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    http://htt//etheses.dur.ac.uk/policies/http://%20http//etheses.dur.ac.uk/10402/http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/10402/http://www.dur.ac.uk/
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    REFERENCE OVERL Y

    MAIN SETTLEMENTS AND ROADS IN THE AhOASSIM

    44

    OO

    J

    QUSAIBAH

    X

    O

    OAL QUWA$AH

    SALASIL

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    O

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    AL BXAYQI

    fO- 4

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    AL

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    Q-A&avB'A Y, / YAH

    OASH-SHMA S'fAH-

    OA&RUWAY DHAT

    OA L AWO \

    A&OUWAYHERAH

    EH

    t a

    - o

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    \ \ A .

    ABSTRACT

    The p r o c e s s o f

    a g r i c u l t u r a l

    d e v e l o p me n t a nd i t s r e l a t e

    p r o b l e ms i s . a s e r i o u s e c ono m c d i f f i c u l t y

    f a c i n g

    t h e de v e l o

    i n g c o u n t r i e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e wo r l d . I n S a u d i

    A r a bi a

    s u c h

    d i f f i c u l t y i s g r e a t l y

    a m p l i f i e d

    by t h e a l mo s t

    t o t a l

    l a c k o f

    c o mp r e h e ns i v e

    r e s e a r c h a nd s t u d i e s a b o u t t h e p h y s i c o - e c o no mi

    e l e me n t s o f

    a g r i c u l t u r e ,

    n o t a b l y t h e

    s o i l

    and i t s r e l a t e d

    p r o b l e ms and me a s u r e s o f i mp r o v e me n t a nd c o n s e r v a t i o n . The

    r e g i o n

    o f

    a l - Qa s s i m

    i s one o f t h e

    mo s t

    i mp o r t a n t

    a g r i c u l t u r a

    a r e a s i n

    S a u d i

    A r a b i a . T he r e g i o n i s o f a n a r e a o f 17, 800

    s q u a r e

    k i l o me t r e s w i t h

    8i +, 000

    h e c t a r e s o f a r a b l e l a n d s . The

    i mp o r t a nc e o f t h e r e g i o n as a c r o p p r o d u c i n g a r e a i n C e n t r a l

    A r a b i a ha s b e e n g r e a t l y

    a m p l i f i e d

    by t h e d i s c o v e r y o f a r t e s i

    wa t e r , i n

    1953,

    i n q u a n t i t i e s e s t i ma t e d t o be s u f f i c i e n t t o

    s u p p o r t a l l t h e a r a b l e l a n ds i n t h e r e g i o n f o r many g e ne r a t

    t o

    come. The r e c e n t c o mp l e t i o n o f a l - Qa s s i m

    h i g h wa y ,

    i n

    S e p t e mb e r ,

    196 7, wh i c h c o n ne c t e d

    w i t h

    t h e g r e a t

    h i g h wa y

    o f

    A r a b i a - f r o m

    Dammam

    on t h e A r a b i a n- P e r s i a n Gu l f t o J e dd a h

    o n t h e Re d S ea - ha s a d d e d a

    s i g n i f i c a n t

    e c ono m c i mp o r t a nc e

    b y br e a k i n g down t h e r e g i o n' s g e o g r a p h i c a l i s o l a t i o n ,

    i mp o s e

    by t h e s u r r o u nd i n g s a nd- du ne s . . T h e s e f a v o u r a b l e p h y s i c a l

    r e qu i r e me nt s f o r p r o mo t i n g

    a g r i c u l t u r e

    a r e a l l i e d t o t h e e v e

    i n c r e a s i n g

    de ma nd

    f o r a mo r e v a l u a b l e and

    d i v e r s i f i e d

    d i e t

    by t h e e x p a nd i ng u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n as a r e s u l t o f t h e i n c r e a s

    r i s e

    i n t h e s t a nd a r d o f

    l i v i n g

    due t o t h e i n c r e a s e d

    n a t i o n a l

    i n c o me

    f r o m o i l

    r e v e nu e s .

    As a r e s u l t a r e ma r k a b l e e x p a ns i

    i n c u l t i v a t e d a r e a s

    a nd c o r r e l a t e d a g r i c u l t u r a l

    a c t i v i t i e s

    ha s e v o l v e d . The c h a n g e f r o m a n a g r i c u l t u r a l - e c ono my

    b a s e d

    o n a s e mi - s u bs i s t e nc e t y p e o f

    a g r i c u l t u r e

    d i c t a t e d b y a

    s h o r t a g e o f i r r i g a t i o n wa t e r t o a wa t e r - s u r p l u s ec ono my

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    c h a r a c t e r i z e d

    b y

    m a r k e t - o r i e n t a t e d

    p r o d u c t i o n wa s r a t h e r

    s u d d e n , q u i c k , a n d u np r e c e d e d b y a p p r o p r i a t e s t u d i e s a n d

    p l a n s .

    Over

    t h e y e a r s , ..hese r a n do m e f f o r t s o f e x p a ns i o n

    h a v e p r o du c e d a c o mp l e x o f

    i n t e r c a l a t e d

    s o i l a n d a g r i c u l t u r

    p r o b l e ms .

    T h i s r e s e a r c h i s d e d i c a t e d t o g i v e a p r e l i m i n a r y

    a c c o u n t o f t h e

    s o i l s

    a n d a g r i c u l t u r e i n t h e r e g i o n . A v i t a

    c o n c l u s i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e

    s o i l s ,

    h o we v e r , i s t h a t t h e r e g i o

    s o i l s c o mp r i s e

    a s i z e a b l e p r o p o r t i o n o f a l l u v i u m

    s o i l s

    o f

    h i g h l y

    p r o m i s i n g p r o s p e c t s

    w i t h i n

    t h e w a d i a n d

    Qaa

    a s s o c i a t

    A g r i c u l t u r e

    h a s b e e n a p pr o a c h e d t h r o u g h t w o t h e me s : f i r s t l y

    t h e p a t t e r n o f

    a g r i c u l t u r a l

    p r o d u c t i o n a n d i t s

    r e l a t e d

    l a n d

    s y s t e m, met ho d

    o f c u l t i v a t i o n , a n d ma r k e t i n g

    p r o c e s s e s ,

    a n d

    s e c o n d l y , t h e

    p r o b l e ms

    f a c i n g

    a g r i c u l t u r a l

    d e v e l o p me n t

    a t t

    p r e s e n t , t i me , . na me l y * l a b o u r s h o r t a g e a n d me c h a n i z a t i o n ,

    i r r i g a t i o n s y s t e m, s t r u c t u r e a n d

    me t h o d s ,

    a n d p l a n t a n d

    a n i ma l

    d i s e a s e c o n t r o l .

