list of indian inventions and discoveries

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List of Indian inventions and discoveries 1 List of Indian inventions and discoveries This list of Indian inventions and discoveries details the inventions, scientific discoveries and contributions of India, including both the ancient and medieval nations in the subcontinent historically referred to as India and the modern Indian state. It draws from the whole cultural and technological history of India, during which architecture, astronomy, cartography, metallurgy, logic, mathematics, metrology and mineralogy were among the branches of study pursued by its scholars. During recent times science and technology in the Republic of India has also focused on automobile engineering, information technology, communications as well as space, polar, and nuclear sciences. Inventions Button, ornamental: Buttonsmade from seashellwere used in the Indus Valley Civilization for ornamental purposes by 2000 BCE. [1] Some buttons were carved into geometric shapes and had holes pieced into them so that they could attached to clothing by using a thread. [1] Ian McNeil (1990) holds that: "The button, in fact, was originally used more as an ornament than as a fastening, the earliest known being found at Mohenjo-daro in the Indus Valley. It is made of a curved shell and about 5000 years old." [2] Calico: Calico had originated in the subcontinent by the 11th century and found mention in Indian literature by the 12th when writer Hemacandra mentioned calico fabric prints done in a lotus design. [3] The Indian textile merchants traded in calico with the Africans by the 15th century and calico fabrics from Gujarat appeared in Egypt. [3] Trade with Europe followed from the 17th century onwards. [3] Within India, calico originated in Calicut. [3] Carding, devices for: Historian of science Joseph Needham ascribes the invention of bow-instruments used in textile technology to India. [4] The earliest evidence for using bow-instruments for carding comes from India (2nd century CE). [4] These carding devices, called kaman and dhunaki would loosen the texture of the fiber by the means of a vibrating string. [4] Map showing origin and diffusion of chess from India to Asia, Africa, and Europe, and the changes in the native names of the game in corresponding places and time. Chaturanga and Shatranj: The precursors of chess originated in India during the Gupta dynasty (c. 280 - 550 CE). [5] [6] [7] [8] Both the Persians and Arabs ascribe the origins of the game of Chess to the Indians. [7] [9] [10] The words for "chess" in Old Persian and Arabic are chatrang and shatranj respectively terms derived from caturaṅga in Sanskrit, [11] [12] which literally means an army of four divisions or four corps. [13] [14] Chess spread throughout the world and many variants of the game soon began taking shape. [15] This game was introduced to the Near East from India and became a part of the princely or courtly education of Persian nobility. [13] Buddhist pilgrims, Silk Road traders and others carried it to the Far East where it was transformed and assimilated into a game often played on the intersection of the lines of the board rather than within the squares. [15] Chaturanga reached Europe through Persia, the Byzantine empire and the expanding Arabian empire. [14] [16] Muslims carried Shatranj to North Africa, Sicily, and Spain by the 10th century where it took its final modern form of chess. [15] Chintz: The origin of Chintz is from the printed all cotton fabric of calico in India. [3] The origin of the word chintz itself is from the Hindi language word चित्र् (chitr), which means a spot. [3] [17] Coherer, iron and mercury: In 1899, the Bengali physicist Jagdish Chandra Bose announced the development of an "iron-mercury-iron coherer with telephone detector" in a paper presented at the Royal Society, London. [18] He also later received U.S. Patent 755840 [19] , "Detector for electrical disturbances" (1904), for a specific

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Page 1: List of Indian Inventions and Discoveries

List of Indian inventions and discoveries 1

List of Indian inventions and discoveriesThis list of Indian inventions and discoveries details the inventions, scientific discoveries and contributions ofIndia, including both the ancient and medieval nations in the subcontinent historically referred to as India and themodern Indian state. It draws from the whole cultural and technological history of India, during which architecture,astronomy, cartography, metallurgy, logic, mathematics, metrology and mineralogy were among the branches ofstudy pursued by its scholars. During recent times science and technology in the Republic of India has also focusedon automobile engineering, information technology, communications as well as space, polar, and nuclear sciences.

Inventions• Button, ornamental: Buttons—made from seashell—were used in the Indus Valley Civilization for ornamental

purposes by 2000 BCE.[1] Some buttons were carved into geometric shapes and had holes pieced into them so thatthey could attached to clothing by using a thread.[1] Ian McNeil (1990) holds that: "The button, in fact, wasoriginally used more as an ornament than as a fastening, the earliest known being found at Mohenjo-daro in theIndus Valley. It is made of a curved shell and about 5000 years old."[2]

• Calico: Calico had originated in the subcontinent by the 11th century and found mention in Indian literature bythe 12th when writer Hemacandra mentioned calico fabric prints done in a lotus design.[3] The Indian textilemerchants traded in calico with the Africans by the 15th century and calico fabrics from Gujarat appeared inEgypt.[3] Trade with Europe followed from the 17th century onwards.[3] Within India, calico originated inCalicut.[3]

• Carding, devices for: Historian of science Joseph Needham ascribes the invention of bow-instruments used intextile technology to India.[4] The earliest evidence for using bow-instruments for carding comes from India (2ndcentury CE).[4] These carding devices, called kaman and dhunaki would loosen the texture of the fiber by themeans of a vibrating string.[4]

Map showing origin and diffusion of chess fromIndia to Asia, Africa, and Europe, and the

changes in the native names of the game incorresponding places and time.

• Chaturanga and Shatranj: The precursors of chess originated inIndia during the Gupta dynasty (c. 280 - 550 CE).[5] [6] [7] [8] Boththe Persians and Arabs ascribe the origins of the game of Chess tothe Indians.[7] [9] [10] The words for "chess" in Old Persian andArabic are chatrang and shatranj respectively — terms derivedfrom caturaṅga in Sanskrit,[11] [12] which literally means an army offour divisions or four corps.[13] [14] Chess spread throughout theworld and many variants of the game soon began taking shape.[15]

This game was introduced to the Near East from India and became apart of the princely or courtly education of Persian nobility.[13]

Buddhist pilgrims, Silk Road traders and others carried it to the FarEast where it was transformed and assimilated into a game oftenplayed on the intersection of the lines of the board rather than withinthe squares.[15] Chaturanga reached Europe through Persia, the Byzantine empire and the expanding Arabianempire.[14] [16] Muslims carried Shatranj to North Africa, Sicily, and Spain by the 10th century where it took itsfinal modern form of chess.[15]

• Chintz: The origin of Chintz is from the printed all cotton fabric of calico in India.[3] The origin of the wordchintz itself is from the Hindi language word चित्र् (chitr), which means a spot.[3] [17]

• Coherer, iron and mercury: In 1899, the Bengali physicist Jagdish Chandra Bose announced the development of an "iron-mercury-iron coherer with telephone detector" in a paper presented at the Royal Society, London.[18]

He also later received U.S. Patent 755840 [19], "Detector for electrical disturbances" (1904), for a specific

