ARTICLE IN PRESS

Ocean & Coastal Management 50 (2007) 538–550

0964-5691/$ -

doi:10.1016/j

�CorrespoE-mail ad

www.elsevier.com/locate/ocecoaman

Shrimp farming in China: Operating characteristics,environmental impact and perspectives

Xie Biao�, Yu Kaijin

Nanjing Institute of Environmental Sciences, State Environmental Protection Administration,

8 Jiangwangmiao Street, Nanjing 210042, P.R. China

Available online 12 March 2007

Abstract

China has been one of the world’s largest shrimp producers since 1988. Although the industry

suffered disease outbreaks and environmental problems, shrimp farming has recently seen a rapid

expansion in China. This study provides some necessary background to shrimp aquaculture in China.

It focuses briefly on the operating characteristics of shrimp aquaculture. Emphasis is placed on the

shrimp farming impact on the environment. The promising strategy for reductions in nutrient release

from shrimp aquaculture is analyzed. The effective management measures to resolve or mitigate the

adverse environmental impact of shrimp farming development have now become necessary and

urgent.

r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Shrimp farming has undergone extraordinary expansion since 1970 in the world (Fig. 1).Global production of shrimp farming increased from less than 9000 metric tons in 1970 toabout 1 million metric tons in 2000, which is equivalent to about one-third of total worldshrimp supply [1]. Asia plays a leading role in shrimp farming, accounting for almost 80%of world shrimp culture production [2]. Thailand is the leading producer, followed byChina, Indonesia and Ecuador. A number of factors have led to the growth of shrimpfarming. Growing demand for shrimp mainly from North America, Europe and Japan,coupled with a leveling-off of the production from capture fisheries, gave rise to highmarket prices in the 1980s [3]. Simultaneously, major improvements have been made

see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

.ocecoaman.2007.02.006

nding author. Tel.: +86 25 85287056; fax: +86 25 85420606.

dress: biaox@hotmail.com (X. Biao).

ARTICLE IN PRESS

0

200000

400000

600000

800000

1000000

1200000

1970

1972

1974

1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

Year

Metr

ic ton

nes

World

China

Thailand

Taiwanprovinceof ChinaIndonesia

Ecuduer

Fig. 1. Cultured brackish water shrimp production in Thailand, China, Indonesia, Taiwan province of China,

Ecuador and globally from 1970 to 2000.

X. Biao, Y. Kaijin / Ocean & Coastal Management 50 (2007) 538–550 539

within the last 20 years, including the emergence of new production technologies andproduction of pellet feeds with high protein levels, which enabled high levels ofprofitability and provided incentives for investment in shrimp aquaculture. However,due to poor planning and management and a lack of appropriate regulations, the rapiddevelopment of intensive shrimp farming has led to a number of technical, environmental,economic and social problems [4–10]. While technology exists to reduce nutrientcontamination on and from shrimp ponds, such as complete replacement of fish mealand fish oil in shrimp feeds, and polyculture with shellfish, crayfish and herbivores, thesetechnologies are seldom employed [10].

Intensive shrimp farming began during the 1980s in Taiwan province of China. Csavas [11]analyzed the close relationship between hatchery production of post-larvae in Taiwanprovince of China and Ecuador and the growth of the shrimp farming industry in theseregions. Stocking densities of post-larvae increased from a few individuals/m2 to 40–50individuals/m2 [11]. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, several Asian regions suffered drasticcollapses due to deteriorating water quality and the emergence of numerous pathogens fromthe over-crowding within and among ponds [5,9]. Examples can be found in Taiwan provinceof China in 1987, Ecuador in 1992 and Mainland China in 1993 where production of shrimpfarming was reduced from 220,000 metric tons in 1991 to 88,000 metric tons in 1993 (Fig. 1).Despite these problems, the industry has spread in much the same form to most of south-eastAsia (e.g. Thailand and Indonesia) and parts of Latin America and Africa. Thailandmanaged to contain a severe crisis through curbing sludge discharge into the environment,thanks to stricter farm management and reliable new rearing techniques [12].

ARTICLE IN PRESSX. Biao, Y. Kaijin / Ocean & Coastal Management 50 (2007) 538–550540

The shrimp farming industry has often been promoted in terms of the possibility ofincreasing rural employment and generating foreign exchange, especially in developingcountries [13,14]. From 1987 to 1992, China was the world’s leading producer. Since 1993,Thailand has been the largest shrimp producer in the world (Fig. 1). During this period,the Chinese yields have also been increasing.The impact caused by aquacultural activities on the environment is a consequence of the

cumulative effect of many factors and activities that act jointly. Even though there aremany studies concerning the evaluation of environmental impact caused by shrimpaquaculture, most refer to countries like Thailand, Sri Lanka and Mexico, etc., e.g.[5,15–17]. China, being ranked as one of the leading shrimp producers, has no well-documented report regarding the effect of shrimp aquaculture on its coastal environments.Most of the studies concerning this matter are related to pond water quality changes withina limited number of shrimp farms.The purpose of this study is to analyze shrimp aquaculture from a national perspective

and provide some necessary background to shrimp aquaculture in China. It focuses brieflyon the operating characteristics of shrimp aquaculture. Emphasis is placed on the shrimpfarming impacts on the environment. The promising strategy for reductions in nutrientrelease from shrimp aquaculture is analyzed.