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    SOI LS

    AND AGRI CULTURAL

    DEVELOPMENT

    I N

    THE REG ONOPAL- PASSI M SAUD

    ARABI A

    BY

    MOHAMMED

    ABDULLAH

    AL- J ERASH

    ( B' . A. UNI VERSI TYOP AR

    RI YADH, SAUD

    ARABI A)

    The

    copyright of this thesis rests with the author.

    No quotation from it should be published without

    his

    prior

    written consent and information derived

    from it should be acknowledged.

    THESI SSUBMTTED FOR THEDEGREE

    OP

    MASTER

    OP ARTS,

    DURHAM

    UNI VERSI TY

    SEPTEMBER, 1

    968

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    PREFACE

    T he p r i me ai mof

    t h i s

    t h e s i s i s t os t u dy t h e

    r e l a t i o n s

    b e t we e nman andl a n d i n t h e a l - Qa s s i m r e g i o n , S a u d i A r a b i a .

    The. me t h o d of a p p r o a c h

    a d o p t e d

    i s t os t u dy one o f t h e ba s i c

    r e s o u r c e s o f t hea r e a , n a me l y t h e

    s o i l ,

    andt oa na l y s et he

    a g r i c u l t u r a l

    p r o b l e ms wh i c h n e e d t obe t a c k l e d . , b e f o r ea

    mo r e

    r a t i o n a l a g r i c u l t u r a l

    e c o no my i s a c h i e v e d . R e c e n t

    c h a n g e s i n t h e

    a v a i l a b i l i t y

    of f a r m

    i n p u t s ,

    n o t a b l yt he

    t a p p i n g of

    v a s t

    new

    s u p p l i e s

    o f

    a r t e s i a n wa t e r f o r

    i r r i g a t e

    a g r i c u l t u r e , h a v e a l t e r e d

    t h e

    t r a d i t i o n a l a g r i c u l t u r a l

    t e c h ni q u e s of t h e r e g i o n . Few

    a g r i c u l t u r a l

    p r o b l e ms

    h a v e

    a r i s e n as

    i n c r e a s e d wa t e r

    a v a i l a b i l i t y

    has

    c h a ng e d

    t he

    i n f r a s t r u c t u r e

    ofa

    t r a d i t i o n a l

    and s t a b l e

    a g r i c u l t u r a l

    e c o n o my .

    The wo r k f o r

    t h i s

    t h e s i scommenced i n

    Oc t o b e r ,

    1966

    a nd

    f i n i s h e d

    i n S e p t e mb e r , 1 9 6 8 . Thep e r i o d f r o m

    J u l y

    t o

    Nove mber , 1 9 6 7

    was

    s p e nt i n

    S a u d i

    A r a bi a

    and

    mo s t l y i n a l -

    Qa s s i m, d u r i n g wh i c h t i me t he f i e l d wo r kwas c o ndu c t e d.

    The

    wh o l e

    of J u n e , 1 9 6 7

    was

    s pe nt i n

    Rome wh e r e

    t h e

    w r i t e r

    h a d many i n t e r v i e ws

    w i t h

    v a r i o u s

    s p e c i a l i s t s

    ofP. A. O

    The

    w r i t e r

    was a bl e

    t os p e nd

    mo s t o f

    t he

    t i me

    i n t he

    o r g a n i z a t i o n s

    c e n t r a l l i b r a r y

    and t oc o n s u l t a l l t he

    a v a i l a b l e r e p o r t sand d o c u me n t s on t h e s t a t u s of wa t e rand

    a g r i c u l t u r e

    i n

    S a u d i

    A r a b i a ,

    as

    w e l l

    as

    many

    n e i g h b o u r i n g

    c o u n t r i e s . Theo u t c o me o f

    t h i s

    s h o r t

    v i s i t

    has had a

    t r e me n do u s

    e f f e c t on

    t h e g e ne r a l p l a n and

    t he me o f t h i s

    s t u

    A c k n o wl e d g me n t s

    I ami n d e bt e d and

    g r a t e f u l

    t oK i n g

    A b d u l - a z i z .

    U n i v e r s

    o f

    J e dd a h ,

    S a u d i A r a b i a - f o r

    i t s mo r a l

    a nd f i n a n c i a l

    s u p po r t

    d u r i n g t h e s t u dy p e r i o d . I a l s o wo u l d l i k e t oa c k no wl e dg e

    t h e

    s i n c e r e

    i n t e r e s t ,

    c o n s t r u c t i v e

    a t t i t u d e ,

    and

    u n f a i l i n g

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    p a t i e nc e

    and g u i d a nc e of

    my s u p e r v i s o r ,

    Dr .

    K. A t k i n s o n .

    My

    t h a n k s

    ar e

    a l s o due

    t o

    P r o f e s s o r W B.

    F i s h e r

    f o r

    g i v i n g

    met hec h a n c e t oc o n du c t t h i s

    s t u dy i n h i s

    d e p a r t me n t . I

    wo u l d l i k e t o

    r e c o r d

    my g r a t e f u l

    t h a n k s

    t o t he o f f i c i a l so f

    t h e

    M i n i s t r y

    of

    Wa t e r

    andA g r i c u l t u r e i n

    S a u d i

    A r a b i a f o r

    t h e i r

    h e l p f u l c o - o p e r a t i o n, n o t a b l y Hi s E x c e l l e nc y t h e Mi n i s

    Mr . :

    Ha&an

    Me s h a r y f o r h i s e n c o u r a g e me n t

    and

    g e ne r o u s

    c o

    o p e r a t i o n

    wh i c h

    r e s u l t e d i n

    r e a dy

    a c c e s s

    t o

    a l l t e c h n i c a l

    f i l e s , do c u me n t s , and

    r e p o r t s

    o f t he M i n i s t r y . Mo r e o v e r , h

    h e l p was

    e x t e n de d

    t o t he f i e l d by p r o v i d i n g a c c o mmo d a t i o nan

    t r a n s p o r t a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s . I amg r a t e f u l

    t o

    Mr . T a h e rAhmed

    Oh a i d ,

    t he

    Mi n i s t e r ' s s e c r e t a r y ; f o r T e c h n i c a l

    A f f a i r s , f o r

    s u p p l y i n g much t e c h n i c a l i n f o r ma t i o nand d a t a . A l s o ,

    I

    wo u l d l i k e t o

    e x t e nd

    my

    t h a n k s

    t o t heh e a d s o f

    t h e

    F i e l d

    E x t e ns i o n S e r v i c e s

    C e nt r e s

    i n a l - Qa s s i m f o r t h e i r k i n d

    c o - o p e r a t i o n

    and

    h e l p

    i n t he f i e l d .

    I

    wo u l d

    l i k e

    t o

    r e c o r d

    my g r a t e f u l

    t h a n k s

    t o Dr .