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electromagnetic receiver.• Cotton gin, single-roller: The Ajanta caves of India yield evidence of a single roller cotton gin in use by the 5th

century.[20] This cotton gin was used in India until innovations were made in form of foot powered gins.[21] Thecotton gin was invented in India as a mechanical device known as charkhi, more technically the"wooden-worm-worked roller". This mechanical device was, in some parts of India, driven by water power.[4]

• Crescograph: The crescograph, a device for measuring growth in plants, was invented in the early 20th centuryby the Bengali scientist Jagdish Chandra Bose.[22] [23]

• Crucible steel: Perhaps as early as 300 BCE—although certainly by 200 CE—high quality steel was beingproduced in southern India also by what Europeans would later call the crucible technique.[24] In this system,high-purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in a crucible and heated until the iron melted andabsorbed the carbon.[24] The first crucible steel was the wootz steel that originated in India before the beginningof the common era.[25] Archaeological evidence suggests that this manufacturing process was already in existencein South India well before the Christian era.[26] [27]

• Dock (maritime): The world's first dock at Lothal (2400 BCE) was located away from the main current to avoiddeposition of silt.[28] Modern oceanographers have observed that the Harappans must have possessed greatknowledge relating to tides in order to build such a dock on the ever-shifting course of the Sabarmati, as well asexemplary hydrography and maritime engineering.[28] This was the earliest known dock found in the world,equipped to berth and service ships.[28] It is speculated that Lothal engineers studied tidal movements, and theireffects on brick-built structures, since the walls are of kiln-burnt bricks.[29] This knowledge also enabled them toselect Lothal's location in the first place, as the Gulf of Khambhat has the highest tidal amplitude and ships can besluiced through flow tides in the river estuary.[29] The engineers built a trapezoidal structure, with north-southarms of average 21.8 metres (71.5 ft), and east-west arms of 37 metres (121 ft).[29]

Cotton being dyed manually in contemporary India.

• Incense clock: Although popularly associated with China theincense clock is believed to have originated in India, at least inits fundamental form if not function.[30] [31] Early incenseclocks found in China between the 6th and 8th century CE—theperiod it appeared in China all seem to have Devanāgarīcarvings on them instead of Chinese seal characters.[30] [31]

Incense itself was introduced to China from India in the earlycenturies CE, along with the spread of Buddhism by travellingmonks.[32] [33] [34] Edward Schafer asserts that incense clockswere probably an Indian invention, transmitted to China, whichexplains the Devanāgarī inscriptions on early incense clocksfound in China.[30] Silvio Bedini on the other hand asserts that incense clocks were derived in part from incenseseals mentioned in Tantric Buddhist scriptures, which first came to light in China after those scriptures from Indiawere translated into Chinese, but holds that the time-telling function of the seal was incorporated by theChinese.[31]

• India ink, carbonaceous pigment for: The source of the carbon pigment used in India ink was India.[35] [36] InIndia, the carbon black from which India ink is produced is obtained by burning bones, tar, pitch, and othersubstances.[36] [37] Ink itself has been used in India since at least the 4th century BCE.[38] Masi, an early ink inIndia was an admixture of several chemical components.[38] Indian documents written in Kharosthi with ink havebeen unearthed in Xinjiang.[39] The practice of writing with ink and a sharp pointed needle was common inancient South India.[40] Several Jain sutras in India were compiled in ink.[41]

• Indian clubs: The Indian club—which appeared in Europe during the 18th century—was used long by India's native soldiery before its introduction to Europe.[42] During the British Raj the British officers in India performed

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calisthenic exercises with clubs to keep in for physical conditioning.[42] From Britain the use of club swingingspread to the rest of the world.[42]

• Kabaddi: The game of kabaddi originated in India during prehistory.[43] Suggestions on how it evolved into themodern form range from wrestling exercises, military drills, and collective self defense but most authorities agreethat the game existed in some form or the other in India during the period between 1500-400 BCE.[43]

• Ludo: Pachisi originated in India by the 6th century.[44] The earliest evidence of this game in India is thedepiction of boards on the caves of Ajanta.[44] This game was played by the Mughal emperors of India; a notableexample being that of Akbar, who played living Pachisi using girls from his harem.[44] [45] A variant of this game,called Ludo, made its way to England during the British Raj.[44]

• Muslin: The fabric was named after the city where Europeans first encountered it, Mosul, in what is now Iraq, butthe fabric actually originated from Dhaka in what is now Bangladesh.[46] [47] In the 9th century, an Arab merchantnamed Sulaiman makes note of the material's origin in Bengal (known as Ruhml in Arabic).[47]

The Great Stupa at Sanchi (4th-1st century BCE).The dome shaped stupa was used in India as acommemorative monument associated with

storing sacred relics.

• Palampore: पालमपुर् (Hindi language) of Indian origin[3] wasimported to the western world—notable England and Colonialamerica—from India.[3] [3] In 17th century England these handpainted cotton fabrics influenced native crewel work design.[3]

Shipping vessels from India also took palampore to colonialAmerica, where it was used in quilting.[3]

• Playing cards: Playing cards are believed to have been invented inAncient India.[48] [49] [50] [51]

• Prayer flags: The Buddhist sūtras, written on cloth in India, weretransmitted to other regions of the world.[52] These sutras, writtenon banners, were the origin of prayer flags.[52] Legend ascribes theorigin of the prayer flag to the Shakyamuni Buddha, whose prayerswere written on battle flags used by the devas against their adversaries, the asuras.[53] The legend may have giventhe Indian bhikku a reason for carrying the 'heavenly' banner as a way of signyfying his commitment toahimsa.[54] This knowledge was carried into Tibet by 800 CE, and the actual flags were introduced no later than1040 CE, where they were further modified.[54] The Indian monk Atisha (980-1054 CE) introduced the Indianpractice of printing on cloth prayer flags to Tibet.[53]

• Prefabricated home and movable structure: The first prefabricated homes and movable structures wereinvented in 16th century Mughal India by Akbar the Great. These structures were reported by Arif Qandahari in1579.[55]

Wayang Kulit (shadow puppet) in Wayang Purwatype, depicting five Pandava, from left to right:

Bhima, Arjuna, Yudhishtira, Nakula, andSahadeva (Museum Indonesia, Jakarta). Ghosh,Massey, and Banerjee (2006) trace the origins of

puppetry in India to the Indus Civilization.