2. Development history of shrimp farming in China

With a great variety of climates, morphological features, vegetation and fauna, Chinapossesses an extensive coastline, measuring approximately 18,400 km. If 6500 islands andislets are included, the coastline reaches 32,000 km. Beach and shallow sea within 10mfathom line along the seashore cover 10million ha (Taiwan province not included), amongwhich more than 1.3million ha can be used for mariculture [18]. Seacoast development inChina began in early 20th century. In the period governed by Qing Dynasty, seacoast wasa remote and deserted area. At that time, government controlled aquaculture and saltproduction. Except some estuary zones, seacoast was no man’s lands. Large-scaledevelopment started in the late 1970s due to reform and the policy of opening to theoutside world.The farming of fish in ponds is an ancient practice. It was presumably developed by early

farmers as one of many primary production systems to stabilize food supplies. The earliestknown references to pond fish culture are from China, some 4000 years ago, and fromMesopotamia, about 3500 years ago [19]. In the late 1970, extensive shrimp farming beganalong the eastern coast in China with low yields. Shrimps were harvested for both domesticconsumption and to sell on the local market. With the establishment of research grouporganized by State Aquaculture Administration in 1978, technology developed in Chinaallowed the intensification of shrimp farming. This involves very high stocking densities ofshrimp that are all supplied by hatcheries, the use of processed feed, frequent waterexchange and the mechanization of the farm (aerators, water pumps and feeding). Duringthe period of 1980–1988, shrimp production increased at an average rate of 75%/yr. In1980, Shrimp farms covered some 9342 ha, and produced about 2549 metric tons. In 1988,they covered 162,960 ha and produced about 200,000 metric tons. This development madeChina the world’s largest shrimp producer. Production is 100% dominated by Penaeusorientalis [20]. At its peak, China accounted for around 35% of the global cultured shrimpproduction [1]. In 1987, shrimp farming industry of Taiwan province collapsed (Fig. 1) as a

ARTICLE IN PRESSX. Biao, Y. Kaijin / Ocean & Coastal Management 50 (2007) 538–550 541

result of disease, reduced resistance from over-use of antibiotics, over-stocking, incorrectlyprocessed food and the over-exploitation of groundwater [9]. Like Taiwan province, ChinaMainland shrimp farming industry suffered from diseases in 1990 and 1993, but China’sbrackish water shrimp culture is showing evidence of recovery and between 1994 and 2000output increased at 23%/yr from a low of 64,000 metric tons to reach 218,000 in 2000.

China faced a new reality in 1993. Its production of farm-raised shrimp was up to about200,000 metric tons per year during 1988–1992. Then in 1993 and 1994, it crashed to about50,000 metric tons. A virus appears to have been the culprit, but industrial and domesticpollution around the Gulf of Bohai Sea probably played a role. In addition, China’s pondsare in low-lying areas, making it difficult to clean up bottoms between harvests. TheChinese practice of feeding live mollusks, insects, and agricultural and fishery wastes to theshrimp probably encouraged the spread of killer viruses.

Increased demand for shrimp on the international market, the potential returns andimproved technology have contributed to the growth of the industry. Rice or salt farmerscould increase their earnings up to 20-fold by converting their fields to shrimp ponds.Among four shrimp producers in the world, China is the leading exporter from 1984 to1999, followed by Thailand, Indonesia and Ecuador [1].

3. Operating characteristics

There are about 100 penaeid shrimp species in China’s coastal waters, of which a dozenof Penaeus spp. and Metapenaeus spp. have commercial value [21]. Main shrimp typescultured in China are Penaeus chinensis, P. monodon, P. japonicus, P. merguinsis,P. penicillatus, Metapenaeus ensis and P. vannamei, which were introduced from outside ofChina recently. Chinese shrimp farms are distributed along almost 18,000 km of coastlinefrom Hainan Province in the tropics to Liaoning Province in the temperate zone. Farmersusually culture two crops of shrimp per year in southern China, while to the north ofYangzi River farmers can harvest only one crop. More than 80% of shrimp farms uselow-intensity culture technology. Air blowers or paddlewheel aerators are rare [22].

China possess about 14,000 shrimp farms, of which 5% belong to the intensive type,with 54.0 individuals/m2, an average acreage of 6.9 ha, a feed conversion rate of 2.1 and ayield of 2808 kg/ha. The majority, i.e. 85%, of farms, are half intensively managed with19.7 individuals/m2, an average acreage of 24.9 ha, a feed conversion rate of 2.1 and a yieldof 848 kg/ha. About 10% of farms are extensively managed with 7.9 individuals per m2, anaverage acreage of 39.5 ha, a feed conversion rate of 2.1 and a yield of 421 kg/ha/year [23].The shrimp costs 4.90 US dollar per kg in China if intensively managed, 2.27 US dollar, ifhalf intensively managed, and 1.62 US dollar if in extensive farms. Shrimp farms, mostestablished in middle and late 1980s, have ponds of simple structure with acreage of 50muor even over 100mu (15mu ¼ 1 ha). The water is shallow, and the depth of most pondsdoes not exceed 1.5m. Most ponds were not equipped with oxygen machines and waterquality was improved just by water exchange. The main features and existing problems areas follows.