    D Bu r d o n,

    t he

    D i r e c t o r

    of t he

    L a n d andWa t e r

    R e s o u r c e s Br a n c h

    o f

    F. A. O

    and t o Dr . R. Bu d a

    t h e D i r e c t o r i n

    c h a r g e of

    t h e

    Wo r l d S o i l R e s o u r c e s

    Of f i c e

    o

    F. A. O

    and t o

    Dr . V. . G

    C e r v i t h e C h i e f of I n f o r ma t i o n

    L i a i s o n

    S e c t i o n

    of

    F. A. O

    F i n a l l y , I

    s h o u l d

    l i k e t o

    t h a nk

    my f e l l o w

    r e s e a r c h

    s t u d e n t s ,

    and

    t e c h n i c a l s t a f f i n

    t h i s d e p a r t me n t

    f o r t h e i r

    s y mp a t h e t i c e n c o u r a g e me n t

    and many

    u s e f u l

    c o mme n t s .

    MOHAMMEDAL- J ERASH

    DURHAM U. K.

    SEPTEMBER,

    1 9 6 8 .

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    i i

    I NTRODUCTI ON

    S t u di e s

    of

    s o i l s

    as

    r e l a t e d

    t o

    a g r i c u l t u r a l

    de v e l o p me n t

    a nd v i c e v e r s a ,

    ar e of

    a c u t e n e c e s s i t y i n t h e d e ve l o p i n g

    c o u n t r i e s

    t h r o u g h o u t t h e wo r l d . T h i s i s

    because

    of

    t h e

    l a c

    o f k n o wl e dg e and

    r e s e a r c h

    a s s e s s me n t s on s u c h

    a s p ec t s

    i n

    t h e s e c o u n t r i e s . T h i s i s o f t e na

    r e s u l t ,

    i none way or

    a n o t h e r ,

    of

    t h e

    s o c i o - e c o no mi c c o mp l e x of

    t h o s e c o u n t r i e s .

    T h i s

    c e r t a i n l y

    a p p l i e s t o

    S a u d i

    A r a bi a

    wh e r e s o c i o - e c o no mi c

    f a c t o r s

    h a v e

    r e t a r d e d s t u d i e s

    on

    t h e

    s o i l s

    and

    t h e

    a g r i c u l t u

    E v e n a f t e r

    s o l v i n g t h e

    e c d no mi c

    d i f f i c u l t y t of i n a nc e s u c h

    s t u d i e s ,

    s i n c e t h e e a r l y

    1 9 5 0 s

    t h r o u g h t h e

    e v e r

    i n c r e a s i n g

    o i l

    r e v e nu e , Sa u d i

    A r a b i a has

    f a i l e d ,

    so f a r ,t o

    k e e p p a c e

    w i t h

    t h e d e v e l o p me n t s t u d i e s

    of

    i t s

    a g r i c u l t u r a l

    e c o n o my .

    T h i s f a i l u r e i s , u ndo u bt e dl y , due t o a c o mp l e x of

    s o c i a l

    and

    p o l i t i c a l f a c t o r s ,

    wh i c h

    a r e

    b e y o n d

    t h e

    s c o p e

    of

    t h i s

    s t u d y .

    The

    s e v e r i t y

    o f s u c h a s h o r t a g e i n

    a g r i c u l t u r a l

    p l a n n i n

    s t u d i e s i s

    w e l l

    d e mo n s t r a t e d

    by

    t h e

    f a c t

    t h a t

    t h e r e i s ,

    so

    f a r ,

    no c o mp r e h e ns i v e s t u dy or maps of

    s o i l s

    nor

    s o c i o - e c o no

    s t a t i s t i c a l da t a f o r t h e

    a g r i c u l t u r a l a r e a s

    i n S a u d i A r a b i a ,

    a p a r t f r o m

    w a d i

    J i z a n

    a r e a

    ( s o u t h - we s t of

    S a u d i

    A r a b i a )

    wh e r

    p r e l i m i n a r y s o i l and c a p a b i l i t y

    c l a s s i f i c a t i o n

    s t u d i e s

    we r e

    c o n d u c t e d

    by

    P. A. O

    i n

    1 9 5 2 .

    Ho we v e r ,

    a k i ng do m- wi de ma s t e r p l a n f o r wa t e r , s o i l , an

    a g r i c u l t u r e

    p o t e n t i a l i t y

    s t u d i e s

    was

    i n i t i a t e d

    i n 1 9 6 5 .

    A c c o r d i n g t o

    t h i s

    p l a n t h e k i ng do m i s d i v i d e d

    i n t o

    e i g h t

    a r e

    a nd e a c hwas g i v e n t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l e n g i n e e r i n g c o n s u l t a n t s

    t o i n v e s t i g a t eand r e p o r t on t h e n a t u r a l p o t e n t i a l i t i e sof

    t h os e a r e a s . I t i se x pe c t e d

    t h a t

    t h e

    f i r s t

    r e s u l t s

    of t h e s e

    s t u d i e s w i l l be a v a i l a b l eby t h e end of 1 9 6 8 and t h e

    l a t e s t

    a r o u nd

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    d e t a i l e d

    s t u d i e s .

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    The r e g i o nof

    a l - Qa s s i m

    o c c u p i e s t h e n o r t h e r n

    p a r t

    o f Na j d ,

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    l owr e l i e f and f o r ms

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    t h e e a s t , n o r t h - e a s t , and s o u t h - e a s t by

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    r e g i o n of C e n t r a l K a j d on t h e s o u t h . Wi t h an a r e a of

    1 8, 7 0

    s q u a r e

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    c o n s i s t s of many l a r g e p e n e t r a

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    ma j o r p h y s i o g r a p h i c

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    A

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    s i g n i f i c a n t h i s t o r i c a l

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    of

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    phe nome no n

    has

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    LOCATION OF AL-QASS/M

    NEUTRAL ZONE

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    ha s b r o u g h t a bo u t r e l a t i v e l y a c t i v e e c o n o mi c

    a c t i v i t i e s

    a nd n o t i c e a b l e p r o s p e r i t y t o t h e r e g i o n' s s e t t l e me n t s .

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    d e mo n s t r a t i o n was i n t h e r e c e n t

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    t h i r d a nd

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    o ve r t h e r u l e o f Na j d d u r i n g t h e 1 9 3 0 s ;

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    n o r t h o f

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    h i m.

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    a

    new e r a i n t h e

    p o l i t i c a l

    h i s t o r y o f A r a b i a .

