the identification of extractables and leachables from plastic materials. The
project was carried out in the context of a study for the pharmaceutical industry.
Abstract
From manufacturing to administration, pharmaceutical products come in contact with multiple packaging
systems made of different materials. Detailed compatibility studies on these materials may be required
to ensure that product quality remains acceptable and that no safety concern is raised due to
product/material incompatibility, especially when the administration method associated with a particular
dosage or form of the product might maximize the risk of exposure and interaction.
38
FAST FAME ANALYSIS
In a recent post that appeared on the Restek Chromablography blog, the application of a narrow bore RT-2560
column is described for faster or more efficient cis/trans separations of FAMEs. An interesting approach to improve
throughput for this demanding separation.
Soon Restek will make this column available for beta-testing by our experts.
39
Phytoscreening: A Comparison of In Planta Portable GC-MS and In Vitro Analyses
Abstract
Phytoscreening has been proven to rapidly delineate subsurface contaminant plumes for semiquantitative site
assessment, with minimal impact to property or ecology through the collection and analysis of tree cores. Here, three
phytoscreening methods were applied concurrently to identify multiple chlorinated volatile organic compounds (cVOCs)
in a phytoremediation treatment system at a contaminated industrial facility.
Tree coring, in planta gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and in planta passive sampling showed
general agreement, with the in planta GC-MS providing the quickest but least quantitative results.
The portable GC-MS sampling and analysis method identified six cVOCs in the xylem of hybrid poplars
(Populus sp.) in the phytoremediation plot. These real-time data can permit onsite identification and
delineation of the contaminants, allowing for adaptive sampling during a single mobilization to a site.
PORTABLE GC/MS
40
Slower Py–GC–MS Unravels Cross-link Relationship in Amber
By utilizing pyrolysis with a slower heating rate, lower final temperature and longer isothermal dwell time, larger fragments of a polymer remain intact and provide a better picture of how the macromolecules are constructed.
One application of slower pyrolysis is the research to determine if any form of cross-linking is occurring in amber.
The author concludes that slow pyrolysis could also have interesting applications for the characterization of other natural polymeric systems.
http://www.chromatographyonline.com/lcgc/News/Slower-PyndashGCndashMS-Unravels-Cross-link-Relati/ArticleStandard/Article/detail/851286?ref=25
SLOW PYROLYSIS GC/MS
PART 4
Gadgets & innovations
42
COOLEST COOLER
Most successful Kickstarter project ever!
https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/ryangrepper/coolest-cooler-21st-century-cooler-thats-actually
43
An Air-Quality Monitor You Take with You
A startup is building a wearable air-quality monitor using a sensing technology
that can cheaply detect the presence of chemicals around you in real time. By
reporting the information its sensors gather to an app on your smartphone, the
technology could help people with respiratory conditions and those who live in
highly polluted areas keep tabs on exposure.
• Crowdsource data to indicate places where certain compounds are identified.
• Wristband geared toward kids with asthma to help them identify places and
pollutants that tend to provoke attacks
http://www.technologyreview.com/news/530011/an-air-quality-monitor-you-take-with-you/
CHEMISENSE
POCKET-SIZED SMARTPHONE PROJECTOR
https://www.indiegogo.com/projects/touchpico-turn-any-surface-into-a-touch-screen
To deliver relevant information in real time, SCiO communicates the
spectrum of the sample to a smartphone wirelessly, which in turn
forwards it to a cloud-based service for review. Advanced algorithms
utilize an updatable database to analyze the spectrum within
milliseconds and deliver information about the analyzed sample back to
the user’s smartphone in real time.
http://www.consumerphysics.com/myscio/scio.htm
HAND-HELD SENSOR
SCIO. The first molecular sensor that fits in the palm of your hand.
SCiO reads the chemical make-up of materials.
It is a non-intrusive, no-touch optical sensor that provides a seamless user experience.
SCiO is based on the proven near-IR spectroscopy method. The device includes a light source that illuminates the
sample and a spectrometer that collects the light reflected from the sample. The spectrometer breaks down the light to its
spectrum, which includes all the information required to detect the result of this interaction between the illuminated light
and the molecules in the sample.
SUPERCOMPUTERS
In May last year, a supercomputer in San Jose, California, read 100,000 research papers in 2 hours. It found
completely new biology hidden in the data. Called KnIT, the computer is one of a handful of systems pushing back the
frontiers of knowledge without human help.
KnIT is a collaboration between IBM and Baylor College of Medicine in Houston, Texas. It is the latest step into a weird
world where autonomous machines make discoveries that are beyond scientists, simply by rifling more thoroughly
through what we already know, and faster than any human can.
The idea that new knowledge can be unearthed by finding links between disparate strands of research was first crystallised
in 1986 by information scientist Don Swanson at the University of Chicago. He analysed a database of scientific
literature manually to deduce that fish oil might be a good treatment for Raynaud's syndrome, a circulatory disorder,
because studies showed that fish oil could reverse certain conditions also seen in Raynaud's. His hunch turned out to be
right.
http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22329844.000-supercomputers-make-discoveries-that-scientists-cant.html#.VCJx-GccT4Y
47
3D PRINTING
Earlier this year a group at Harvard solved one of the most difficult challenges involved in growing artificial human organs.
The team used a 3-D printer to make human tissue that includes rudimentary blood vessels. Emboldened by that success,
the researchers have started an ambitious project to make fully functioning printed kidneys.
Speaking at MIT Technology Review’s EmTech conference, Jennifer Lewis, professor of biologically inspired engineering
at Harvard, said the ultimate goal—creating functioning human organs—is a “really long moon shot.” But she added that
her group has made significant progress by fabricating rudimentary versions of structures in kidneys called nephrons.
These artificial nephrons will allow drug companies to quickly screen potential medications, and they should help
scientists understand kidneys at a more detailed level.
http://www.technologyreview.com/news/531106/emtech-3-d-printing-complex-kidney-components/
