R&D/S&T statistics and indicators as policy tools: International guidelines for national

use - A new challenge for BiH?

Mr. Gunnar Westholm, key expert of the Project

Definitions of Science and Technology(based on the British “Collins Cobuild English Dictionary”):

• “Science is the study of the nature and behavior of natural things and the knowledge that we obtain about them.

• A science is a particular branch of science such as physics, chemistry, or biology…

• A science is the study of some aspect of human behavior, for example sociology or anthropology.

• “Technology refers to methods, systems and devices which are the result of scientific knowledge being used for practical purposes”.

• Statistics are:“…facts which are obtained from analysing information expressed

in numbers, for example information about the number of times that something happens. Statistics is also a branch of mathematics concerned with the study of information that is expressed in numbers”.

• Indicators are: An indicator could be described as a set of statistics arranged to answer a specific question (to “ring a bell” or give an “early warning”). Indicators are usually obtained by putting the original raw data in comparison with some other internal or external variables – including that of time - and take the form of, for instance, ratios, percentages, growth rates or are seen in relation to the population, to the GDP or to other economic variables”.

UNESCO definitions of Scientific and Technical Activities (“STA”)

S&T Activities (“STA”):

«....systematic activities which are closely concerned with the generation, advancement, dissemination, and application of scientific and technical knowledge in all fields of science and technology. These include such activities as R&D, scientific and technical education and training (STET), and the scientific and technological services (STS)...»

1. Research and Experimental Activities 2. Scientific and Technical Education and Training

at Broadly the Third Level («STET”)« ...all activities comprising specialized non-

university higher education and training, higher education and training leading to a university degree, post-graduate and further training, and organized life-long training for scientists and engineers. These activities broadly correspond to ISCED levels 5, 6 and 7 »

3. Scientific and Technological Services (« STS »):

«…activities concerned with research and experimental development and contributing to the generation, dissemination and application of scientific and technical knowledge ».

Source: « Recommendation concerning the International Standardization of Statistics on Science and Technology » (UNESCO 1978)

The Basic definitions of R&D (OECD, UNESCO, EUROSTAT)

• “Research and experimental development (R&D) comprise creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of man, culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications”.

• R&D covers both formal R&D in R&D units and

informal or occasional R&D in other units. There should be a considerable element of novelty!

The three sub-classes of R&D:

• Basic research (or “fundamental research”) is:

“…experimental or theoretical work undertaken primarily to acquire new knowledge of the underlying foundation of phenomena and observable facts, without any particular application or use in view”.

• Applied research: is: “…also original investigation undertaken in order to acquire new knowledge. It is, however, directed primarily towards a specific practical aim or objective”.

• Experimental development: is“…systematic work, drawing on existing knowledge gained from research and/or practical experience, which is directed to producing new materials, products or devices, to installing new processes, systems and services, or to improving substantially those already produced or installed”.

The principal international agencies engaged in the collection of R&D/S&T statistics and indicators:

• The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development-OECD (Paris)

• The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation – UNESCO (Paris) and the UNESCO Institute for Statistics – UIS (Montreal)

• EUROSTAT – the Statistical Bureau of the European Commission

(Luxembourg)

• RICYT – Red Iberoamericana de Indicadores de Ciencia y Tecnologia - The Iberoamerican Network of Science and Technology Indicators (Buenos Aires)

The Principal OECD Methodological Manuals:

A The “Frascati Family”:• R&D The Measurement of Scientific and Technological Activities Series:

- “Frascati Manual: Proposed Standard Practice for Surveys of Research and Experimental Development” – 6th Edition (OECD 2002)

- “R&D Statistics and Output Measurement in the Higher Education Sector” – Frascati Manual Supplement (OECD 1989)

• Technology - “Manual for the Measurement and Interpretation of Technology Balance of Balance of Payments Data –TBP Manual” (OECD 1990) (1)Payments

• Innovation - “Oslo Manual - Guidelines for Collecting and Interpreting Innovation Data Oslo Manual” (3rd Edition, OECD 2005)

• Patents “Using Patents Data as Science and Technology Indicators - Patents Manual” (2008)(1)

• S&T - “The Measurement of Human Resources Devoted to Science and Personnel Technology - Canberra Manual” (OECD 1995) (2)

B Other Methodological Frameworks for S&T:• High technology- “Revision of High-technology Sector and Product Classification” OECD,

STI Working Paper 1997/2

• Bibliometrics - “Bibliometric Indicators and Analysis of Research Systems: Methods and Examples”, by Yoshiko OKUBO (OECD, STI Working Paper 1997/1 (OECD 1997) (3)