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    t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e r e g i o n t h a t t h e r e r e s u l t e d a n o v e r

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    c u l t i v a t e d

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    v

    a r e a s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e

    Qa s s i m

    became u n t i l r e c e n t l y a

    d e p o p u l a t i o n a r e a . I n

    many u r b a n

    c e n t r e s i n t h e k i n g do m,

    e s p e c i a l l y

    M a c c a h , and Ar

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    t h e a bs o l u t e

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    2 2 2 , 7 6 1

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    wh i c h c o n s t i t u t e s

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    o f 2 . 5

    p e r c e n t , t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f

    t h e - Qa s s i m

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    a b o u t 2 4 5 , 8 0 0 ,

    a f i g u r e wh i c h may be t a k e n

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    M i n i s t r y

    o f

    F i n a nc e

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    Economy.

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    MAIN SETTLEMENTS AND ROADS IN THE, AtrOASSIM

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    v

    T h r o u g ho u t

    t h e c e n t n r i e s s h o r t a g e o f wa t e r ha s p l a y e d

    a p r e mi e r r o l e i n d e t e r mi n i n g t h e t y p e o f c r o p s , t y p e s o f

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    c u l t i v a t e d

    a r e a s , a nd t h e s i z e o f

    c r o p p e d a r e a i n t h e r e g i o n . Cr o p s

    we r e

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    a r a t h e r s ma l l a r e a and c o n f i n e d t o

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    h o u s e h o l d c o n s u mp t i o n. The

    p r e v a i l i n g

    t y p e o f f a r mi n g was a

    s e mi - s u b s i s t e nc e

    o r s u b s i s t e n c e i nmany l o c a l i t i e s . Wa t e r

    was o n l y

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    a r a t h e r s ma l l p o r t i o n o f t h e a c t u a l a r e a o f h o l d i n g s b e i n g

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    e a r l y 1950s . whe n

    a r t e s i a n w a t e r

    was d i s c o v e r e d i n

    h u g e q u a n t i t i e s

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    t h e ma r k e t i n g

    f a c i l i t i e s

    a r e t h o s e wh i c h

    we r e

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    v i i i

    s u i t a b l e

    f o r t h e v e r y

    l i m i t e d

    ma r k e t - o r i e n t a t e d c r o p

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    i n v e s t i g a t e d

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    d e v e l o p me n t p r a c t i c e s and p l a ns . The

    s e c o n d

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    (k)

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    wh e r e empha s es

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    p r o b l e ms

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    o f p l a n t a nd a n i ma l d i s e a s e

    c o n t r o l .

    T h i s f i n a l c h a p t e r

    i s

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    r e g a r d e d as t h e

    f i r s t

    c o mp r e h e ns i v e g e o g r a p h i c a l s t u dy o f

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    g e o g r a p h i c a l

    u n i t .

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    i n t o t wo s t a g e s . F i r s t l y ,

    s o i l s s u r v e y a nd s a mp l i n g , and s e c o ndl y , t h e s o c i o - e c o no m c

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    c o n s u l t a n t s P a r s o n- Ba s i l wh e r e t h e w r i t e r was p e r mi t t e d t o

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    w i t h

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    p i t s

    we r e du g t o a n a v e r a g e d e p t h o f t wo me t r e s ( p l a t e

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    s o i l

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    t h e D e p a r t me n t o f

    G- eog r aphy

    i n t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Dur ha m, and

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    P l a t e

    N o . i . One o f t h e e x a m i n e d d e e p pit

    mm

    P l a t e

    N o . i i .

    One o f t h e e x a m i n e d s o i l e x p o s u r e s . I t

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    a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 km. e a s t o f a l - M r a b o a a

    v i l l a g e .

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    x

    e a c h

    was

    g i v e n

    a

    : t i i 6o. ughr out i ne c h e mi c a l

    and

    p h y s i c a l

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    o t h e r . '

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    f o r S o i l

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    f r o m v a r i o u s s o u r c e s , i n c l u d i n g

    ^

    ^A pp e n d i x

    J

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    x i

    u n p u b l i s h e d

    or

    c o n f i d e n t i a l m a t e r i a l ,

    and

    p e r s o n a l

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    i nf i l l i n g many

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    many

    i d e a s .

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    x i i

    Co n t e n t s

    P r e f a c e I i i

    I n t r o d u c t i o n i i - x i i

    ( P a r t

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    Ch a p t e r

    2 G eo mo r p hi c

    F e a t u r e s

    9 -23

    2 . 1 The

    a r i d c y c l e

    o f e r o s i o n * 9 - 1 0

    2 . 2 Ge n e r a l

    l a n d

    f o r ms

    i n t he

    r e g i o n

    1 0

    - 1 1

    2 . 3

    West f a c i n g

    e s c a r p me n t 11 -11+

    2 . 4

    Nu f u d 14-17

    2 . 5

    The g r a v e l

    p l a i n s 1 7

    - 2 1

    2 . 6 Wadi Ar

    Rma

    21

    -23

    ( P a r t

    I I . The

    C l i ma t e

    and

    Wa t e r . 2k-kk

    Ch a p t e r 3 C l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s

    and

    s u r f a c e

    h y d r o l o g y 2 4 r 3 1

    3.1

    T e mp e r a t u r e s

    25-25

    3 . 2

    R e l a t i v e

    Hu mi d i t y 2 5

    - 2 6

    3 . 3 Wi n d

    and

    r a i n f a l l 2 6- 2 7

    3 . 4 E v a p o r a t i o n 2 7 -2 9

    3 . 5 Run o f f and r e c h a r g e

    29

    - 31

    C h a p t e r

    4

    Gr o u n d wa t e r h y d r o l o g y

    3 2 -4 4

    4.1

    H i s t o r i c a l " b ac k gr o u n d

    3 2 -3 3

    4 . 2 S u r f a c e

    a q u i f e r s

    33 -35

    4 . 3

    Deep

    a q u i f e r s

    .

    3 5 -3 6

    4 . 4

    J i l h

    a q u i f e r 36 -36

    4 . 5

    K h u f f

    a q u i f e r

    3 6 -3 7

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    x

    4 . 6

    T al o uk a q u i f e r

    37-38

    4 . 7

    Sag a q u i f e r

    3 8 -3 9

    4 . 8

    A q u i f e r s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

    39-41

    4 . 9

    Wa t e r

    u t i l i z a t i o n

    ( P a r t

    I I I . The

    S o i l s . 4 6 - 1 0 2 )

    41 -44

    Ch a pt e r 5 N a t u r a l v e g e t a t i o n and s o i l

    f o r m a t i o n

    4 6 - 5 2

    5.1

    N a t u r a l v e g e t a t i o n

    46-4-9

    5.2

    T he

    f a c t o r s

    o f s o i l

    f o r m a t i o n 4 9 - 5 2

    Ch ap t e r 6

    S o i l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n

    5 3 - 7 4

    6.1

    T he

    Wa d i

    A s s o c i a t i o n

    5 5 - 6 3

    6.2

    T he Qa a ( B a s i n ) A s s o c i a t i o n

    63-69

    6 .3

    T he

    S a h l ( D e s e r t P l a i n )

