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Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Chapter 9

Psychological Development

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Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology –

The study of how organisms change over

time as the result of biological and

environmental influences


How Do Psychologists

Explain Development?

Development is a process of

growth and change brought

about by an interaction of

heredity and the

environment


The Nature-Nurture

Interaction

Nature-nurture issue –

Long-standing discussion over relative

importance of nature (heredity) and

nurture (environment) in their influence

on behavior and mental processes


The Nature-Nurture

Interaction

Twin studies –

Developmental investigations in which

twins, especially identical twins, are

compared in the search for genetic and

environmental effects


The Nature-Nurture

Interaction

Identical twins–

A pair who started life as a single

fertilized egg which later split into two

distinct individuals

Fraternal twins–

A pair who started life as two separate

fertilized eggs that happened to share the

same womb


The Nature-Nurture

Interaction

Adoption studies –

Studies in which the adopted child’s

characteristics are compared to those of

the biological family and the adoptive

family


Gradual versus Abrupt Change

Continuity view vs. Discontinuity view

Age

Pe

rfo

rma

nce

Continuity view

Discontinuity view


Gradual versus Abrupt Change

Developmental stages –

Periods of life initiated by significant

transitions or changes in physical or

psychological functioning


Psychological Traits in Your Genes

While psychological traits are formed by

interaction of heredity and the

environment, many traits have a strong

genetic influence


What Capabilities Does the

Child Possess?

Newborns have innate

abilities for finding

nourishment, interacting with

others, and avoiding harmful

situations; the developing

abilities of infants and

children rely on learning


Prenatal Development

Prenatal period – The developmental period before birth

• Zygote

• Embryo

• Fetus

Placenta – An organ that develops between the embryo/fetus and the mother

Teratogens – Toxic substances that can damage the developing organism


Neonatal Period

(from birth to one month)

Sensory abilities

Motor abilities

Postural reflex

Grasping reflex


Infancy

(from one month to about 18 months)

Babies learn through classical conditioning

Humans apparently have an inborn need

for attachment

• Secure attachment

• Anxious-ambivalent attachment

• Avoidant attachment


Infancy

(from one month to about 18 months)

Maturation –

The unfolding of genetically programmed

processes of growth and development

over time


Maturation Timetable for Locomotion

Birth



Responds to sound

Becomes quiet when picked up

Vocalizes occasionally

Birth 1 mo.



Smiles socially

Recognizes mother

Rolls from side to back

Lifts head and holds it erect and steady

Birth 1 mo. 2 mo.



Vocalizes to the smiles and talk of an adult

Searches for source of sound

Sits with support, head steady

Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo.



Gaze follows dangling ring, vanishing spoon, and ball moved across table

Sits with slight support

Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo.



Discriminates strangers from familiar persons

Turns from back to side

Makes distinctive vocalizations

Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo.



Lifts cup and bangs it

Smiles at mirror image

Reaches for small object

Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 6 mo.



Makes playful responses to mirror

Sits alone steadily

Crawls


7 mo.



Vocalizes up to four different syllables

Listens selectively to familiar words

Pulls to standing position


7 mo. 8 mo.




7 mo. 8 mo. 9 mo.



Plays pat-a-cake


7 mo. 8 mo. 9 mo. 10 mo.



Stands alone


7 mo. 8 mo. 9 mo. 10 mo. 11 mo.



Walks alone


7 mo. 8 mo. 9 mo. 10 mo. 11 mo. 1 year


What Are the

Developmental Tasks of

Infancy and Childhood?