• Rocket artillery, iron-cased and metal-cylinder: The firstiron-cased and metal-cylinder rockets were developed by TipuSultan, ruler of the South Indian Kingdom of Mysore, and his fatherHyder Ali, in the 1780s. He successfully used these iron-casedrockets against the larger forces of the British East India Companyduring the Anglo-Mysore Wars. The Mysore rockets of this periodwere much more advanced than what the British had seen, chieflybecause of the use of iron tubes for holding the propellant; thisenabled higher thrust and longer range for the missile (up to 2 kmrange). After Tipu's eventual defeat in the Fourth Anglo-MysoreWar and the capture of the Mysore iron rockets, they wereinfluential in British rocket development, inspiring the Congreverocket, and were soon put into use in the Napoleonic Wars.[56] [57]

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• Ruler: Rulers made from Ivory were in use by the Indus Valley Civilization in what today is Pakistan and someparts of Western India prior to 1500 BCE.[58] Excavations at Lothal (2400 BCE) have yielded one such rulercalibrated to about 1/16 of an inch—less than 2 millimeters.[58] Ian Whitelaw (2007) holds that 'TheMohenjo-Daro ruler is divided into units corresponding to 1.32 inches (33.5 mm) and these are marked out indecimal subdivisions with amazing accuracy—to within 0.005 of an inch. Ancient bricks found throughout theregion have dimensions that correspond to these units.'[59] Shigeo Iwata (2008) further writes 'The minimumdivision of graduation found in the segment of an ivory-made linear measure excavated in Lothal was 1.79 mm(that corresponds to 1/940 of a fathom), while that of the fragment of a shell-made one from Mohenjo-daro was6.72 mm (1/250 of a fathom), and that of bronze-made one from Harapa was 9.33 mm (1/180 of a fathom).'[60]

The weights and measures of the Indus civilization also reached Persia and Central Asia, where they were furthermodified.[60]

• Seamless celestial globe: Considered one of the most remarkable feats in metallurgy, it was invented in Kashmirby Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in between 1589 and 1590 CE, and twenty other such globes were later produced inLahore and Kashmir during the Mughal Empire.[61] [62] Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it wasbelieved by modern metallurgists to be technically impossible to produce metal globes without any seams, evenwith modern technology.[62] These Mughal metallurgists pioneered the method of lost-wax casting in order toproduce these globes.[62]

• Simputer: The Simputer (acronym for "simple, inexpensive and multilingual people's computer") is aself-contained, open hardware handheld computer, designed for use in environments where computing devicessuch as personal computers are deemed inappropriate. It was developed in 1999 by 7 scientists of the IndianInstitute of Science, Bangalore, led by Dr. Swami Manohar in collaboration with Encore India, a company basedin Bangalore.[63] [64] Originally envisaged to bring internet to the masses of India, the Simputer and its derivativesare today widely utilized by governments of several Indian states as part of their e-governance drive, the IndianArmy, as well as by other public and private organizations.[65] [66]

• Snakes and ladders: Snakes and ladders originated in India as a game based on morality.[67] During British ruleof India, this game made its way to England, and was eventually introduced in the United States of America bygame-pioneer Milton Bradley in 1943.[67]

• Stepwell: Earliest clear evidence of the origins of the stepwell is found in the Indus Valley Civilization'sarchaeological site at Mohenjodaro in Pakistan.[68] The three features of stepwells in the subcontinent are evidentfrom one particular site, abandoned by 2500 BCE, which combines a bathing pool, steps leading down to water,and figures of some religious importance into one structure.[68] The early centuries immediately before thecommon era saw the Buddhists and the Jains of India adapt the stepwells into their architecture.[68] Both the wellsand the form of ritual bathing reached other parts of the world with Buddhism.[68] Rock-cut step wells in thesubcontinent date from 200-400 CE.[69] Subsequently the wells at Dhank (550-625 CE) and stepped ponds atBhinmal (850-950 CE) were constructed.[69]

• Stupa: The origin of the stupa can be traced to 3rd century BCE India.[70] It was used as a commemorativemonument associated with storing sacred relics.[70] The stupa architecture was adopted in Southeast and EastAsia, where it evolved into the pagoda, a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred relics.[70]

• Toe stirrup: The earliest known manifestation of the stirrup, which was a toe loop that held the big toe was used in India in as early as 500 BCE[71] or perhaps by 200 BCE according to other sources.[72] [73] This ancient stirrup consisted of a looped rope for the big toe which was at the bottom of a saddle made of fibre or leather.[73] Such a configuration made it suitable for the warm climate of most of India where people used to ride horses barefoot.[73]

A pair of megalithic double bent iron bars with curvature at each end, excavated in Junapani in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh have been regarded as stirrups although they could as well be something else.[74]

Buddhist carvings in the temples of Sanchi, Mathura and the Bhaja caves dating back between the 1st and 2nd century BCE figure horsemen riding with elaborate saddles with feet slipped under girths.[75] [76] [77] Sir John

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Marshall described the Sanchi relief as "the earliest example by some five centuries of the use of stirrups in anypart of the world".[77] In the 1st century CE horse riders in northern India, where winters are sometimes long andcold, were recorded to have their booted feet attached to hooked stirrups.[72] However the form, the conception ofthe primitive Indian stirrup spread west and east, gradually evolving into the stirrup of today.[73] [76]

• Wootz steel: Wootz originated in India before the beginning of the common era.[25] Wootz steel was widelyexported and traded throughout ancient Europe, China, the Arab world, and became particularly famous in theMiddle East, where it became known as Damascus steel. Archaeological evidence suggests that thismanufacturing process was already in existence in South India well before the Christian era.[26] [27]

Discoveries

Agriculture

Jute plants Corchorus olitorius andCorchorus capsularis cultivated first in

India.

• Cashmere wool: The fiber is also known as pashm or pashmina for itsuse in the handmade shawls of Kashmir, India.[78] The woolen shawlsmade from wool in Kashmir region of India find written mentionbetween 3rd century BCE and the 11th century CE.[79] However, thefounder of the cashmere wool industry is traditionally held to be the15th century ruler of Kashmir, Zayn-ul-Abidin, who employed weaversfrom Central Asia.[79]

• Cotton, cultivation of: Cotton was cultivated by the inhabitants of theIndus Valley Civilization by the 5th millennium BCE - 4th millenniumBCE.[80] The Indus cotton industry was well developed and somemethods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to bepracticed till the modern Industrialization of India.[81] Well before theCommon Era, the use of cotton textiles had spread from India to theMediterranean and beyond.[82]

• Indigo dye: Indigo, a blue pigment and a dye, was used in India, whichwas also the earliest major center for its production and processing.[83]

The Indigofera tinctoria variety of Indigo was domesticated in India.[83]

Indigo, used as a dye, made its way to the Greeks and the Romans viavarious trade routes, and was valued as a luxury product.[83]

• Jute, cultivation of: Jute has been cultivated in India since ancienttimes.[84] Raw jute was exported to the western world, where it wasused to make ropes and cordage.[84] The Indian jute industry, in turn,was modernized during the British Raj in India.[84] The region ofBengal was the major center for Jute cultivation, and remained sobefore the modernization of India's jute industry in 1855, when Kolkata

became a center for jute processing in India.[84]

• Sugar refinement: Sugarcane was originally from tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia.[85] Different specieslikely originated in different locations with S. barberi originating in India and S. edule and S. officinarum comingfrom New Guinea.[85] The process of producing crystallized sugar from sugarcane was discovered by the time ofthe Imperial Guptas,[86] and the earliest reference of candied sugar comes from India.[87] The process was soontransmitted to China with traveling Buddhist monks.[87] Chinese documents confirm at least two missions toIndia, initiated in 647 CE, for obtaining technology for sugar-refining.[88] Each mission returned with results onrefining sugar.[88]

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List of Indian inventions and discoveries 6

Mathematics

The Hindu-Arabic numeral system. Theinscriptions on the edicts of Ashoka (3rd centuryBCE) display this number system being used by

the Imperial Mauryas.