    A s s o c i a t i o n

    6 9 - 7 4

    Ch a pt e r 7

    S o i l c h e mi c a l p r o p e r t i e s and

    s o i l f e r t i l i t y 75-86

    7.1

    C he mi c a l

    p r o p e r t i e s

    75-79

    7.2

    S o i l

    f e r t i l i t y

    and f e r t i l i z e r

    p r a c t i c e

    79-86

    Ch a pt e r 8

    L a n d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n

    87-1 0

    8.1

    I n t r o d u c t i o n

    8 7 - 90

    8.2

    C l a s s I I l a n d s ( C I I L )

    90-94

    8.3

    C l a s s

    I I I l a n d s

    94-1 0

    8 .4

    C l a s s

    VI l a n d s

    ( P a r t I V. The A g r i c u l t u r e . 1 0 3 - 1 6 6

    1 00 -1 0

    Ch a p t e r 9

    T he p a t t e r n o f

    a g r i c u l t u r a l

    p r o d u c t i o n

    103

    14

    9.1

    I n t r o d u c t i o n

    1

    03-1

    9 .2

    T he l a n d s y s t e m

    1

    05-1

    9 .3

    Me t h o d s

    o f

    c u l t i v a t i o n

    and t y p e s

    o f f a r m i n g

    114-12

    9 .4

    Cr o p

    p r o d u c t i o n

    124-13

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    X

    9. 5

    9. 6

    A n i ma l

    h u s b a n d r y

    A g r i c u l t u r a l ma r k e t i n g

    136- 1

    141- 1

    C h a p t e r 1 0

    10.1

    10.2

    10 .3

    1 0 . 4

    P r o b l e ms of a g r i c u l t u r a l

    d e v e l o p me n t

    1 4 5- 1

    L a b o u r

    f o r c e

    and

    f a r m

    e q u i p me n t 14 5- 1

    P r o b l e ms ,

    o f

    i r r i g a t i o n

    and

    p l a n t

    wa t e r r e q u i r e me n t s 1 52 - 1

    P r o b l e ms

    of

    p l a n t

    and

    a n i ma l

    d i s e a s e s 1 58 - 1

    F u t u r e a g r i c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p me n t 1 63 - 1

    C o n c l u s i o n

    1 6 7 H

    A p pe n d i x A

    A p pe n d i x B

    A p pe n d i x C

    A p pe n d i x D

    A p p e n d i x

    B

    A p pe n d i x

    F

    A p p e n d i x G

    A p pe n d i x H

    A p pe n d i x I

    A p pe n d i x J

    ( Ap pe n d i c e s

    174 - 2 2 0 )

    G l o s s a r y

    o fA r a b i c wo r d s 1751

    C l i m a t i c

    d a t a

    1 77 - 1

    Gr o u n d wa t e r Hy d r o l o g y Da t a 1 8 7- 1

    V e g e t a t i o n

    S p e c i e s T a b l e s 1 9

    ^H

    S o i l Ch e mi c a l A n a l y s i s Da t a 2 0 0- 2

    Summar y o f

    a r a b l e

    l a n d s

    d a t a

    2 05- 2

    Summar y o f l a n d h o l d i n g s i n t he

    Qa s s i m 2 08 - 2

    A g r i c u l t u r a l s t a t i s t i c s

    2 1

    1 - 2

    I r r i g a t i o n

    Wa t e r d a t a 2 1 6- 2

    S o i l

    p r o f i l e d e s c r i p t i o n s s h e e t 2 1 9- 2

    B i b l i o g r a p h y

    221 -2

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    E i s t o f F i g u r e s

    F i g . 1

    L o c a t i o n o f a l - Qa s s i m

    F i g ; 2 Ma i n

    s e t t l e me n t s an d r o ad s i n t h e

    a l - Qa s s i m

    F i g . 3

    S t r u c t u r a l

    g e o l o g i c p r o v i n c e s o f

    S a u d i A r a b i a

    F i g . l + A l - Qa s s i m o u t c r o p s e q u e n c e

    F i g . 5 S u r f a c e o u t c r o p o f t h e g e o l o g i c

    f o r ma t i o n

    o f t h e a l - Qa s s i m

    F i g . 6

    Ma i n g e o mo r p h i c

    _ r e a t u r e s o f t h e

    r e g i o n o f a l - Qa s s i m

    F i g . 7 Mo n t h l y a v e r a g es o f r e l a t i v e

    h u mi d i t y

    an d t e mp e r a t u r e

    F i g . 8

    T e mp er a t u r e a v e r a g e s

    F i g . 9 R e l a t i v e h u mi d i t y p e r c e n t a g e

    F i g . 1 0 Mo n t h l y a v er a g e s o f e v a p o r a t i o n

    an d

    r a i n f a l l

    F i g . 11

    Summar y o f

    w e l l s i n v e n t o r y

    i n t h e

    Qa s s i m

    F i g . 1 2 Gr o u n d wa t e r a q u i f e r s i n t h e r e g i o n

    o f

    a l - Qa s s i m

    F i g . 1 3 T o t a l

    d i s s o l v e d

    s a l t s i n g r o u n d wa t e r

    o f t h e Qa s s i m a s

    r e l a t e d

    t o

    e l e c t r i c a l

    c o n d u c t i v i t y

    F i g . 1

    E f f e c t s o f wi t h d r a wa l o f wa t e r ,

    S a q - s a n d s t o n e , Qa s s i m r e g i o n .

    F i g . 1 5 P i e z o me t r i c

    s u r f a c e c o n t o u r s o f

    Saq a q u i f e r i n t h e r e g i o n o f

    a l - Qa s s i m

    F i g . 1 6

    Ge o g r a p h i c a l

    d i s t r i b u t i o n

    o f t h e

    s o i l a s s o c i a t i o n , t h e Qa s s i m

    F i g . 1 7 L e v e l s o f f e r t i l i z e r s a p p l i e d i n

    t h e c i t e d

    e x p e r i me n t s

    F i g . 1 8 I n d e x map o f

    l a n d

    c l a s s i f i c a t i o n

    z o ne s , t h e Qa s s i m

    F i g . 1 9

    L o c a t i o n o f a r a b l e l a n d s i n t h e

    r e g i o n o f a l - Qa s s i m, Sa u d i A r a b i a

    a f t e r p a g e

    i

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    x v

    P i g . 2 0

    A r a b l e an d n o n - a r a b l e l a n d s p e r c e n t a g e s A f t e r p a g

    P i g . 2 1

    Gl a s s I I l a n d s

    it i

    P i g . 2 2

    Cl a s s

    I I I

    l a n d s

    it

    P i g .