• Globalisation - “Handbook on Economic Globalisation Indicators” (OECD 2005)

• Productivity - “Measuring Productivity Manual” (OECD 2001)

• Biotechnology - “A Framework for Biotechnology Statistics (OECD 2005)C. Other Relevant OECD Statistical Frameworks:

• Information - “A guide for Information Society Measurements and Analysis “

• Technologies (OECD 2005)• Education - “OECD Manual for Comparative Education Statistics” (and • Statistics - Technical notes to the annual OECD “Education at a

Glance” reports) • Education “ Classifying Educational Programmes”, Manual for

ISCED-97

The Table of Contents of the 2002”Frascati Manual” (6th revision )

Eight chapters dealing with:

• Chapter 1: Aim and Scope of the Manual• Chapter 2: Basic Definitions and Conventions• Chapter 3: Institutional Classification• Chapter 4 Functional Distribution • Chapter 5: Measurement of R&D Personnel• Chapter 6: Measurement of Expenditures Devoted to R&D• Chapter 7: Survey Methodology and Procedures• Chapter 8: Government Budget Appropriations or Outlays

for R&D by Socio-Economic Objectives

Eleven Annexes:

• Annex 1: Brief History and Origins of the Frascati Manual• Annex 2: Obtaining Data on R&D in the Higher Education sector”• Annex 3: The Treatment of R&D in the United Nations’ System of National Accounts• Annex 4: R&D related to Health, Information and Communications

Technology (ICT) and Biotechnology• Annex 5: Methods of Deriving Regional R&D Data• Annex 6: Work on S&T Indicators in Other International Organisations• Annex 7: Other Science and Technology Indicators (Patent Statistics, The Technology

Balance of Payments (TBP), Bibliometrics, High Technology Products and Industries, Innovation Statistics, Human Resources for Science and Technology (HRST);

• Annex 8: Practical Methods of Providing Up-to-date Estimates and Projections of Resources Devoted to R&D

• Annex 9: R&D Deflators and Currency Converters• Annex 10: Supplementary Guidance on the Classification of large R&D Projects with

Special Reference to the Defense and Aerospace Industries• Annex 11: Correspondence between the Categories of R&D Personnel by Occupation in

the Frascati Manual and ISCO-88 Classes

The OECD (UNESCO and EUROSTAT) sectors of R&D performance and sources of funds:

• The Business Enterprise sector: • The Government sector;• The Higher Education sector, and• The Private non-Profit sector;• Abroad• National Total (GERD for expenditures)

• The Business enterprise sector includes “all firms, organisations and institutions whose primary activity is the market production of goods and services (other than higher education) for sale to the general public at an economically significant price, and the private non-profit institutions mainly serving them”. In brief, this sector covers private and public enterprises, notably in manufacturing and services, and institutes serving them.

• The Government sector: consists of “all departments, offices and other bodies which furnish, but normally do not sell to the community, those common services, other than higher education, which cannot otherwise be conveniently and economically provided, as well as those that administer the state and the economic and social policy of the community”.

• Note that public enterprises are included in the BE sector. Only direct transfers are measured for this sector, as a sector of finance, whereas different kinds of indirect public R&D support, such as tax incentives and concessions, interest subsidies, etc. are not taken into account.

• The Higher Education sector is composed of: “All universities, colleges of technology and other institutions of post-secondary education, whatever their source of finance or legal status. It also includes all research institutes, experimental stations and clinics operating under the direct control of or administered by or associated with higher education institutions.

• The Private Non-Profit (PNP) sector covers “…non-market, private non-profit institutions serving households (i.e. the general public)” and “private individuals or household”.

• Typically included is this sector are professional or learned societies, charities, relief or aid agencies, trade unions, consumers’ associations, etc., plus any funds contributed directly to R&D by households.

• “Abroad” consists, usually as a source of R&D finance of, …” all institutions and individuals located outside the political borders of a country, except vehicles, ships, aircraft and space satellites operated by domestic entities and testing grounds acquired by such entities. Also included are “all international organisations (except business enterprises) including facilities and operations within the country’s borders”.

• For some statistics (such as the innovation statistics) “abroad” may also constitute a “sector of destination” for some R&D support.

• Gross Domestic Expenditures on R&D (GERD): total expenditure on all R&D performed on the national territory, by the four sectors above, in a given year.

R&D Expenditures

The intramural expenditures are:

… all (both current and capital) expenditures for R&D performed within a statistical unit or sector of the economy during a specific period, whatever the source of funds.