The half-chord version of the sine function wasdeveloped by the Indian mathematician

Aryabhatta.

Brahmagupta's theorem (598–668) states that AF= FD.

• AKS primality test: The AKS primality test is a deterministicprimality-proving algorithm created and published by three IndianInstitute of Technology Kanpur computer scientists, ManindraAgrawal, Neeraj Kayal, and Nitin Saxena on August 6, 2002 in apaper titled PRIMES is in P [89].[90] [91] Commenting on the impactof this discovery, Paul Leyland noted: "One reason for theexcitement within the mathematical community is not only does thisalgorithm settle a long-standing problem, it also does so in abrilliantly simple manner. Everyone is now wondering what else hasbeen similarly overlooked".[91] [92]

• Algebraic abbreviations: The mathematician Brahmagupta hadbegun using abbreviations for unknowns by the 7th century.[93] Heemployed abbreviations for multiple unknowns occurring in onecomplex problem.[93] Brahmagupta also used abbreviations forsquare roots and cube roots.[93]

• Basu's theorem: The Basu's theorem, a result of Debabrata Basu(1955) states that any complete sufficient statistic is independent ofany ancillary statistic.[94] [95]

• Brahmagupta–Fibonacci identity, Brahmagupta formula,Brahmagupta interpolation formula Brahmagupta matrix, andBrahmagupta theorem: Discovered by the Indian mathematician,Brahmagupta (598–668 CE).[96] [97]

• Chakravala method: The Chakravala method, a cyclic algorithm tosolve indeterminate quadratic equations is commonly attributed toBhāskara II, (c. 1114–1185 CE)[98] [99] [100] although some attributeit to Jayadeva (c. 950 ~ 1000 CE).[101] Jayadeva pointed out thatBrahmagupta’s approach to solving equations of this type wouldyield infinitely large number of solutions, to which he thendescribed a general method of solving such equations.[102]

Jayadeva's method was later refined by Bhāskara II in his Bijaganitatreatise to be known as the Chakravala method, chakra (derivedfrom cakraṃ चक्रं) meaning 'wheel' in Sanskrit, relevant to the cyclicnature of the algorithm.[102] [103] With reference to the Chakravalamethod, E. O. Selenuis held that no European performances at thetime of Bhāskara, nor much later, came up to its marvellous heightof mathematical complexity.[98] [102] [104]

• Hindu-Arabic numeral system: The Hindu-Arabic numeral systemhad developed in India by the 6th century AD.

• Infinite series for Sine, Cosine, and arctangent: Madhava ofSangamagrama and his successors at the Kerala school ofastronomy and mathematics used geometric methods to derive largesum approximations for sine, cosin, and arttangent. They found a

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number of special cases of series later derived by Brook Taylor series. They also found the second-order Taylorapproximations for these functions, and the third-order Taylor approximation for sine.[105] [106] [107]

• Law of signs in multiplication: The earliest use of notation for negative numbers, as subtrahend, is credited byscholars to the Chinese, dating back to the 2nd century BC.[108] Like the Chinese, the Indians used negativenumbers as subtrahend, but were the first to establish the "law of signs" with regards to the multiplication ofpositive and negative numbers, which did not appear in Chinese texts until 1299.[108] Indian mathematicians wereaware of negative numbers by the 7th century,[108] and their role in mathematical problems of debt wasunderstood.[109] Mostly consistent and correct rules for working with negative numbers were formulated,[110] andthe diffusion of these rules led the Arab intermediaries to pass it on to Europe.[109]

• Numerical zero: The concept of zero as a number, and not merely a symbol for separation is attributed toIndia.[111] In India, practical calculations were carried out using zero, which was treated like any other number bythe 9th century CE, even in case of division.[110] [111]

• Pell's equation, integral solution for: About a thousand years before Pell's time, Indian scholar Brahmagupta(598–668 CE) was able to find integral solutions to vargaprakṛiti (Pell's equation):[112] [113] where N is a nonsquare integer, in his Brâhma-sphuṭa-siddhânta treatise.[113]

• Pi, infinite series: The infinite series for π is now attributed to Madhava of Sangamagrama (c. 1340-1425) andhis Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics.[114] [115] He made use of the series expansion of toobtain an infinite series expression for π.[114] Their rational approximation of the error for the finite sum of theirseries are of particular interest. They manipulated the error term to derive a faster converging series for π.[116]

They used the improved series to derive a rational expression,[116] for π correct up to elevendecimal places, i.e. .[117] [118]

• Ramanujan theta function, Ramanujan prime, Ramanujan summation, Ramanujan graph andRamanujan's sum: Discovered by the Indian mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan in the early 20th century.[119]

• Shrikhande graph: Graph invented by the Indian mathematician S.S. Shrikhande in 1959.• Sign convention: Symbols, signs and mathematical notation were employed in an early form in India by the 6th

century when the mathematician-astronomer Aryabhata recommended the use of letters to represent unknownquantities.[93] By the 7th century Brahmagupta had already begun using abbreviations for unknowns, even formultiple unknowns occurring in one complex problem.[93] Brahmagupta also managed to use abbreviations forsquare roots and cube roots.[93] By the 7th century fractions were written in a manner similar to the modern times,except for the bar separating the numerator and the denominator.[93] A dot symbol for negative numbers was alsoemployed.[93] The Bakhshali Manuscript displays a cross, much like the modern '+' sign, except that it symbolizedsubtraction when written just after the number affected.[93] The '=' sign for equality did not exist.[93] Indianmathematics was transmitted to the Islamic world where this notation was seldom accepted initially and thescribes continued to write mathematics in full and without symbols.[120]

• Trigonometric functions, adapted from Greek: The trigonometric functions sine and versine were adaptedfrom the full-chord Greek version (to the modern half-chord versions) by the Indian mathematician, Aryabhata, inthe late 5th century.[121] [122]

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Medicine

Cataract in the Human Eye—magnified viewseen on examination with a slit lamp. Indian

surgeon Susruta performed cataract surgery bythe 6th century BCE.

Amastigotes in a chorionic villus. UpendranathBrahmachari (December 19, 1873 - February 6,1946) discovered Urea Stibamine, a treatment

which helped nearly eradicate Visceralleishmaniasis.

