RadiochemistryRadiochemistry

Concepts and Applications Concepts and Applications in Environmental in Environmental

ChemistryChemistry

IsotopesIsotopes

Too heavy, too light, rarely just Too heavy, too light, rarely just right.right.

Table of IsotopesTable of Isotopes

1998 Version, 3000+ isotopes1998 Version, 3000+ isotopes

Properties of Properties of , , , , and and

Properties of Properties of , , , , and and ALPHAALPHA BETABETA X-, & GAMMAX-, & GAMMA

SymbolSymbol , , 4422He He 2+2+ , , 00

-1-1, , 00-1-1ee and and

ChargeCharge +2 +2 -1 -1 00

Mass (kg)Mass (kg) 6.642x106.642x10-27-27 9.116x109.116x10-31-31 00

VelocityVelocity 0.05c 0.05c up to 0.995cup to 0.995c cc

(c=2.998x10(c=2.998x1088m/s)m/s)

Relative Relative

IonizationIonization 1x10 1x1044 1x10 1x1022 11

PotentialPotential

Relative Relative

PenetratingPenetrating 1 1 1x10 1x1022 1x101x1044

PotentialPotential

Penetration PotentialPenetration Potential

Ionization of GasIonization of Gas

Ionization of LiquidsIonization of Liquids

Scintillation DetectionScintillation Detection

Solid-State Semiconductor Solid-State Semiconductor DetectorsDetectors

HPGe Detector StructureHPGe Detector StructureCANBERRA Analytical Nuclear InstrumentsCANBERRA Analytical Nuclear Instruments

Ionization of SolidsIonization of Solids

Spectroscopy with HPGeSpectroscopy with HPGe

““Ultra-Low” Background Ultra-Low” Background ConsiderationsConsiderations

Cosmogenic Cosmogenic - from the cosmos- from the cosmos

AurorasAuroras

Naturally Occurring Radioactive Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (“NORM”)Materials (“NORM”)

Cosmogenic: Cosmogenic: 33H H 7,107,10Be Be 1414C C 1818F F 22,2422,24Na Na 2626Al Al 31,3231,32Si Si 32,3332,33PP35,3835,38S S 36,38,3936,38,39Cl Cl 37,3937,39Ar Ar 5353Mn Mn 5959Ni Ni 8080KrKr

Primordial:Primordial:4040K K 5050V V 8787Rb Rb 113113Cd Cd 115115In In 123123Te Te 138138LaLa 144144Nd Nd 147147Sm Sm 148148Sm Sm 152152Gd Gd 174174Hf Hf 176176LuLu 187187Re Re 190,192190,192Pt Pt 209209Bi Bi

232232Th+daughters Th+daughters 235235U+daughters U+daughters 238238U+daughtersU+daughters237237Np+daughtersNp+daughters

Localized “Hot Spots”Localized “Hot Spots”

LocationLocation Annual Dose(mSv/y)Annual Dose(mSv/y)United Arab EmiratesUnited Arab Emirates 14 14Radon Springs, FranceRadon Springs, France 16 16Kerala Region of IndiaKerala Region of India 30 30Guangdong Province, ChinaGuangdong Province, China 33 33Morro De Faro, BrazilMorro De Faro, Brazil 70 - 140 70 - 140Guarapari, BrazilGuarapari, Brazil 175175Ramasari, IranRamasari, Iran 480480

USNRC Occupational Dose LimitUSNRC Occupational Dose Limit 5050USNRC Limit for Members of PublicUSNRC Limit for Members of Public 2020

Oklo Quarry, GabonOklo Quarry, Gabon

Fossil Fission ReactorFossil Fission ReactorOklo Quarry, GabonOklo Quarry, GabonIn 1972 ore deposits were found to contain significantly In 1972 ore deposits were found to contain significantly different isotopic compositions of certain elements than different isotopic compositions of certain elements than from the mean found in nature. from the mean found in nature.

142142Nd normally 27% in nature, at Oklo it was <6%.Nd normally 27% in nature, at Oklo it was <6%.9999Ru normally ~28% in nature, at Oklo it was 13%.Ru normally ~28% in nature, at Oklo it was 13%.

235235U normally 0.72%, at Oklo it was 0.48%.U normally 0.72%, at Oklo it was 0.48%.

From From 8787Rb/Rb/8787Sr dating, Oklo deposits are 1.7E9 years Sr dating, Oklo deposits are 1.7E9 years old, at that time U enrichment was ~3% old, at that time U enrichment was ~3% 235235U!U!

Fossil Fission ReactorFossil Fission Reactor

Operated on and off at Operated on and off at ~100kW output for 1E6 ~100kW output for 1E6 years.years.Once the natural Once the natural reactors burned reactors burned themselves out, the themselves out, the highly radioactive highly radioactive waste they generated waste they generated was held in place was held in place deep under Oklo by deep under Oklo by the granite, the granite, sandstone, and clays sandstone, and clays surrounding the surrounding the reactors’ areasreactors’ areasSignificance today Significance today with Yucca Mountain with Yucca Mountain proposed national proposed national repository.repository.