3.1. Seedstock

Seedstock rely on nature to a certain degree and are not produced steadily. Larvae whichare not selected systematically by manpower, are not good enough in disease resistance,

ARTICLE IN PRESSX. Biao, Y. Kaijin / Ocean & Coastal Management 50 (2007) 538–550542

growth speed and quality. Larvae needed in Chinese farms are most produced onlarvae-culturing factories wholly artificially managed. Breeding shrimps do not system-atically endure artificial selection or inheritable improvement. Heat breeding and use ofantibiotic are very common.

3.2. Disease

Diseases are the most outstanding issue, which impact the shrimp industry. In particular,since 1993, diseases have caused a direct loss of as much as tens of billions of RMB(1USDE8RMB), and affected export earning in the hard currency, and the living standardof farmers, with a negative impact on other associated industries. They are harmful toshrimps in all the growing stages from breeding, mature and wintering. Governments of alllevels and the administrator pay much attention to this problem. Although researches areundertaken, no effective resolution has been found thus far. According to incompletestatistics, 15–20% of shrimp farming acreage suffers from serious diseases and have a loss ofover 1 million ton of shrimps and 17 billion RMB during 1994–2000.

3.3. Feed

Most of the indigenous shrimp feed does not contain all the needed nutrients for thefarming purpose. Many kinds of local feed are instable in water and thus take a high feedconversion ratio. Although the feed of some brands have good quality, they are expensive.Many farmers prefer homemade feed.

3.4. Farming environment

Suitable farming environment is often found in seashore areas. In many places, farmingenvironment worsens due to many reasons. A great deal of industrial wastes and domesticsewage untreated are directly discharged into coastal waters. As estimated, the big citiesand industrial zones in the coastal areas dispose billions of tons of wastes and sewage,causing gradual worsening of the offshore waters and endangering marine farming.Instances of shrimp mortality in large areas caused by bad water quality are not rare.Another important element is organic contamination caused by the shrimp farming itself.Many farms use artificial feed of bad quality by the wrong ways, which does not reach therequired stability in the water. Consequently, a large amount of feeds escape from theintake by shrimps, and become the organic contaminants harmful to shrimps. Ponds oftenuse antibiotics, disinfectors and water conditioners, which have an adverse effect on theaquatic environment. Unreasonable design of ponds is another factor for the poor waterquality. For example, the shrimp ponds in some bays are too intensively managed,generating farming sewage beyond their self-cleansing capacity, if any. Eutrophication offarming and adjacent waters and vast propagation of poisonous alga and pathogenicmicroorganisms also endanger the survival and development of shrimp industry.

3.5. Governmental management

The government does not manage shrimp farming strictly. Farming sewage discharge inthe offshore waters is not treated and thus affects the ecosystem. Ponds in many places are

ARTICLE IN PRESSX. Biao, Y. Kaijin / Ocean & Coastal Management 50 (2007) 538–550 543

not appropriately designed with such a high intensity that approaches or goes beyond thelimit of local ecosystem. Fish drugs are often misused or overused due to poormanagement.

3.6. Farmers’ knowledge

Rapid development of shrimp farming industry draws investments from many otherindustries. However, the education background and technical skills of shrimp farmers maynot always meet the demands. Lacking needed technology, poor understanding of thewater quality and feeding methods, and poor management render the farmers helpless incase of accidents.

4. Environmental impact of shrimp farming

Rapid development of shrimp farming brings a series of environmental, human healthand safety problems, as well as considerable profit and interests, thus causing concernabout its sustainability. Pan [24] believes that development of shrimp industry beintegrated with the accommodation of the ecosystem in view of shrimp industry history[24]. About 4 billion tons of industrial waste water, 200,000 tons of sewage and 43 billiontons of waste water from shrimp farming and shrimp breeding system spill into the coastalwaters in China every year. The Bohai Bay has reached a critical point beyond which itcould become a ‘‘dead’’ sea due to pollution [25].

A large number of literature reported the bad effect on the environment brought byshrimp farming, e.g. [26–30], such as pollution of water body, degradation of the usefulresources and biodiversity decline, etc. [3,9,29]. Too much nutrient salt and organic matterin the shrimp producing system leads to the eutrophication and worsening of theenvironment [31]. In the traditional mode of production, changing the water in order tomaintain the water quality will result in the draining of fish meal, feed and fertilizer, whichworsen the marine water quality [32]. In addition, many drugs (antibiotic, disinfectors,etc.) used in the pools to control diseases, may be taken up by and accumulate in thepolyculture animals after resolving in the water, thus affecting the seafood safety.