• Ayurveda: Traditional system of medicine dating back to Iron AgeIndia[123] (1st millennium BC) and still practiced today as a form ofcomplementary and alternative medicine. Means "knowledge forlongevity".[123]

• Cataract surgery: Cataract surgery was known to the Indianphysician Sushruta (6th century BCE).[124] In India, cataract surgerywas performed with a special tool called the Jabamukhi Salaka, acurved needle used to loosen the lens and push the cataract out ofthe field of vision.[124] The eye would later be soaked with warmbutter and then bandaged.[124] Though this method was successful,Susruta cautioned that cataract surgery should only be performedwhen absolutely necessary.[124] Greek philosophers and scientiststraveled to India where these surgeries were performed byphysicians.[124] The removal of cataract by surgery was alsointroduced into China from India.[125]

• Inoculation and Variolation: The earliest record of inoculation andvariolation for smallpox is found in 8th century India, whenMadhav wrote the Nidāna, a 79-chapter book which lists diseasesalong with their causes, symptoms, and complications.[126] Heincluded a special chapter on smallpox (masūrikā) and described themethod of inoculation to protect against smallpox.[126]

• Leprosy: Kearns & Nash (2008) state that the first mention ofleprosy is described in the Indian medical treatise Sushruta Samhita(6th century BCE).[83] However, The Oxford Illustrated Companionto Medicine holds that the mention of leprosy, as well as ritualisticcures for it, were described in the Atharva-veda (1500–1200 BCE), written before the Sushruta Samhita.[127]

• Plastic surgery: Plastic surgery was being carried out in India by 2000 BCE.[128] The system of punishment bydeforming a miscreant's body may have led to an increase in demand for this practice.[128] The surgeon Sushrutacontributed mainly to the field of Plastic and Cataract surgery.[129] The medical works of both Sushruta andCharak were translated into Arabic language during the Abbasid Caliphate (750 CE).[130] These translated Arabicworks made their way into Europe via intermidiateries.[130] In Italy the Branca family of Sicily and GaspareTagliacozzi of Bologna became familiar with the techniques of Sushruta.[130]

• Lithiasis treatment: The earliest operation for treating lithiasis, or the formations of stones in the body, is alsogiven in the Sushruta Samhita (6th century BCE).[131] The operation involved exposure and going up through thefloor of the bladder.[131]

• Visceral leishmaniasis, treatment of: The Indian (Bengali) medical practitioner Upendra Nath Brahmachari(December 19, 1873 - February 6, 1946) was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1929for his discovery of 'ureastibamine (antimonial compound for treatment of kala azar) and a new disease,post-kalaazar dermal leishmanoid.'[132] Brahmachari's cure for Visceral leishmaniasis was the urea salt ofpara-amino-phenyl stibnic acid which he called Urea Stibamine.[133] Following the discovery of Urea Stibamine,Visceral leishmaniasis was largely eradicated from the world, except for some underdeveloped regions.[133]

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Mining• Diamond, mining, engraving, and use as tool: Diamonds were first recognized and mined in central India,[134]

[135] [136] where significant alluvial deposits of the stone could then be found along the rivers Penner, Krishna andGodavari. It is unclear when diamonds were first mined in India, although estimated to be at least 5,000 yearsago.[137] India remained the world's only source of diamonds until the discovery of diamonds in Brazil in 18thcentury.[138] [139] [140] Golconda served as an important center for diamonds in central India.[141] Diamonds thenwere exported to other parts of the world, including Europe.[141] Early references to diamonds in India come fromSanskrit texts.[142] The Arthashastra of Kautilya mentions diamond trade in India.[140] Buddhist works datingfrom the 4th century BCE mention it as a well-known and precious stone but don't mention the details of diamondcutting.[134] Another Indian description written at the beginning of the 3rd century describes strength, regularity,brilliance, ability to scratch metals, and good refractive properties as the desirable qualities of a diamond.[134] AChinese work from the 3rd century BCE mentions: "Foreigners wear it [diamond] in the belief that it can ward offevil influences".[134] The Chinese, who did not find diamonds in their country, initially did not use diamond as ajewel but used as a "jade cutting knife".[134]

• Zinc, mining and medicinal use: Zinc was first recognised as a metal in India. Zinc mines of Zawar, nearUdaipur, Rajasthan, were active during 400 BCE.[143] There are references of medicinal uses of zinc in theCharaka Samhita (300 BCE).[143] The Rasaratna Samuccaya which dates back to the Tantric period (c. 5th - 13thcentury CE) explains the existence of two types of ores for zinc metal, one of which is ideal for metal extractionwhile the other is used for medicinal purpose.[143] [144]

Science

Bengali Chemist Prafulla Chandra Roysynthesized NH4NO2 in its pure form.

• Ammonium nitrite, synthesis in pure form: Prafulla Chandra Roymanaged to synthesize NH4NO2 in its pure form, and became thefirst scientist to have done so.[145] Prior to Ray’s synthesis ofAmmonium nitrite it was thought that the compound undergoesrapid thermal decomposition releasing nitrogen and water in theprocess.[145]

• Bhatnagar-Mathur Magnetic Interference Balance: Inventedjointly by Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar and K.N. Mathur in 1928, theso-called 'Bhatnagar-Mathur Magnetic Interference Balance' was amodern instrument used for measuring various magnetic properties.[146] The first appearance of this instrument inEurope was at a Royal Society exhibition in London, where it was later marketed by British firm Messers AdamHilger and Co, London.[146]

• Bhabha scattering: In 1935, Indian nuclear physicist Homi J. Bhabha published a paper in the Proceedings of theRoyal Society, Series A, in which he performed the first calculation to determine the cross section ofelectron-positron scattering.[147] Electron-positron scattering was later named Bhabha scattering, in honor of hiscontributions in the field.[147]

• Bose–Einstein statistics, condensate and Boson: On June 4, 1924 the Bengali professor of Physics SatyendraNath Bose mailed a

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A Ramachandran plot generated from the proteinPCNA, a human DNA clamp protein that is

composed of both beta sheets and alpha helices(PDB ID 1AXC). Points that lie on the axesindicate N- and C-terminal residues for each

subunit. The green regions show possible angleformations that include Glycine, while the blue

areas are for formations that don't includeGlycine.

short manuscript to Albert Einstein entitled Planck's Law and theLight Quantum Hypothesis [148] seeking Einstein's influence to get itpublished after it was rejected by the prestigious journalPhilosophical Magazine.[149] The paper introduced what is todaycalled Bose statistics, which showed how it could be used to derivethe Planck blackbody spectrum from the assumption that light wasmade of photons.[149] [150] Einstein, recognizing the importance ofthe paper translated it into German himself and submitted it onBose's behalf to the prestigious Zeitschrift für Physik.[149] [150]

Einstein later applied Bose's principles on particles with mass andquickly predicted the Bose-Einstein condensate.[150] [151]

• Chandrasekhar limit and Chandrasekhar number: Discoveredby and named after Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, who receivedthe Nobel Prize in Physics in 1983 for his work on stellar structureand stellar evolution.[152]