Radioactive Material is Radioactive Material is EverywhereEverywhere

Cosmic RadiationCosmic Radiation Indoor Air & Indoor Air &

Structural MaterialsStructural Materials Rock & Soil RadiationRock & Soil Radiation Water & Aquatic Food Water & Aquatic Food

IngestionIngestion Food, milk digestionFood, milk digestion Crop digestionCrop digestion Inhalation Skin Inhalation Skin

AbsorptionAbsorption

““Reference Man” with a 70Kg. Reference Man” with a 70Kg. Body MassBody Mass

Nuclide Total Mass of Nuclide Found in the Body

Daily Intake of Nuclides

Uranium 90 g 1.9 g

Thorium 30 g 3 g

Radium 31 g 2.3 g

Carbon-14 95 g 2 g

Potassium-40 17 mg 0.39 mg

Tritium 0.06 g 3 g

Polonium 0.02 g 0.6 - 5 g*

*Assumes a smoker.

Sources of Radiation Exposure -UpdateSources of Radiation Exposure -UpdateRelease of NRCP No. 160 (03/03/09)Release of NRCP No. 160 (03/03/09)

Exposure Exposure CategoryCategory

Effective Dose per Individual in the US Population Effective Dose per Individual in the US Population (mSv)(mSv)

(1)(1)

20062006

(2) (2)

Early 1980sEarly 1980s

Ratio (1)/(2)Ratio (1)/(2)

Ubiquitous Ubiquitous BackgroundBackground

3.113.11 3.003.00 1.041.04

MedicalMedical 3.003.00 0.530.53 5.675.67

ConsumerConsumer 0.130.13 0.130.13 ------

Industrial, Industrial, educational, educational, researchresearch

0.0030.003 0.0010.001 ------

OccupationalOccupational 0.0050.005 0.0090.009 ------

TotalTotal 6.256.25 3.673.67 1.701.70

Energy Liberated can be AbsorbedEnergy Liberated can be Absorbed

Absorption in body tissue may result in physiological Absorption in body tissue may result in physiological injuryinjury

Absorption is the principle by which detection is based.Absorption is the principle by which detection is based.

The degree of absorption or type of interaction is a The degree of absorption or type of interaction is a primary factor in determining shielding requirements.primary factor in determining shielding requirements.

Health Effects of Ionizing Health Effects of Ionizing RadiationRadiation

Direct Effect on Cells:Direct Effect on Cells:damage to DNA from damage to DNA from

ionizationionization..

If the cell is exposed to If the cell is exposed to radiation, the probability of radiation, the probability of the radiation interacting with the radiation interacting with the DNA is very small since the DNA is very small since these critical components these critical components take up less than 0.5% of the take up less than 0.5% of the cell volume.cell volume.

USDOE: Human Genome ProjectUSDOE: Human Genome Project

Health Effects of Ionizing Health Effects of Ionizing RadiationRadiation

Indirect Effect on Indirect Effect on Cells:Cells:

decomposition of waterdecomposition of water..

If the cell is exposed to If the cell is exposed to radiation, the probability radiation, the probability of interaction with of interaction with cellular water is greater cellular water is greater since water is 99.5% of since water is 99.5% of the cell volume.the cell volume.

Radiolysis of water produces the following Radiolysis of water produces the following types of sequences:types of sequences:

HH22O + O + ray ray HOH HOH++ + e + e-- H H22O + eO + e-- HOH HOH--

HOHHOH++ H H++ + OH* + OH* HOHHOH-- H* + H* + --OHOH

OH* + OH* OH* + OH* HH22OO22 (hydrogen peroxide) (hydrogen peroxide)

Net Effect: Free radical formationNet Effect: Free radical formation

Risk ModelsRisk Models

ALARAALARA

The basic tenants of ALARA are the use of time, The basic tenants of ALARA are the use of time, distance, and shielding to minimize radiation distance, and shielding to minimize radiation exposures.exposures.

Radon Target Organ - LungsRadon Target Organ - Lungs

Radon (Rn) and Daughter Radon (Rn) and Daughter Products (RDPs) inhaled Products (RDPs) inhaled or ingested.or ingested.Most of the Rn from Most of the Rn from respiration is exhaled.respiration is exhaled.Ingested Rn out-gasses Ingested Rn out-gasses through the lungs.through the lungs.RDPs remain stuck to RDPs remain stuck to lung tissue. Polung tissue. Po218218 & Po & Po214214 emit alpha particles within emit alpha particles within the 1the 1stst hour. hour.