4.1. Organic matter

Poor quality feed is the main pollution source of the farming and its adjacent waters,although the soluble organic matter is the important element of water quality of theenvironment [33]. Feed reacts to many elements (pH, temperature, osmotic pressure, wavestrike and chemical reaction) by resolving, swelling, breaking, pulverization anddesquamation, etc. Feed additives dissolve 12.4–13.2% in 5min and 17.0–23.9% in120min and soluble matter dissolves rapidly and completely [34]. As reported, intensiveshrimp ponds have the feed conversion ratio of about 2 and the feed utilization rate ofabout 10% [35]. Low-feed utilization rate means the great loss of organic matter that isdrained into the sea. The amount per year is so high that the sea cannot clean it by itselfand seawater pollution accidents often occur. Total organic carbon (TOC) of the sedimentsin ponds accumulates over time, and has a positive linear relation with the pond age [36].Ma et al. [37] analyzed the drainage flux of the main pollutants in Laizhouwan Bay andtested the chemical oxygen demand (COD) density of the water into and out of the farming

ARTICLE IN PRESSX. Biao, Y. Kaijin / Ocean & Coastal Management 50 (2007) 538–550544

areas in the top of Laizhouwan Bay. It was roughly estimated that the COD in thedrainage water increased by 1173.4 ton/yr after the shrimp diseases broke out [37].

4.2. The drainage of nitrogen, phosphorus and other pollutants

Nutrient salts containing inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus are essential elements inthe nutrient recycling in the marine farming system. The amount of nutrient saltscontaining nitrogen and phosphorus decide the transfer of energy in the marine farmingsystem and the seawater accelerates the speed of the nutrient recycling. Meanwhile, as theimportant index of the pollution of the marine farming, nutrient salts containing nitrogenand phosphorus are the big factor of the farming environment [38]. It is found that higherthe density of the nutrient salts containing nitrogen and phosphorus is, the fewer the kindsof the marine diatom are [39].In the early stage of the shrimp production, a great deal of fertilizer containing nitrogen,

phosphorus, potassium and some trace elements is put into the water to improve thegrowth of the algae that provides the shrimp with sufficient feed. In the middle and thelate stage of the production, a great deal of feed remains in the water; some becomessuspended solid pellets; and some releases much of the nitrogen and phosphorus upondissolution. Some scientists such as Burford et al. [40] found that feed and fish mealremaining in the water can significantly increase the amount of the soluble organicnitrogen, and nitrogen and phosphorus are released to the water by the shrimp excrements[40]. Yuan et al. [36] led a research of the relation between the pond age and the totalnitrogen in the deposit by studying 80 shrimp ponds in counties such as Shangma andLiuting in Chengyang District, Qingdao city and Shandong Province. The results showedthat the total nitrogen in the deposit was accumulated year by year. In the all investigatedareas, the total nitrogen showed positive linear relation with pond age with correlationcoefficient of 0.4603–0.8574 (Po0.05) [36]. Traditional shrimp production mainly relies onthe exchanging of pond water and discharging nitrogen- and phosphorus-rich effluentsinto the surrounding waters, causing the degradation of water quality, alteration ofphytoplankton community structure and eutrophication. Two red tides caused byChattonella marina occurred alongshore the north of the Yellow Sea in the mid-Augustof both 1993 and 1995, mainly due to the discharges into the marine environment ofnutrient rich effluents.As reported by Feng in 1996, in one Bohai Sea area where large-scale shrimp farming

and production took place, the COD level is over 200 times higher, and activephosphorous is 900 times higher than those of the surround environment. The levels ofCOD, active phosphorus, and ammonium tested at the same area are 3.7, 7.8 and 2.4 timeshigher in comparison with those of pre-shrimp production time [41], indicating asignificant imbalance in the material recycle of the adjacent environment. If the annualfeed consumption efficiency is 15–20% and the feed conversion ratio is 2, China wouldproduce 200,000 tons of the shrimp and drains 320,000–340,000 tons of the farmingeffluents into the sea. In September 1994, Zheng et al. [42] tested the vibrioparahaemolyticus amount in the pelagic sea, the reservoir and the ponds in FengxianDistrict, Shanghai and discovered that only in July and September the vibrioparahaemolyticus in the pelagic sea and the reservoir was a little lower than that in theshrimp pond and in other months no differences were shown. The polluted seawatercontinuously exchanged became the sources of the pollution and diseases [42].

ARTICLE IN PRESSX. Biao, Y. Kaijin / Ocean & Coastal Management 50 (2007) 538–550 545

Take Fujian province as an example. In 1998, the shrimp production discharged asmuch as 3.73� 108 tons of the shrimp sewage, including 5589 tons of COD, 658 tons ofnitrogen and 307 tons of phosphorus. So much sewage was drained into the surroundingwaters during the production period, which will certainly accelerate the pollution andeutrophication, result in the red tides, and have a negative effect on the shrimp production.In 2002, Du et al. reported that red tides occurring in large areas offshore Guangdong andin Bohai Sea caused a great loss in the aquaculture industry in 1998 and 1999. From 1997to 1999, the red tides appeared in the west sea area near Xiamen and Tong’anwan Bay [43].As reported by Wang et al. [44] in 1995, healthy and sustainable shrimp productionindustry can only flourish if marine ecosystem was kept in good balance; rationaldevelopment plans were designed; environmental friendly farming models were chosen;and practical farming measures was implemented, in accordance with specific localconditions. This will minimize the stress on the environment, prevent and abate pollutionof the farming water. In short, shrimp farming scale must be predicated on no harm to theadjoining environment.