• Galena, applied use in electronics of: Bengali scientist JagadishChandra Bose effectively used Galena crystals for constructingradio receivers.[153] The Galena receivers of Bose were used toreceive signals comprising of shortwave, white light and ultravioletlight.[153] In 1904 Bose patented the use of Galena Detector which he called Point Contact Diode usingGalena.[154]

• Mahalanobis distance: Introduced in 1936 by the Indian (Bengali) statistician Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis(June 29, 1893–June 28, 1972), this distance measure, based upon the correlation between variables, is used toidentify and analyze differing pattern with respect to one base.[155]

• Mercurous Nitrite: The compound mercurous nitrite was discovered in 1896 by the Bengali chemist PrafullaChandra Roy, who published his findings in the Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal.[145] The discoverycontributed as a base for significant future research in the field of chemistry.[145]

• Ramachandran plot, Ramachandran map, and Ramachandran angles: The Ramachandran plot andRamachandran map were developed by Gopalasamudram Narayana Iyer Ramachandran, who published hisresults in the Journal of Molecular Biology in 1963. He also developed the Ramachandran angles, which serve asa convenient tool for communication, representation, and various kinds of data analysis.[156]

• Raman effect: The Encyclopædia Britannica (2008) reports: "change in the wavelength of light that occurs whena light beam is deflected by molecules. The phenomenon is named for Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman, whodiscovered it in 1928. When a beam of light traverses a dust-free, transparent sample of a chemical compound, asmall fraction of the light emerges in directions other than that of the incident (incoming) beam. Most of thisscattered light is of unchanged wavelength. A small part, however, has wavelengths different from that of theincident light; its presence is a result of the Raman effect."[157]

• Raychaudhuri equation: Discovered by the Bengali physicist Amal Kumar Raychaudhuri in 1954. This was akey ingredient of the Penrose-Hawking singularity theorems of general relativity.[158]

• Saha ionization equation: The Saha equation, derived by the Bengali scientist Meghnad Saha (October 6, 1893 –February 16, 1956) in 1920, conceptualizes ionizations in context of stellar atmospheres.[159]

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Innovations• Iron working: Iron works were developed in the Vedic period of India, around the same time as, but

independently of, Anatolia and the Caucasus. Archaeological sites in India, such as Malhar, Dadupur, Raja NalaKa Tila and Lahuradewa in present day Uttar Pradesh show iron implements in the period between 1800BCE—1200 BCE.[160] Early iron objects found in India can be dated to 1400 BCE by employing the method ofradiocarbon dating. Spikes, knives, daggers, arrow-heads, bowls, spoons, saucepans, axes, chisels, tongs, doorfittings etc. ranging from 600 BCE to 200 BCE have been discovered from several archaeological sites ofIndia.[161] Some scholars believe that by the early 13th century BC, iron smelting was practiced on a bigger scalein India, suggesting that the date the technology's inception may be placed earlier.[160] In Southern India (presentday Mysore) iron appeared as early as 11th to 12th centuries BC; these developments were too early for anysignificant close contact with the northwest of the country.[162] In the time of Chandragupta II Vikramaditya(375–413 CE), corrosion-resistant iron was used to erect the Iron pillar of Delhi, which has withstood corrosionfor over 1,600 years.[163]

References[1] Hesse, Rayner W. & Hesse (Jr.), Rayner W. (2007). Jewelrymaking Through History: An Encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing Group. 35.

ISBN 0-313-33507-9.[2] McNeil, Ian (1990). An encyclopaedia of the history of technology. Taylor & Francis. 852. ISBN 0-415-01306-2.[3] Encyclopedia Britannica (2008). calico[4] Baber (1996), page 57[5] Murray (1913)[6] Forbes (1860)[7] Jones, William (1807). "On the Indian Game of Chess". pages 323-333[8] Linde, Antonius (1981)[9] Wilkinson, Charles K (May 1943)[10] Bird (1893), page 63[11] Hooper & Whyld (1992), page 74[12] Sapra, Rahul (2000). "Sports in India". Students' Britannica India (Vol. 6). Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. p. 106. ISBN 0-85229-762-9.[13] Meri (2005), page 148[14] Basham (2001), page 208[15] Encyclopedia Britannica (2002). Chess: Ancient precursors and related games.[16] Encyclopedia Britannica (2007). Chess: Introduction to Europe.[17] Hāṇḍā (1998), page 133[18] Bondyopadhyay (1988)[19] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=755840[20] Angela Lakwete: Inventing the Cotton Gin: Machine and Myth in Antebellum America, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003, ISBN

0-8018-7394-0, p. 5[21] Baber (1996), page 56[22] "Jagadis Bose Research on Measurement of Plant Growth" (http:/ / www. edsanders. com/ bose). . Retrieved 2008-08-05.[23] Geddes, pages 173-176[24] G. Juleff, "An ancient wind powered iron smelting technology in Sri Lanka", Nature 379 (3), 60–63 (January, 1996)[25] Srinivasan & Ranganathan[26] Srinivasan 1994[27] Srinivasan & Griffiths[28] Rao, pages 27–28[29] Rao, pages 28–29[30] Schafer (1963), pages 160-161[31] Bedini (1994), pages 69-80[32] Bedini (1994), page 25[33] Seiwert (2003), page 96[34] Kumar, Yukteshwar (2005), page 65[35] Gottsegen, page 30.[36] Smith, J. A. (1992), page 23[37] "India ink", Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008

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[38] Banerji, page 673[39] Sircar, page 206[40] Sircar, page 62[41] Sircar, page 67[42] Todd, Jan (1995). From Milo to Milo: A History of Barbells, Dumbells, and Indian Clubs (http:/ / www. aafla. org/ SportsLibrary/ IGH/

IGH0306/ IGH0306c. pdf). Accessed in September 2008. Hosted on the LA84 Foundation Sports Library.[43] Alter, page 88[44] MSN Encarta (2008). Pachisi (http:/ / encarta. co. uk/ encyclopedia_781530306/ Pachisi. html).[45] Stephen M. Edwardes and Herbert Garrett; Mughal rule in India, Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, 1995, 374 pages ISBN 81-7156-551-4,

9788171565511 From p.288: Pachisi, an ancient Hindu game represented in the caves of Ajanta, is said to have been played by Akbar on themarble squares of a quadrangle in [[Agra fort]] and in the Khas Mahal at Fatehpur Sikri, with young slave girls in place of the coloured pieces.