Expenditures outside the statistical unit but in support of intramural R&D (e.g. purchase of supplies for R&D) are included

The extramural expenditures are defined as:

… the sums a unit, organisation or sector reports having paid or committed themselves to pay to another unit, organisation of sector for the performance of R&D during a specific period This includes acquisition of R&D performed by other units and grants given to others for performance of R&D.

Types of R&D expenditures

Current costs:Labour costs of the R&D personnel;

Other current costs”.

Capital expenditures:Expenditures onLands and buildings;Instruments and equipments;Computer software”.

• The capital expenditures are the annual gross expenditure of fixed

assets used in R&D programmes of the statistical units. They should be reported in full for the period when they took place and should not be registered as an element of depreciation.

R&D/S&T Personnel – Principal International definitions

UNESCO: « Scientific and technical personnel - STEP »: ...the total number of people participating directly in S&T activities in an institution or unit and, as a rule, paid for their services. This group should include scientists and engineers, and technicians (SET) and auxiliary personnel...

OECD « Frascati Manual »: « R&D personnel”:...All persons employed directly on R&D should be counted, as well as those providing direct services such as R&D managers, administrators, and clerical staff.

OECD “Frascati Manual” -Definition of Full-time Equivalence (FTE) for R&D Personnel: One FTE may be thought of as one person-year. Thus, a person who normally spends 30 per cent of his or her time on R&D and the rest on other activities (such as teaching, university administration, and student councelling) should be considered as 0.3 FTE. Similarly, if a full-time R&D worker is employed at an R&D unit for only six months, this results in an FTE of 0.5. Since the normal working day (period) may differ from sector to sector and even from institution to institution, it is impossible to express FTE in person-hours.

OECD “Frascati Manual” –Definitions of Categories of R&D Personnel Occupations:

:Researchers: « .. are professionals engaged in the conception or creation of new knowledge, products, processes and systems, and in the management of the projects concerned. » (also called « RSE » (Research Scientists and Engineers).Technicians and Equivalent Staff:« ... are persons whose main tasks require technical knowledge and experience in one or more fields of engineering, physical and life sciences, or social sciences and humanities. They participate in R&D by performing scientific and technical tasks involving the application of concepts and operational methods, normally under the supervision of researchers. Equivalent staff perform the corresponding R&D tasks under the supervision of researchers in the social sciences and humanities. ».Other Supporting Staff: « ... includes skilled and unskilled craftsmen, secretarial and clerical staff participating in R&D projects or directly associated with such projects ».

OECD “Frascati Manual” –Definitions of Categories of R&D Personnel by levels of formal qualification (or education) (ISCED 1997):

Holders of university degrees at PhD level (ISCED level 6):Holders of doctorate degrees of university level or equivalent in all fields (ISCED level 6). This category includes holders of degrees earned at universities proper and also at specialised institutes of university status.

Holders of basic university degrees below the PhD Level (ISCED level 5A):

Holders of tertiary-level degrees below the PhD level in all fields (ISCED level 5A). This category includes holders of degrees earned at universities proper and also at specialised institutes of university status.

Holders of other tertiary level diplomas (ISCED level 5B):“Holders of other post-secondary tertiary (ISCED level 5B) level diplomas in all fields. Subject matter is typically specialised, presented at a level requiring the equivalent of full secondary level education to master it. It provides a more practically oriented/occupation-specific education than programmes at ISCED levels 5A and 6.

Holders of other post-secondary non-tertiary diplomas (ISCED level 4):Holders of other post-secondary non-tertiary (ISCED level 4) level diplomas in all fields. This class includes holders of degrees preparing students for studies at level 5, who although having completed ISCED level 3 did not follow a curriculum which would allow entry to level 5; ie. pre-degree foundation courses or short vocational programmes

Holders of Diplomas of Secondary Education (ISCED level 3):Holders of diplomas at the secondary level, upper stage (ISCED level 3). This class includes not only all ISCED level 3 diplomas obtained in the secondary school system but also equivalent level 3 vocational diplomas obtained from other types of educational establishments.

Other Qualifications:

This includes all those with secondary diplomas at less than ISCED level 3 or with incomplete secondary qualifications or education not falling under any of the other four classes.

OUTPUT INDICATORS:

Bibliometrics: - some examples of indicators

- Numbers of scientific papers, by detailed fields of science;- Numbers of citations to scientific papers;- Co-citations (the number of times two papers are cited simultaneously);- Number of co-signatures (co-authors) in scientific papers;- Number of patents and citations in or to patents applications and grants;- Correlations between scientific papers (science) and patents (technology) based on citations in patent applications;- Scientific links (networks) measured by citations;- Co-occurrence of (key-) words (“co-words”), etc.