Alpha Particle in the LungAlpha Particle in the LungAlpha particles strike lung cells Alpha particles strike lung cells causing possible physical causing possible physical and/or chemical damage.and/or chemical damage.3 fates for cell3 fates for cell

• • Damaged & RepairedDamaged & Repaired• • Damaged, not Damaged, not

RepairedRepaired• • KilledKilled

48 hour time lapsed microscopic photograph of 48 hour time lapsed microscopic photograph of alpha tracks emitted from a radioactive particle alpha tracks emitted from a radioactive particle of Pu-238 lodged in the lung tissue of an ape.of Pu-238 lodged in the lung tissue of an ape.www.ccnr.org/alpha_in_lung.htmlwww.ccnr.org/alpha_in_lung.html

Iowa Radon Lung Cancer StudyIowa Radon Lung Cancer Study

Found excess risk of 50% for exposures that are Found excess risk of 50% for exposures that are equivalent to 15-years spent at an average equivalent to 15-years spent at an average radon exposure of 4 pCi/L. Overall, the risk radon exposure of 4 pCi/L. Overall, the risk estimates obtained in the study suggest that estimates obtained in the study suggest that cumulative Radon exposure in the residential cumulative Radon exposure in the residential environment is significantly associated with lung environment is significantly associated with lung cancer risk.cancer risk.

Field, R.W., Lynch, C.F., Brus, C.P., Woolson, R.F., Fisher, E.F., Platz, C.E., Robinson, Field, R.W., Lynch, C.F., Brus, C.P., Woolson, R.F., Fisher, E.F., Platz, C.E., Robinson, R.A., Steck, D.J., Neuberger, J.S. R.A., Steck, D.J., Neuberger, J.S. Residential Radon Gas Exposure and Lung Residential Radon Gas Exposure and Lung Cancer: The Iowa Radon Lung Cancer StudyCancer: The Iowa Radon Lung Cancer Study, American Journal of Epidemiology, , American Journal of Epidemiology, 151(11);1091-1102, 2000.151(11);1091-1102, 2000.

Radon GeologyRadon GeologySourceSourceRn is constantly being Rn is constantly being generated by the generated by the uranium in rocks, soil, uranium in rocks, soil, water, and construction water, and construction materials derived from materials derived from rocks and soil. rocks and soil.

Uranium is found in Uranium is found in small concentrations small concentrations throughout the earth’s throughout the earth’s crust. On average, 1 crust. On average, 1 acre down to a 5 ft. acre down to a 5 ft. depth would contain 50 depth would contain 50 lbs. of Uranium.lbs. of Uranium.

www.atral.com/U238.htmlwww.atral.com/U238.html

Radon Potential Radon Potential Uranium Potential Uranium Potential

Actual Radon ZonesActual Radon Zones

Radon MigrationRadon MigrationTypical Indoor Air Typical Indoor Air Rn range - 1 to Rn range - 1 to 1000 pCi/L.1000 pCi/L.

Typical Soil Air Typical Soil Air Rn range - 200 to Rn range - 200 to 100,000 pCi/L.100,000 pCi/L.

Dissolved Rn in Dissolved Rn in Groundwater Groundwater range - 100 to range - 100 to 3,000,000 pCi/L.3,000,000 pCi/L.

High Variability in Radon High Variability in Radon ConcentrationConcentration

Nuclear Generating PlantsNuclear Generating Plants

Every form of energy generation has Every form of energy generation has

advantages and disadvantagesadvantages and disadvantages..CoalCoalAdvantagesAdvantages

Fuel is inexpensive Fuel is inexpensive Easy to recover (in U.S. and China) Easy to recover (in U.S. and China)

DisadvantagesDisadvantagesRequires expensive air pollution Requires expensive air pollution controls (e.g. mercury, sulfur dioxide) controls (e.g. mercury, sulfur dioxide) Significant contributor to acid rain and Significant contributor to acid rain and global warming global warming Requires extensive transportation Requires extensive transportation systemsystem

““Clean Coal” does not yet existClean Coal” does not yet exist

NuclearNuclearAdvantagesAdvantages

Fuel is inexpensive Fuel is inexpensive Energy generation is the most Energy generation is the most concentrated source concentrated source Waste is more compact than any Waste is more compact than any source source Extensive scientific basis for the cycle Extensive scientific basis for the cycle Easy to transport as new fuel Easy to transport as new fuel No greenhouse or acid rain effects No greenhouse or acid rain effects

DisadvantagesDisadvantagesRequires larger capital cost because of Requires larger capital cost because of emergency, containment, radioactive emergency, containment, radioactive waste and storage systems waste and storage systems Requires resolution of the long-term Requires resolution of the long-term high level waste storage issue in most high level waste storage issue in most countries countries Potential nuclear proliferation issuePotential nuclear proliferation issue

New NGP designs - ABWRNew NGP designs - ABWR

New NGP designs - PBMRNew NGP designs - PBMR

Westchester County Westchester County Dept. of Labs & Dept. of Labs & Research is a Research is a FRMAC partnerFRMAC partner

Laboratory and Laboratory and Personnel Assets are Personnel Assets are registered in the registered in the event of an event of an emergencyemergency