    2 3

    L a n d

    c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ,

    t h e

    Qa s s i m

    t h e

    wad i

    z o n e ,

    P i g .

    2 4

    L a n d

    c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ,

    z o n e , t h e Qa s s i m

    As h Sh ma s ey y a h

    P i g .

    2 5

    L a n d

    c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ,

    t h e

    Qa s s i m

    a l A s y a h

    z o n e ,

    P i g . 2 6

    L a n d

    c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ,

    t h e

    Qa s s i m

    Qu s a i b a z o n e ,

    P i g .

    2 7

    L a n d

    c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ,

    t h e

    Qa s s i m

    Mi d h n a b

    z o n e ,

    P i g . 2 8

    A g r i c u l t u r a l

    d i s t r i c t s

    i n t h e

    r e g i o n

    o f

    a l - Qa s s i m

    .'-

    P i g .

    2 9

    P e r c e n t a g e s o f t y p e s

    t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l

    Qa s s i m

    o f

    h o l d i n g s i n

    d i s t r i c t s , t h e

    P i g . 3 0

    P er c e n t a g es o f c r o p p e d a r e a s i n t h e

    a g r i c u l t u r a l

    d i s t r i c t s , t h e Qa s s i m

    P i g . 31

    P e r c e n t a g e s o f

    p r o d u c t i o n

    o f ma i n

    c r o p s i n t h e

    a g r i c u l t u r a l

    d i s t r i c t s ,

    t h e

    Qa s s i m

    P i g .

    3 2

    C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f i r r i g a t i o n wa t e r s ,

    t h e

    Qa s s i m

    P i g . 3 3

    T he wa t e r r e q u i r e me n t s o f ma i n c r o p s ,

    t h e

    Qa s s i m

    1

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    x v i i i

    L i s t o f P l a t e s

    P l a t e

    i

    P l a t e i i

    P l a t e i i i

    P l a t e

    i v

    P l a t e v v

    P l a t e

    v i

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    i x

    P l a t e

    x

    P l a t e

    x i

    P l a t e x i i

    P l a t e x i i i

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    x v

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    P l a t e x v i i

    P l a t e x v i i i

    P l a t e

    x i x

    P l a t e x x

    One o f t h e e x a mi n e d

    s o i l

    deep

    p i t s

    A f t e r

    One o f t h e e x a mi n e d

    s o i l

    e x po s u r e s

    Ha n ad i r s c a r p a t i t s p o i n t o f

    i n t e r a c t i o n

    F o s s i l wood f r o m

    Lower K h u f f

    t r a n s i t i o n z o n e

    F o s s i l

    wood same h o r i z o n a s a b o v e

    L o g o f

    p e t r i f i e d

    wo o d ,

    K h u f f

    f o r m a t i o n

    G r o s s

    l a mi n a t e d

    s a n d s t o n e , u pp e r

    As

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    o f KhashmK h u r t u m

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    A n o t h e r v i e w o f K hu r t u m e s c a r p me n t

    S h a l e b l u f f

    c a p p e d

    "by h a r d l i m e s t o n e

    o f K h u f f f o r m a t i o n

    A s e r i e s o f s h i n g l e - l i k e

    "benches

    o f t h e "back o f K h u f f e s c a r p me n t

    A r e mn a n t o f t h e r e t r e a t i n g

    c l i f f

    o f K h u f f

    e s c a r p me n t

    E r g . a l - Ma d hh u r

    Nu f u d

    a t T r e f i y a h

    Nu f u d As S i r r , a v i e w o f a

    r a d i a l

    r i d g e o n s a n d p e a k

    Nu f u d B r a y d a h,

    b o r d e r i n g

    Wa d i

    A r

    Rma

    D u r i c r u s t , r e ma i n i n g a s r e s i s t a n t

    c ap r o c k

    Cl o s e - u p o f

    d u r i c r u s t ,

    s h o wi n g

    s p o n g y ,

    h o n e y c o mb s t r u c t u r e

    A l - Me s t we y p l a i n , i t s s o u t h e r n

    p a r t

    p a g e

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    it

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    12

    12

    12

    13

    13

    13

    1U

    16

    16

    17

    18

    18

    19

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    x i x .

    P l a t e x x i

    P l a t e

    x x i i

    P l a t e x x i i i

    P l a t e

    x x i v

    P l a t e xxv

    P l a t e x x v i

    P l a t e

    x x v i i

    P l a t e

    x x v i i i

    P l a t e x x i x

    P l a t e xxx

    P l a t e x x x i

    P l a t e x x x i i

    P l a t e

    x x x i i i

    P l a t e x x x i v

    P l a t e

    x x x v

    P l a t e x x x v i

    P l a t e x x x v i i

    P l a t e

    x x x v i i i

    P l a t e x x x i x

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    x l

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    P l a t e x l i i

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    x l i i i

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    x l i v

    A l - Me s t we y

    p l a i n , f u r t h e r n o r t h A f t e r p a g e1

    T he c o mp l e x t o p o g r a p hy o f As

    S u a i r a h

    p l a i n

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    o f Wad i " A r Rmah

    Au n a y z a h' s M e t e o r o l o g i c a l s t a t i o n

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    f i r s t f l o w i n g a r t e s i a n

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    a r t e s i a n wa t e r

    o f

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    on

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    me t h o d o f i r r i g a t i o n

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    Mi x e d

    and c l o s e l y

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    s p e c i a l i z e d

    f a r ms

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    g r o wi n g

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    a r e a

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    t r e e s

    as a p e r ma n e n t f e n c eo f

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    12

    12

    14

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    L i s t o f T a b l e s

    P a g e N

    T a b l e

    1

    T he

    p o p u l a t i o n

    o f t h e Qa s s i m

    v i

    T a b l e

    2

    S o i l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n

    o r d e r

    45

    T a b l e

    3

    S o i l a s s o c i a t i o n s '