4.3. Use of the antibiotics and other drugs

Overuse of the antibiotics results in too much antibiotics residues in the aquacultureproducts, which leads to not only the decrease in the immunity of the aquacultureproducts, but also the decrease in the disease resistance of consumers and the increase inthe possibility of infecting the disease [45]. The European Union prohibited the import ofshrimps from the mainland of China, Vietnam and Indonesia after finding the prohibitedchloramphenical remained in the imported shrimps. Bleaching powder itself has noproblem of food safety, but in the oxidation of the organic substance the hypochlorite ionand other chloric preparations produce the trihalomethanes (THMs) and otherhydrochloric ether which have the potential carcinogenesis [46]. Overuse of lime resultsin the growing and overabundance of cyanophytes and the restraining of propagationof diatom. Aquaculture products can accumulate the heavy metals from the pesticides,algaecides and some organic organisms used in the farming through biologicaccumulation, which may lead to food safety problem.

5. Reductions in nutrient release from shrimp aquaculture

To reduce nutrient release from shrimp aquaculture, essentially two different promisingstrategies can be taken. One less high-yielding, ecological (or organic) approach and oneusing the latest developments in biotechnology aiming at highest possible productivity andeconomic output (Table 1).

A fundamental principle in ecological aquaculture production is to minimizeenvironmental impact as much as possible while developing a valuable and sustainableaquatic ecosystem. The ecological approach implies that the cultivation is done at lowerintensity and that efforts to farm shrimp are more in tune with ecosystem processes andfunctions, e.g. by creating large buffer zones that reserve the discharged waster water fortreatment and provide ecological services, and adapt the farming to the local carryingcapacity. The use of integrated farming of shrimp (e.g. polyculture of bivalve mollusks, fishand shrimp), where resources and wastes are recirculated within the farm instead ofdepleting or overloading the environment; the use of shrimp pond water to feed

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Table 1

Alternative approaches to reduce nutrient release from shrimp aquaculture

Ecological (organic) solution Technological approach

(1) Strict limitation of stocking density (1) Isolate farm from the environment

(2) Create large buffer zones (2) Treat and recirculate pond water

(3) Intensive monitoring of environmental impact, protection of

surrounding ecosystems and integration of natural plant

communities in farm management

(3) Sterilize pond environment

(4) Integrate systems for effluent treatment and resource

management

(4) Use of antibiotics and medicines;

treat the residues in the pond water

(5) Strict criteria for fishmeal sources; in general, decreased protein

fishmeal content of diets

(5) Zero water discharge system

(6) Preferences for natural medicines

(7) Keep farming within carrying capacity of local environment

X. Biao, Y. Kaijin / Ocean & Coastal Management 50 (2007) 538–550546

particularly oysters with the effluent stream has been positively evaluated in various studies[47,48], confirming that there is considerable potential for the culture of shrimp and bivalvemollusks in shrimp ponds. It must, however, be emphasized that these low-intensitysystems require much larger pond areas for a given volume of production compared tointensive systems.The reduction of nutrients inputs has been shown to be an effective strategy for lowering

the load of nitrogen and phosphorus released into the environment [49]; the research hasfocused on improving the manufacture of a feed and fertilizer as low in nutrient content aspossible without impairing the growth of cultivated shrimp. This will reduce the impactson adjacent coastal waters, a positive aspect for the same shrimp industry. In the context ofecological shrimp aquaculture, very limited efforts have been made; the use of organicfertilizer and to optimize the supplied feed have been recommended and evaluated in semi-intensive ponds. However, this ecological or organic farming method, althoughconstituting a relevant principle to reduce the excess of supplied feed and consequentlydecrease the amount nutrient released from shrimp operations, requires more research todemonstrate its usefulness currently.The technological alternative tends to drive development toward completely artificial

super-intensive systems, which are isolated from the environment and implement zerodischarge mechanism. It also involves treatment and recirculation of pond wastes,sterilization of pond environment with antibiotics, ozone, chlorine, formaldehyde, etc.This alternative aims at high output but demands very high level of management.