Infants and children face

especially important

developmental tasks in the

areas of cognition and social

relationships – tasks that lay a

foundation for further growth in

adolescence and adulthood


Cognitive Development

Cognitive development –

The process by which thinking changes

over time

Schemes –

Mental structures or

programs that guide a

developing child’s thoughts


Accommodation –

Mental process that

restructures existing

schemes so that new

information is better understood

Cognitive Development

Assimilation –

Mental process that modifies new

information to fit it into existing

schemes


Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive

Development

Sensorimotor

Preoperational

Concrete Operational

Formal Operational



Development

Sensorimotor

Preoperational


Formal Operational

• Birth to about age 2

• Child relies heavily on

innate motor

responses to stimuli

• Sensorimotor

intelligence

• Mental representations

• Object permanence



Development

Sensorimotor

Preoperational


Formal Operational

• About age 2 to age 6 or 7

• Marked by well-developed mental representation and the use of language

• Egocentrism

• Animalistic thinking

• Centration



Development

Sensorimotor

Preoperational


Formal Operational

• About age 7 to about age 11

• Child understands conservation but is incapable of abstract thought

• Conservation

• Mental operations



Development

Sensorimotor

Preoperational


Formal Operational

• From about age 12 on

• Abstract thought

appears


Social and Emotional Development

Theory of Mind –

An awareness that other people’s

behavior may be influenced by beliefs,

desires, and emotions that differ from

one’s own

Temperament –

An individual’s characteristic manner of

behavior or reaction



Zone of proximal development – The difference between what a child can do with help and what the child can do without any help or guidance

Socialization – The lifelong process of shaping an individual’s behavior patterns, values, standards, skills, attitudes and motives to conform to those regarded as desirable in a particular society


1. Authoritarian parents

2. Authoritative parents

3. Permissive parents

4. Uninvolved parents


Most approaches to child rearing fall into

one of the following four styles:



Other factors influencing a child’s

development may include:

• Effects of day care

• School influences

• Leisure influences


Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

Age/Period Principal Challenge

0 to 1 1/2 years Trust vs. mistrust

1 1/2 to 3 years Autonomy vs. self doubt

3 to 6 years Initiative vs. guilt

6 years to puberty Confidence vs. inferiority

Adolescence Identity vs. role confusion

Early adulthood Intimacy vs. isolation

Middle adulthood Generativity vs. stagnation

Late adulthood Ego-integrity vs. despair


What Changes Mark the

Transition of Adolescence?

Adolescence offers new

developmental challenges

growing out of physical

changes, cognitive changes,

and socioemotional changes


The Transitions of Adolescence

Adolescence –

Developmental period beginning at

puberty and ending at adulthood

Rites of passage –

Social rituals that mark the transition

between developmental stages,

especially between childhood and

adulthood


Physical Maturation in Adolescence

Puberty –

Onset of sexual maturity

Around puberty, boys and girls become

more aware of their physical

attractiveness


Cognitive Development in

Adolescence

Formal operational stage –

Piaget’s final stage of cognitive growth

(abstract and complex thought)

Hormones rise to high levels

The frontal lobes undergo a “remodel”

This leads to sensation seeking and risk

taking, and preoccupation with body

image and sex


The increasing influence of peers

Common social problems in

adolescence

Delinquency

Social Identity in Adolescence

Identity crisis


• Masturbation

• Same-sex orientation

• Heterosexual behavior

Sexual Issues in Adolescence

Sexual issues in adolescence often include

the following:


Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral

Reasoning

I. Preconventional morality

Stage 1: Pleasure/pain orientation

Stage 2: Cost/benefit orientation; reciprocity


II. Conventional morality


Reasoning

• Stage 3: “Good child” orientation

• Stage 4: Law-and-order orientation


III. Postconventional (principled) morality


Reasoning

• Stage 5: Social contract orientation

• Stage 6: Ethical principle orientation


Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning

Culture and morality

Gender and morality


What Developmental

Challenges Do Adults Face?

Nature and nurture continue

to produce changes

throughout life, but in

adulthood these changes

include both growth and

decline


The Developmental Challenges of

Adulthood

Love and work

Intimacy versus isolation

Generativity versus stagnation

Generativity –

A process of making a commitment beyond

oneself to family, work, society, or future

generations


The Last Developmental Problems

You Will Face

Ego-identity –

The ability to look back on life without

regrets and to enjoy a sense of

wholeness

According to Erikson, the final crisis

involves ego-identity vs. despair


The Last Developmental Problems

You Will Face

Some of the most obvious changes that

occur with age affect physical abilities

such as

• Vision

• Hearing

• Thinking, learning, and problem solving

• Memory

• Sexual functioning

• Social interaction

• Emotions


End of Chapter 9

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