    s e r i e s

    55

    T a b l e

    4

    R e s p o n s e v a l u e s o f a l f a l f a a n d t o ma t o e s

    83

    T a b l e

    5

    R e s p o n s e

    v a l u e

    o f wh ea t

    84

    T a b l e 6

    R e s p o n s e

    v a l u e

    o f b a r l e y

    85

    T a b l e

    7

    B a r l e y y i e l d

    kg

    /450m

    85

    T a b l e 8

    Q u a n t i t i e s o f o r g a n i c ma n u r e

    t r a d i t i o n a l l y

    a p p l i e d

    f o r

    t r e e s

    1 1 6

    T a b l e

    9

    Ad o p t e d

    f r e q u e n c y

    o f i r r i g a t i o n

    wa t e r a p p l i c a t i o n

    119

    T a b l e

    10

    Summar y o f n e c e s s a r y c u l t i v a t i o n

    p r a c t i c e s f o r

    f e ma l e p a l m- t r e e s

    121

    T a b l e

    11

    E s t i ma t e s o f y i e l d s , c o s t s , a n d

    p r i c e s

    o f f i v e ma j o r c r o p s a n d g r o u p s i n

    t h e r e g i o n

    136

    T a b l e

    12

    R u r a l

    p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e

    Qa s s i m

    146

    T a b l e

    13

    P e a k f r e q u e n c y

    o f i r r i g a t i o n i n t h e

    Qa s s i m

    158

    T a b l e

    14

    A n i ma l d i s e a s e s

    i n t h e Qa s s i m 161

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    PART I

    THE LAND

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    2

    C h a p t e r 1

    T he

    G e o l o g i c a l S e t t i n g

    1.1

    S t r u c t u r a l

    G e o l o g y

    T h r e e s t r u c t u r a l p r o v i n c e s a r e r e c o g n i z e d a s t h e m a i n

    s t r u c t u r a l ba se s o f S a u d i A r a b i a F i g . 3 ) . T h e s e a r e t h e

    A r a b i a n

    S h i e l d ,

    t h e A r a b i a n S h e l f , a nd t h e I n t e r i o r P l a t f o r m

    T he A r a b i a n

    S h i e l d

    o c c u p i e s t h e w e s t e r n

    p a r t

    o f t h e c o u n t r y ,

    a nd forms a v a s t

    c o m pl e x

    of igne ous and m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s .

    A t t h e c o n t a c t p o i n t w i t h t h e ne x t s t r u c t u r a l

    u n i t ,

    t h e

    A r a b i a n S h e l f , i t

    forms

    a s h a r p , s ig m o i da l - s h a p e d c o n t a c t

    zon e

    f r i n g i n g t h e s ou t h w e s t e r n

    e d g e

    o f t h e Q a s s i m l a n d s *

    T he A r a b i a n S h e l f i s t h e s e c o n d br o a d

    d i v i s i o n

    w i t h i n t h e

    s t a b l e

    r e g i o n o f A r a b i a , a nd t h e

    c e n t r a l ,

    t h e e a s t e r n a nd

    most o f t h e w e s t e r n p a r t s o f t h e Q a s sim l i e w i t h i n i t I t

    i s

    c ompos ed

    of s e d i me n t a r y r o c k s r a n g i n g i n a g e

    from

    t h e

    P a l e o z o i c

    e r a t o t h e C e n o z o i c . L i me s t o ne i s t h e

    most

    s t r i k i

    r o c k t y p e , b u t s a n d s t o n e s a n d s h a l e s a r e p r e s e n t i n l a r g e

    a moun t s a nd a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d

    l a r g e l y

    i n t h e P a l e o z o i c r o c k s .

    A l l

    u n i t s

    m a i n t a i n l i t h o l o g i c

    u n i f o r m i t y

    o v e r l a r g e a r e a s ,

    a nd

    w h e r e

    s h i f t s i n f a c i e s d o o c c u r t h e y a r e

    u s u a l l y

    g r a d u a l

    T he I n t e r i o r P l a t f o r m o c c u p ie s t h e e a s t e r np a r t o f S a u d

    A r a b i a . I t forms a b r o a d e x p a n s e of r e l a t i v e l y l ow t e r r a i n

    fo r m e d c h i e f l y by M io c e n e - P l i o c e n c e r o c k s . B u r i e d d e e p l y

    i n

    t he

    J u r a s s i c

    a nd C r e t a c e o u s

    s t r a t a

    a r e t he r i c ho i l

    r e s e r v e s o f S a u d i A r a b i a .

    T he b a s i c s t r u c t u r e o f t h e Q a s s im i s a g e n t l y e a s t w a r d

    d i p p i n g h o mo c l i n e w h i c h r e s t s on the

    s t a b l e

    p r e - C a m b r i a n c o r

    o f t h e A r a b i a n

    S h i e l d .

    S e d i m e n t s

    h a v e

    b e e n d e p o s i t e d a l o n g

    t h e m a r g i n of t h e

    S h i e l d

    i n a n a r c u a t e p a t t e r n c onc a v e t o

    t h e w e s t a nd ro ug h l y c o n c e n t r i c t o i t .

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    STRUCTURAL GEOLOG IC PROVINCES OF SAUDI ARAB/A

    t S6

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    Ge n t l e e p e i r o n g e n i c

    mo v emen t s

    h a v e "been c o n c e n t r a t e d

    i n a n e as t - we s t r i d g e ,

    c a l l e d

    t h e Hu f u f H o s e , a t L a t i t u d e

    2kN., wh i c h r o u g h l y b i s e c t s t h e S h i e l d . Du r i n g e a r l y

    P a l e o z o i c t i me t h i s

    z o n e

    was a

    p o s i t i v e . r i d g e

    i n t h e

    b a s e me n

    A f t e r

    i t s

    e l e v a t i o n ,

    s e d i me n t s

    we r e r e mo v e d

    t o p e r mi t

    d e p o s i t i o n

    o f

    K h u f f

    l i me s t o n e d i r e c t l y o n t h e p r e - Ca mb r i a n

    o f

    t h e Nose d u r i n g t h e wi d e s p r e a d i n v a s i o n o f P e r mi a n s e as .

    T he p r e s e n t s t r u c t u r a l l y . h i g h p o s i t i o n o f t h e Nose i s t h e

    r e s u l t o f a g r a d u a l a r c h i n g , now e v i d e n c ed b y t h e s l i g h t l y

    s t e e p e r d i p s o f t h e h o mo c l i n a l b e d s i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e

    n o s e .

    F u r t h e r n o r t h ,

    t h e a r e a a r o u n d H a i y l t o wn ( a t r o u g h l y

    3 0 '

    N )

    h a s a s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s u p e r f i c i a l l y s i m i l a r t o t h e

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    k n o wn

    as

    H a i y l

    N o s e . T h i s

    Nose

    was

    a p p a r e n t l y

    c a u s e d

    b y t h e a b r u p t s o u t h - we s t c u r v e s o f t h e

    p r e - Ca mb r i a n c o n t a c t , wh i c h e x t e n d r o u g h l y n o r t h

    we s t

    f o r

    5 0 0 km.

    a b o v e

    t h e Hu f u f N o s e , a r o u n d t h e p r e c i p i t o u s h ea d l a n

    o f

    t h e A j j a mo u n t a i n s , a t H a i y l . A b r o a d empayment i s

    k n o w n

    t o h a v e

    e x t e n d e d s o u t h wa r d i n t h e r e g i o n o f H a i y l d u r i n g t h e

    P a l e o z o i c e r a .