[46] Muslin (http:/ / banglapedia. search. com. bd/ HT/ M_0427. htm), Banglapedia. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh (2008)[47] Ahmad, S. (July–September 2005). "Rise and Decline of the Economy of Bengal". Asian Affairs 27 (3): 5–26.[48] Carlisle, Rodney (2009), Encyclopedia of Play in Today's Society (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=7DiB3z2fBpAC& pg=PA31),

SAGE Publications, p. 31, ISBN 9781412966702,[49] Quackenbos (2010), Illustrated History of Ancient Literature, Oriental and Classical (http:/ / books. google. com/

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scientific - Vol 6 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=q5ZM0nZXZEkC& pg=PA1786), Genesis Publishing Pvt Ltd, p. 1786,ISBN 9788177552577,

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[52] Barker, page 13[53] Beer, page 60[54] Wise, page 11-12[55] Irfan Habib (1992), "Akbar and Technology", Social Scientist 20 (9-10): 3-15 [3-4][56] Roddam Narasimha (1985), Rockets in Mysore and Britain, 1750-1850 A.D. (http:/ / nal-ir. nal. res. in/ 2382/ 01/ tr_pd_du_8503_R66305.

pdf), National Aeronautical Laboratory and Indian Institute of Science[57] "Hyder Ali, prince of Mysore, developed war rockets with an important change: the use of metal cylinders to contain the combustion

powder. Although the hammered soft iron he used was crude, the bursting strength of the container of black powder was much higher than theearlier paper construction. Thus a greater internal pressure was possible, with a resultant greater thrust of the propulsive jet. The rocket bodywas lashed with leather thongs to a long bamboo stick. Range was perhaps up to three-quarters of a mile (more than a kilometre). Althoughindividually these rockets were not accurate, dispersion error became less important when large numbers were fired rapidly in mass attacks.They were particularly effective against cavalry and were hurled into the air, after lighting, or skimmed along the hard dry ground. Hyder Ali'sson, Tippu Sultan, continued to develop and expand the use of rocket weapons, reportedly increasing the number of rocket troops from 1,200to a corps of 5,000. In battles at Seringapatam in 1792 and 1799 these rockets were used with considerable effect against the British." -Encyclopedia Britannica (2008). rocket and missile.

[58] Whitelaw, page 14[59] Whitelaw, page 15[60] Iwata, 2254[61] Kamarustafa (1992), page 48[62] Savage-Smith, Emilie (1985). Islamicate Celestial Globes: Their history, Construction, and Use. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington,

D.C..[63] Millar (2004), pages 167-169[64] James (2003), page 41[65] Express Computer (October 4, 2004). Play it again, Simputer (http:/ / www. expresscomputeronline. com/ 20041004/ companywatch01.

shtml). Retrieved February 17, 2009.[66] Business Standard online (December 2, 2004). Simputer source code to be made public (http:/ / www. business-standard. com/ india/

storypage. php?autono=196234). Retrieved February 17, 2009.[67] Augustyn, pages 27-28[68] Livingston & Beach, 20[69] Livingston & Beach, page xxiii[70] Encyclopedia Britannica (2008). Pagoda.[71] Chamberlin (2007), page 80[72] Hobson (2004), page 103[73] Woods & Woods (2000), pages 52-53[74] "16.17.4: Stirrups". Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology (Vol. 1). Edited by Amalananda Ghosh (1990). page 336[75] Azzaroli (1985), page 156[76] Addington (1990), page 45

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[77] Barua (2005), pages 16-17[78] Encyclopedia Britannica (2008). cashmere.[79] Encyclopedia Britannica (2008). kashmir shawl.[80] Stein (1998), page 47[81] Wisseman & Williams (1994), page 127[82] The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. cotton.[83] Kriger & Connah (2006), page 120[84] Encyclopedia Britannica (2008). jute.[85] Sharpe, Peter (1998). Sugar Cane: Past and Present. Illinois: Southern Illinois University. (http:/ / www. siu. edu/ ~ebl/ leaflets/ sugar. htm)[86] Adas (2001), page 311[87] Kieschnick (2003)[88] Kieschnick (2003), page 258[89] http:/ / www. cse. iitk. ac. in/ users/ manindra/ algebra/ primality_v6. pdf[90] Crandall & Pomerance (2005), pages 200-201[91] Weisstein, Eric W., " AKS Primality Test (http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ AKSPrimalityTest. html)" from MathWorld.[92] Crandall & Papadopoulos (2003), page 2[93] Bell (1992), page 96[94] Nitis (2000), page 325[95] Boos & Oliver (1998)[96] Plofker (2007), pages 419 - 436[97] Joseph (2000), page 306[98] "Bhaskaracharya II". Students’ Encyclopedia India (2000). (Volume 1: Adb Allah ibn al Abbas – Cypress). p. 200. ISBN 0-85229-760-2[99] Kumar (2004), page 23[100] Singh, Manpal (2005), page 385[101] Plofker (2007), page 474[102] Goonatilake (1998), page 127 – 128[103] Baber (1996), page 34[104] Rao K. A. (2000), page 252[105] Bressoud (2002)[106] Plofker (2001)[107] Katz (1995)[108] Smith (1958), page 257[109] Bourbaki (1998), page 49[110] Britannica Concise Encyclopedia (2007). algebra[111] Bourbaki (1998), page 46[112] Puttaswamy (2000), page 416[113] Stillwell (2004), pages 72-73[114] Goonatilake (1998), page 37[115] Amma (1999), pages 182 - 183[116] Roy (1990)[117] Borwein (2004), page 107[118] Plofker (2007), page 481[119] Berndt & Rankin (2001)[120] Bell (1992), page 97[121] Pingree (2003):

"Geometry, and its branch trigonometry, was the mathematics Indian astronomers used most frequently.In fact, the Indian astronomers in the third or fourth century, using a pre-Ptolemaic Greek table ofchords, produced tables of sines and versines, from which it was trivial to derive cosines. This newsystem of trigonometry, produced in India, was transmitted to the Arabs in the late eighth century and bythem, in an expanded form, to the Latin West and the Byzantine East in the twelfth century."

[122] J. J. O'Connor and E.F. Robertson (1996). Trigonometric functions (http:/ / www-gap. dcs. st-and. ac. uk/ ~history/ HistTopics/Trigonometric_functions. html). MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive

[123] Chopra 2003, p. 75[124] Finger (2001), page 66[125] Lade & Svoboda (2000), page 85[126] Hopkins (2002), page 140[127] Lock; Last & Dunea (2001), page 420[128] MSN Encarta (2008). Plastic Surgery (http:/ / www. encarta. es/ encyclopedia_761577922/ Plastic_Surgery. html).