Patents Indicators (as used in the OECD ”Main Science and Technology Indicators” publications):

Patents indicators in earlier OECD publications:

- National patent applications (= the sum of resident and non-resident applications in the country);- Resident patent applications;- Non-resident patent applications;- External patent applications (made abroad by residents of the country concerned);- Dependency ratio (non-resident/resident patent applications);- Auto-sufficiency ratio (resident/national applications);- The inventiveness coefficient (resident patent applications per 10 000 population), and- The rate of diffusion (external/resident patent applications).

“New” patents indicators in OECD/”MSTI” publications:- Number of “triadic” patent families (priority year);- Share of countries in the “triadic” patent families (idem);- Number of patents in the ICT (information and communications technologies) applications to the European Patent Office – EPO (idem);- Number of patents in the biotechnology sector – applications to the European Patent Office

idem)

Technology Balance of Payments Indicators in the OECD ”Main Science and Technology Indicators” publications

- Technology balance of payments: Receipts (million current dollars)- Technology balance of payments: Payments (million current dollars)- Technology balance of payments: Payments as a percentage of GERD

- International trade: Aerospace Industry (million current dollars and percentages) –

Trade balance and market shares;- International trade: Electronic Industry (idem) (idem)- International trade: Office machinery and computer industry (idem) (idem)- International trade: Pharmaceutical industry (idem) (idem)- International trade: Instruments industry (idem) idem)

Innovation: definitions, criteria and indicators (OECD/EUROSTAT)

An innovation is the implementation of a new or a significantly improved product (good or service), or process or a new marketing method or a new organisational method in business practices, workplace organisation or external relations

Technological innovations comprise implemented technologically new products and processes and significant technological improvements in products and processes. An innovation has been implemented, if it has been introduced on the market (product innovation) or used within a production process (process innovation). The product or process should be new (or significantly improved) to the enterprise (it does not necessarily have to be new to the enterprise’s market).

Technological innovation requires an objective improvement in the performance of a product or in the way in which it is produced or delivered.

The following changes are not technological innovations:-improvements of products that make them more attractive to the purchasers without changing their “technological characteristics”;-minor technological changes of products and processes or changes which do not have the sufficient degree of novelty;- changes of products and processes where the novelty does not concern the use or objective performance characteristics of the products or the way they are produced but rather their aesthetic or subjective qualities.

Innovation activities are all scientific, technological, organisational, financial and commercial steps which actually, or are intended to, lead to the implementation of innovations. Some innovation activities are themselves innovative, others are not novel activities but are necessary for the implementation of innovations. Innovation activities also include R&D that is not directly related to the development of a specific innovation.

• An innovative firm is one that has implemented an innovation during the period under review

• A product-process innovative firm is one that has implemented a new or significantly improved product or process during the period under review.

• A product innovation is the introduction of a good or service that is new or significantly improved with respect to its characteristics or intended uses. This includes significant improvements in technical specifications, components and materials, incorporated software, user friendliness or other functional characteristics;

• A process innovation is the implementation of a new or significantly improved production or delivery method. This includes significant changes in techniques, equipment and/or software.

• A marketing innovation is the implementation of a new marketing method involving significant changes in product design or packaging, product placement, product promotion or pricing.

• An organisational innovation is the implementation of a new organisational method in the firm’s business practices, workplace organisation or external relations.

“High-Tech” Products: The OECD/EUROSTAT List *) (still provisional)

• Aerospace products [7921+7922+7923+7924+7925+79293+(714-71489 -71499) +87411]

• Computers and office machines [75113+75131+75132+75134+(752-7529)+75997]

• Electronics-telecommunications [76381+76383+(764-76493-76499) + 7722 + 77261 + 77318 + 77625 + 7763+7764+7768+89879]

• Pharmacy products [5413+5415+5416+5421+5422]

• Scientific instruments [774+8711+8713+8714+8719+87211+(874-87411- 8742) + 88111 + 88121+88411+ 88419 + 89961 + 89963+89967]

• Electrical machinery [77862+77863+77864+77865+7787+77844]

• Chemistry (less pharmacy products) [52222+52223+52229+52269+525+57433+591

• Non-electrical machinery [71489+71499+71871+71877+72847+7311+73135+73144+73151 + 73153 + 73161 +73165+73312+73314+73316 +73733+73735]

• Armament products 891

*) within brackets references to the SITC Rev.3 classification code

Thank you for your attention

Gunnar Westholm