6. Perspectives

The environment affects aquaculture just as aquaculture impacts on the environment.Coastal waters in China are increasingly contaminated by several substances derived fromvarious sources, which may be classified into: (1) direct sources, resulting from activitieswithin the vicinity of the coastal waters, including sewage effluent, industrial discharges,run-off from agricultural activity and aquaculture pond wastewaters, etc. organic matterand nutrients are involved with most of these activities, heavy metals with mining andsome fertilizers and fungicides, organophosphorus and organochlorine pesticides arerelated to the intensive agriculture, and oil spills are frequently associated with shipping

ARTICLE IN PRESSX. Biao, Y. Kaijin / Ocean & Coastal Management 50 (2007) 538–550 547

activities in the port areas. (2) Non-point sources, that include contaminants from variousland-based activities, located relatively far from the coastal plain and involve mainlynutrients and pesticides from agriculture and several atmospheric contaminants [50].

The impacts of marine pollution on aquaculture are difficult to detect unlesscontamination caused by large-scale oil spills or major discharges of sewage effluentare obvious. Two events in 1993 illustrate the first relationship in the case of shrimpculture—the crash of Chinese shrimp farms particularly in the north due in part toincreasing levels of industrial pollution around the Gulf of Bohai [51] and the Taurasyndrome in Ecuador [52]. In the latter, massive mortalities in pond shrimp wereapparently caused by fungicides used in banana plantations [53]. In most cases, the impactcan be evidenced only after years of chronic contamination.

With the continual development of the shrimp aquaculture in the coastal areas of China,concern exists over the deterioration of the water quality which in turn causes the problemsof self-pollution and transmission of diseases have also occurred in areas with high ponddensity where the emitted chemical and biological pollutants are recirculated among farms.Since Chinese farmers have regarded shrimp aquaculture as an important way in pursuit ofsustenance and the bigger economical and social profits in the Chinese coastal zone, theshrimp production rises continuously. Management measures to resolve or mitigateimpairments of coastal water quality and the adverse environmental impact of shrimpaquaculture development are now required urgently and necessarily. So far, no countriesor regions have established the specific measures of the sustainable development of shrimpfarming, but in no doubt, all the countries and regions cultivating the shrimps are makingefforts toward it. For example, in order to reduce the negative impact of aquaculture,governments of several developed countries are already adopting policies to reduce thepollution of aquatic environments, stressing the importance of studies on the production ofwaste products in aquafarms [54–56], and of the water quality of the environments whereeffluents are discharged [57,58].

In recent decade, some advances in aquaculture management have also been attemptedby improvements in setting up management strategies and creation of regulations in China.For example, ‘Water Quality Standard for Fisheries’ (GB11607-89) was issued andenforced on 1 March 1990. The ‘Law for Water Pollution Control’ revised in 1997 specifiesthat the fishery superintendent offices be held responsible for investigating and handlingpollution accidents in water fisheries. The Ministry of Agriculture issued ‘Regulations for

Fishery Loss Calculation of Accidents of Waters Pollution’ and ‘Regulations and Procedures

for Investigating and Handling Pollution Accidents in Fishery Waters’ in 1997, thus bringingthe investigation and handling of pollution accidents in aquaculture onto a legal track.Ministry of Agriculture and local fishery administrations began to reinforce constructionof infrastructures of the fishery environment monitoring stations in 1999 and the Ministryof Agriculture released ‘Approaches to management of qualification for investigation and

identification of fishery pollution accidents’ in 2000.

7. Conclusions

The sustainability of the shrimp farming relies on many factors, such as completepolicies and regulations, good ecology, excellent breed and the assorted technology andguarantee technology, as well as the support of the government, the technological advanceand the cooperation between the industries.

ARTICLE IN PRESSX. Biao, Y. Kaijin / Ocean & Coastal Management 50 (2007) 538–550548

At least five impediments were recognized to the creation and effective development ofsustainable shrimp farming programs: lack of recognition of the issues; poor integration ofaquatic environmental protection, interagency coordination and collaboration, adminis-trative discontinuity and inefficiency; inadequate legal systems and regulation; lack ofenvironmental quality monitoring and reporting system; and inadequate information.As a big shrimp production country in the world, greater efforts should be taken so as to

explore a quotable road not only for the sustainable development of the shrimp farmingbut also for the advance of the marine farming. First of all, we must pay much attention tothe necessary technology and capacity. Second, we should take many factors intoconsideration, for example, the production cost, the product quality and safety,environmental cost-benefit. And we should emphasize more investment, investigation,information application and social understanding as well as the devotion of theaquaculture to the food guarantee and the release of the hunger. The basic task of theshrimp farming in the future is to produce the nutritive, safe, environmental friendlyproducts, which is popular and accessible to the entire social stratum on the basis of fullunderstanding of the potentiality of the coastal aquaculture.

Acknowledgment

The authors would like to thank anonymous referees for the English revision and aregrateful to their helpful comments on a previous version of this paper.

References

[1] Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). FISHSTAT Plus. Universal software for fishery statistical time

series 2001. Available at: /http://www.fao.org/fi/statist/fisoft/fishplus.aspS[2] Fuchs J, Martin JM, An NT. Impact of tropical shrimp aquaculture on the environment in Asia and the

Pacific. Shrimp Culture 1999;12(4):9–13.

[3] Neiland AE, Neill S, Varley JB, et al. Shrimp aquaculture: economic perspectives for policy development.

Marine Policy 2001;25:265–79.