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[129] Dwivedi & Dwivedi 2007[130] Lock etc., page 607[131] Lock; Last & Dunea (2001), page 836[132] Nobel Foundation (2008). The Nomination Database for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1901-1951 (http:/ / nobelprize. org/

nomination/ medicine/ nomination. php?action=show& showid=2791)[133] Upendra Nath Brahmachari: A Pioneer of Modern Medicine in India (http:/ / www. vigyanprasar. gov. in/ scientists/ UNBrahmachari.

htm). Vigyan Prasar: Government of India[134] Dickinson, pages 1-3[135] Hershey (2004), page 22[136] Malkin (1996), page 12[137] Hershey (2004), pages 3 & 23[138] Thomas (2007), page 46[139] Read (2005), page 17[140] Lee, page 685[141] Wenk, pages 535-539[142] MSN Encarta (2007). Diamond (http:/ / encarta. msn. com/ encyclopedia_761557986/ Diamond. html). Archived (http:/ / www.

webcitation. org/ query?id=1257037502695777) 2009-11-01.[143] Craddock (1983)[144] Biswas (1986), page 11[145] "Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray" (http:/ / www. vigyanprasar. gov. in/ scientists/ pcray/ PCRay. htm), Viyan Prasar, Department of Science

and Technology, Government of India.[146] Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar (http:/ / www. vigyanprasar. gov. in/ scientists/ ssbhatnagar/ ShantiSwarupBhatnagar. htm). Vigyan Prasar:

Government of India.[147] Penney (1967), page 39[148] http:/ / www. ias. ac. in/ jarch/ jaa/ 15/ 3-7. pdf[149] Rigden (2005), pages 143-144[150] Fraser (2006), page 238[151] Dauxois & Peyrard (2006), pages 297-298[152] O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F. (February 2005), "Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar" (http:/ / www-history. mcs. st-andrews. ac. uk/

Biographies/ Chandrasekhar. html), MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews, .[153] "Indian Scientists" (http:/ / www. tifr. res. in/ ~outreach/ biographies/ scientists. pdf) (November 2004), Science Popularisation and Public

Outreach Committee, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research.[154] Sarkar (2006), page 94[155] Taguchi & Jugulum (2002), pages 6-7[156] Ramakrishnan (2001)[157] "Raman effect".Encyclopedia Britannica (2008)[158] Naresh (2005)[159] Narlikar (2002), page 188[160] The origins of Iron Working in India: New evidence from the Central Ganga plain and the Eastern Vindhyas by Rakesh Tewari (Director,

U.P. State Archaeological Department) (http:/ / antiquity. ac. uk/ projgall/ tewari/ tewari. pdf)[161] Marco Ceccarelli (2000). International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms: Proceedings HMM Symposium. Springer.

ISBN 0-7923-6372-8. pp 218[162] I. M. Drakonoff (1991). Early Antiquity. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-14465-8. pp 372[163] R. Balasubramaniam (2000), On the Corrosion Resistance of the Delhi Iron Pillar (http:/ / home. iitk. ac. in/ ~bala/ journalpaper/ journal/

journalpaper_17. pdf), Corrosion Science 42: 2103-29

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• Dwivedi, Girish; Dwivedi, Shridhar (2007). "History of Medicine: Sushruta – the Clinician – Teacher parExcellence" (http:/ / medind. nic. in/ iae/ t07/ i4/ iaet07i4p243. pdf). Indian Journal of Chest Diseases and AlliedSciences (Delhi, India: Vallabhbhai Patel Chest Institute, U. of Delhi / National College of Chest Physicians) 49:243–244. (Republished by National Informatics Centre, Government of India.)

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• Davreu, Robert (1978). "Cities of Mystery: The Lost Empire of the Indus Valley". The World’s Last Mysteries.(second edition). Sydney: Readers’ Digest. ISBN 0-909486-61-1

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• Dutfield, Graham (2003). Intellectual Property Rights and the Life Science Industries: A Twentieth CenturyHistory. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 0-7546-2111-1.

• Dwivedi, Girish & Dwivedi, Shridhar (2007). History of Medicine: Sushruta – the Clinician – Teacher parExcellence (http:/ / medind. nic. in/ iae/ t07/ i4/ iaet07i4p243. pdf). National Informatics Centre (Government ofIndia).

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• Sircar, D.C. (1996).Indian epigraphy. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-1166-6.• Sivaramakrishnan, V. M. (2001). Tobacco and Areca Nut. Hyderabad: Orient Blackswan. ISBN 81-250-2013-6• Smith, Joseph A. (1992). The Pen and Ink Book: Materials and Techniques for Today's Artist. New York:

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• Varadpande, Manohar Laxman (2005). History of Indian Theatre. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. ISBN81-7017-430-9.

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• Wenk, Hans-Rudolf; et al. (2003). Minerals: Their Constitution and Origin. England: Cambridge UniversityPress. ISBN 0-521-52958-1.

• Whish, Charles (1835). "On the Hindu Quadrature of the Circle, and the infinite Series of the proportion of thecircumference to the diameter exhibited in the four shastras: the Tantra Sangraham, Yukti-Bhasa, Carana Padhati,and Sadratnamala". Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 3: 509–523.doi:10.1017/S0950473700001221.

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• Whitelaw, Ian (2007). A Measure of All Things: The Story of Man and Measurement. Macmillan. ISBN0-312-37026-1.

• Wilkinson, Charles K (May 1943). Chessmen and Chess. The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin New Series 1(9): 271–279. doi:10.2307/3257111.

• Wise, Tad (2002). Blessings on the Wind: The Mystery & Meaning of Tibetan Prayer Flags. Chronicle Books.ISBN 0-8118-3435-2.

• Wisseman, S. U. & Williams, W. S. (1994). Ancient Technologies and Archaeological Materials. London:Routledge. ISBN 2-88124-632-X.

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Article Sources and Contributors 23

Article Sources and ContributorsList of Indian inventions and discoveries  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=438982805  Contributors: 2over0, Aarandir, Ali944rana, Amplitude101, Anomie, AnthonyAppleyard, Arun.blue, Athenean, AussieLegend, BD2412, BecauseWhy?, BillFlis, Bobzchemist, Bradtfred, CRGreathouse, CarTick, Ceranthor, Chimaa, Colonies Chris, Davehi1, David JWilson, Deskana, Dewan357, DragonflySixtyseven, Ekabhishek, Exxoo, Fowler&fowler, Giraffedata, Gomeying, Greyhood, Gun Powder Ma, HJ Mitchell, Hmains, Huon, J. Spencer, J.delanoy,JSR, Jagged 85, Johnuniq, Jonathansammy, KC Panchal, Khazar, Koavf, Krishnachandranvn, Laurenabailey, Lihaas, LilHelpa, Lovelock77, Mandarax, Mar4d, Mdw0, Mirokado, Moreschi, MrWho 0, Mukerjee, N419BH, NarSakSasLee, Ninthabout, Ospalh, Plastikspork, Pterre, Quadell, R'n'B, Raomap, RaviC, Redtigerxyz, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Seethahere, ShelfSkewed,Shreevatsa, Shyamsunder, Signalhead, Sktm13, Spacepotato, Spidern, Splodgeness, Stemonitis, Tassedethe, Thisthat2011, Toussaint, Trakesht, Trentc, Uncia, Vadmium, ViperSnake151,WereSpielChequers, West.andrew.g, WikHead, Wiki-uk, Wikireader41, Will in China, William Avery, Woohookitty, Zachorious, Zuggernaut, 168 anonymous edits

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