[4] Bailey C. The social consequences of tropical shrimp mariculture development. Ocean and Shoreline

Management 1988;11:31–44.

[5] Flaherty M, Karnjanakesorn C. Marine shrimp aquaculture and natural resource degradation in Thailand.

Environmental Management 1995;19:27–37.

[6] Dierberg FE, Kiattisimkul W. Issues, impacts and implications of shrimp aquaculture in Thailand.

Environmental Management 1996;20:649–66.

[7] Goss J. Conflict and resistance in Indian shrimp aquaculture. Third World Resurgence 1997;84:2–3.

[8] Naylor R, Goldberg R, Mooney H, et al. Nature’s subsidies to shrimp and salmon farming. Science

1998;282:883–4.

[9] Kautsky N, Ronnback P, Tedengren M, Troell M. Ecosystem perspectives on management of disease in

shrimp pond farming. Aquaculture 2000;191:145–61.

[10] Naylor R, Goldberg R, Primavera J, et al. Effect of aquaculture on world fish supplies. Nature

2000;405:1017–24.

[11] Csavas I. Success of shrimp farming. World Aquaculture 1994;25(1):34–56.

[12] Kongkeo A. Coastal environment management for sustainable shrimp culture in Thailand. In: Workshop on

coastal environment management for sustainable aquaculture, organized by Dadan Penkajian Dan

Penerapan Teknologi (BPPT), Jakarta, Indonesia with financial support of the ECRTD; 1997. 13p.

[13] Kongkeo H. How Thailand made it to the top. INFOISH International 1995;1/95:25–31.

[14] Lavallee MP. The case studies—Thailand shrimp farming. Trade and the Environment Database 1997.

Available at: /http://gurukul.ccc.american.edu/ted/thaishrimp.htmS

ARTICLE IN PRESSX. Biao, Y. Kaijin / Ocean & Coastal Management 50 (2007) 538–550 549

[15] Thongrak S, Prato T, Chiayvareesajja S, Kurtz W. Economic and water quality evaluation of intensive

shrimp production systems in Thailand. Agricultural Systems 1997;53:121–41.

[16] Senarath U, Visvanathan C. Environmental issues in brackish water shrimp aquaculture in Sri Lanka.

Environmental Management 2001;27(3):335–48.

[17] Paez-Osuna F, Guerrero-Galvan SR, Ruz-Fernandez AC. The environmental impact of shrimp aquaculture

and the coastal pollution in Mexico. Marine Pollution Bulletin 1998;36:65–75.

[18] Wang X. Coastal development and environmental protection. UNEP Industry and Environment

1993;15(1–2):7–10.

[19] Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). Small ponds make a big difference; 2000. Available at: /http://

www.fao.org/documents/showcdr.asp?url_file=/docrep/003/x7156e/x7156e00.htmS[20] ADB/NACA. Aquaculture sustainability and the environment. report on a regional study and workshop on

aquaculture sustainability and the environment. Asian Development Bank and Network of Aquaculture

Centres in Asia-Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand; 1996.

[21] Liu R. Present status and future prospects for shrimp mariculture in China. In: Main KL, Fulks W, editors.

The culture of cold-tolerant shrimp. Honolulu, Hawaii: The Asian Interchange Program, Oceanic Institute;

1989. p. 16–28.

[22] Cai SL, Wang QY. Some aspects of the shrimp farming industry in China: constraints and priorities.

Available at: /www.aciar.gov.au/web.nsf/doc/JFRN-5J473M/$file/PR90%20Chapter%2012.pdfS[23] Rosenberry B. World shrimp farming 1998. San Diego, CA, USA: Shrimp News International; 1998 328p.

[24] Pan LQ. Problems and countermeasures of shrimp farming development in China. Shandong Fisheries

2001;18(3):22–5.

[25] Wu CH, editor. China environment reporter: a publication of the professional association for China’s

environment, vol. 1(1); 1997. p. 4.

[26] Primavera JH. Socio-economic impacts of shrimp culture. Aquaculture Research 1997;28:815–27.

[27] Primavera JH. Tropical shrimp farming and its sustainability. In: De Silva S, editor. Tropical mariculture.

London: Academic Press; 1998. p. 257–89.

[28] Phillips MJ. Tropical mariculture and coastal environmental integrity. In: De Silva S, editor. Tropical

mariculture. London: Academic Press; 1998. p. 17–69.

[29] Paez-Osuna F. The environmental impact of shrimp aquaculture: a global perspective. Environmental

Pollution 2001;112:229–31.

[30] Senarath U, et al. Environmental issues in brackish water shrimp aquaculture in Sri Lanka. Environmental

Management 2001;27(3):335–48.

[31] Sun Y, Jian L, Ye C, Feng L. Dissolving rates of N and P from newborn remains produced by feeding and

their changing patterns in shrimp pond. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 1997;8(5):541–4.

[32] Ervik A, et al. Regulating the local environmental impact of intensive marine fish farming. Aquaculture

1997;158:85–94.

[33] Yang QX, Jiang YW, Zhang XY, Yang Y. Study on the effects of decomposition of the bait in a shrimp pond

on the maricultural environment. Marine Environmental Science 1999;18(2):11–5.

[34] Chen SQ, Li XQ, Li ZX, Zhai YX. The loss of nutrients of shrimp formulated diet soaked in water and its

effects on the water environment. Journal of Fishery Sciences of China 1995;2(4):40–7.

[35] Huang LP, Lin H, Liang Q, Liang GP. 2002 Ecological shrimp farming modeling. Fishery Technology and

Sciences Information 2002;29(3):103–4 , 109.

[36] Yuan YX, Xin FY, Sun Y, Qu KM, Cui Y, Yi MM, et al. TOC, TP, TN and pH in sediment environ-

ment of shrimp culture and quality assessment module. Journal of Fisheries of China 2000;24(3):

247–53.

[37] Ma SZ, Xin FY, Qu KM. Contribution of shrimp culture to IN, IP and COD in the Lazhou Bay. Marine

Fisheries Research 2002;23(2):7–11.

[38] Sun Y, Song YL. Feature and behavior of nitrogen and phosphorus nutrients in shrimp ponds. Journal of

Fisheries of China 1998;22(2):117–23.

[39] Qu KM, Li BS. A review on ecological environment of shrimp culture. Marine Fisheries Research

2000;21(3):67–71.

[40] Burford MA, et al. The fate of nitrogenous waste from shrimp feeding. Aquaculture 2001;198:79–93.

[41] Feng HQ. Focus on fish and shrimp nutrition ecology due to aquaculture calamity. China Feedstuff

1996;13:18–20.

[42] Zheng GX, Geng LK, Sun YL, Wang JG, Zhou K. Shrimp pathogeny in eastern sea and countermeasures.

Marine Science 1995;2:1–3.

ARTICLE IN PRESSX. Biao, Y. Kaijin / Ocean & Coastal Management 50 (2007) 538–550550

[43] Du Q, Zhang YT, Gao L, Qian XM, Xu CY. Features and countermeasures of red tides in Fujian sea area in

recent years. Journal of Fujian Fisheries 2002;4:32–37l.

[44] Wang KX, Ma S, Pan LQ, Gao WB, Wang CL. On technique for farming shrimp with closed and purged-in

pond. Shandong Fisheries 1995;4:20–23l.

[45] Song SX. Penaeus monodon farming. Marine Publishing House; 1999.

[46] Boyd CE, et al. Risks associated with the use of chemicals in pond aquaculture. Aquacultural Engineering

1999;20:113–32.

[47] Jakob GS, Pruder GD, Wang J. Growth trial with the American oyster Crassostrea Virginica using shrimp

pond water as feed. Journal of World Aquaculture Society 1993;24:344–51.

[48] Hopkins JS, Hamilton RD, Sandifer PA, Browdy CL. The production of bivalve mollusks in intensive

shrimp ponds and their effect on shrimp production and water quality. World Aquaculture 1993;24:74–7.

[49] Xie B, Li JH, Wang XR. Assessing the consequences of converting to organic shrimp farming. Aquaculture

Asia Magazine 2005:11–7.

[50] Wang DS. Problems and water environment protection for shrimp farming in China. Feed Industry

1994;15(3):2–3.

[51] Anon. China’s shrimp crop failure may cause supply–demand imbalance. Asian Shrimp News (ASSC) no. 16;

1993.

[52] Anon. The Taura Syndrome—a special shrimp notes report. Shrimp News International, 10 February 1994.

[53] Jia XP, Cai WG, Lin Q. The effects of major pollutions on mariculture and fishery resource enhancement

along the coastal waters of China. Journal of Fishery Sciences of China 1997;4(4):78–82.

[54] Gonzalez-Vila FJ, Del Rio JC, Mancha A, Bautista JM, Martin F. Origin and environmental significance of

organic deposits in aquatic sediments. Fresenius Environmental Bulletin 1996;5(3–4):161–6.

[55] Twarowska JG, Westerman PW, Losordo TM. Water treatment and waste characterization evaluation of an

intensive recalculating fish production system. In: Aquaculture engineering society proceedings II: successes

and failures in commercial recalculating aquaculture, vol. 2. Northeast Regional Agricultural Engineering

Service; 1996. p. 447–60.

[56] Easter CC, Novak JT, Libey GS, Boardman GD. Waste characterization and disposal from a recalculating

aquaculture system producing hybrid striped bass. In: Aquaculture engineering society proceedings II:

successes and failures in commercial recalculating aquaculture. UK: Northeast Regional Agricultural

Engineering Service; 1996. p. 441–6.

[57] Cornel GE, Whoriskey FG. The effects of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) cage culture on the water

quality, zooplankton, benthos and sediments of Lac du Passage, Quebec. Aquaculture 1993;109(2):101–17.

[58] Suvapepun S. Environmental impacts of mariculture. NRCT-JSPS Joint Seminar on Marine Science,

Chulalongkorn University, Thailand; 1994. p. 25–9.