    The

    o v e r l y i n g

    P a l e o z o i c s e d i me n t s , wh i c h

    h a v e

    a c o n s i s t

    r e g i o n a l r i s e o f 4 N. 5

    W.

    f r o m Qu s a i b a ( a t 26 5 0

    ' N)

    n o r t h

    we s t o f B r a y d a h t o

    B a q a a

    ( a t 2 7 50

    ' . N. )

    n o r t h e a s t o f H a i y l

    s wi n g g r a d u a l l ywe s t i n c o n f o r mi t y t o t h e

    t r e n d

    o f t h e u n d e r

    l y i n g b a s e me n t . I n t h e 2 5 0 km b e t we e n B r a y d a h an d

    H a i y l

    t h e r e i s a g r a d u a l r e g i o n a l

    r i s e

    i n e l e v a t i o n o f

    2 0 0

    me t r e s .

    S t r u c t u r a l

    d i s t u r b a n c e s i n

    t h i s

    a r e a a r e

    l i m i t e d

    t o

    m i l d

    t e n s i o n a l a d j u s t me n t .

    1 . 2 S u r f a c e Ou t c r o p

    T he s t r a t i g r a p h i c s e q u e n c e s

    e x p o s e d

    i n t h e Qa s s i m i n c l u

    f o r ma t i o n s

    r a n g i n g f r o m t h e p r e - Ca mb r i a n b a s e me n t

    c o mp l e x

    t o

    t h e

    Ce n o z o i c s ed i me n t a r y d e p o s i t s ( F i g u r e k . T he s u r f a c e

    o u t c r o p p i n g

    o f t h e g e o l o g i c f o r ma t i o n o f t h e Qa s s i m i s o f a

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    1

    i s

    Q

    O'

    - J

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    NVkimtS ON NVIMAOOm

    i s;

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    s t r i k i n g g r a d u a l h o r i z o n t a l o c c ur r e n c e i n a

    NW-S.E.

    d i r e c t i o n . The o l d e s t f o r ma t i o n ( p r e - Ca mb r i a n) o u t c r o p s i n

    t h e

    we s t e r n mo s t p a r t o f t h e r e g i o n . To t h e e a s t and g r a d u a l

    y ou n ge r

    f o r ma t i o ns

    o u t c r o p ,

    w h i l s t

    a t t h e e as t e r n mo s t p a r t o

    t h e r e g i o n

    t h e y o un ge s t

    f o r m a t i o n

    o f t h e

    Upper

    T e r i a s s i c

    i s

    f o un d ( F i g u r e 5 ) . The c r u s t a l f o r m a t i o n o f t h e Qa s s i m i s a

    p a r t o f t h e

    huge

    p l a t f o r m o f

    c r y s t a l l i n e

    r o c k s f o r mi n g t h e

    A f r o - A r a b i a n

    S h i e l d .

    I t i s a c ompl e x o f i g n e o us and me t a mo r

    r o c k s ,

    d o mi n a t e d by s c h i s t s a nd i g n e o us i n t r u s i o n s . T h e r e i

    a ma j o r u n c o n f o r mi t y bet ween t h e Bas emen t

    Comp l ex

    a nd t h e

    P a l e o z o i c Saq s a nds t o ne i n t h e

    Qas s i m,

    and l o w r i d g e s and

    s h a l l o w

    v a l l e y s

    a r e p r e s e r v e d a l o n g t h e c o n t a c t l i n e . An

    e xamp l e o f t h e s e a r e s e e n t o t h e n o r t h o f J a b a l a r

    Raha

    1*2

    50*E. 26 1 5' N) , e a s t t o t h e

    Qa s s i m

    wh e r e a n ar r o w r i d g e o f

    t h e

    g r a n i t e

    e x t e nd s e a s t wa r d

    i n t o

    t h e

    o v e r l y i n g

    Saq s a n d s t o n

    The Sa q s a n d s t o n e i s t h e

    mo s t

    p e r s i s t e n t and wi d e s p r e a dmemb

    o f t h e A y o u n Gr o u p o f t h e

    Ca mb r o - Or d ov i c i a n

    s ys t e m. I t

    o u t c r o p s i n aNW-S.E. d i r e c t i o n i n t h e we s t e r n p a r t o f t h e

    Qa s s i m e x t e n d i n g

    n o r t h

    n e a r l y t o t h e l a t i t u d e (28 05' N. )

    a n d s o u t h t o ( 21+

    2 0' N) .

    P r o m i t s f i r s t a p p ea r a n c e ; . under nea t h t h e K hu f f

    u nc o n f o r mi t y t h e f o r m a t i o n wi d e n s

    g r a d u a l l y

    o v e r t h e1 75 kma

    t o

    A u n a y z a h

    wh e r e i t i s a p p r o x i ma t e l y

    h k ms .

    wi d e .

    Fr om

    A u n a y z a h

    t h e o u t c r o p e x t e nd s N3 5W f o r 325

    k ms .

    t o t h e

    s o u t h e r n e d g e

    o f t h e Gr e at Nu f u d, n o r t h o f

    a l - Qa s s i m.

    No r t h

    o f Wa d i

    A r Rmah i t f o r ms a r o u g h ,

    hummocky

    p l a i n a nd

    r i s e s

    i mp e r c e p t i b l y

    t o wa r d t h e

    b a s e me n t .

    The

    p l a i n

    i s c o v e r e d

    w i t

    e r r a t i c , wi n d s c r a pe d b a s i n s and wi n d s c u l p t u r e d j e b a l ,

    u s u a l l y l o w and o f r u g ge d , i r r e g u l a r

    p a t t e r n . We s t wa r d

    t o wa r d t h e bas emen t t h e o u t c r o p f r e q u e n t l y f o r ms a l e v e l

    s u r f a c e

    c o v e r e d

    w i t h

    a t a l u s r e s i d u e o f

    b l a c k ,

    q u a r t z i t i c

    s l a b s .

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    SURFACE OUTCROP OF THE GEOLO GIC FORMATIONS OF THE AL OASSIM

    4 3 3 0

    43 OO

    -

    3

    7

    OO*

    z

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    Z

    / /

    y FORMATION

    6ASFMFNT COMLFX

    AB UK FORMATION

    MHFS

    FIGURE

    j

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    V a r i a t i o n s

    i n

    l i t h o l o g y w i t h i n

    t h e Saq f o r ma t i o n a r e

    l a r g e l y o f c o l o u r wh i c h may v a r y l o c a l l y t o mu s t a r d y e l l o w

    o r a p a l e

    b r i c k

    r e d . A f ew

    t h i n

    p a r t i n g s o f

    p u r p l i s h s e r i t i

    s i l t s t o n e

    a r e p r e s e nt . The f o r ma t i o n i s o f a

    w e l l r o un de d,

    c oa r s e t o

    med i um

    g r a i n e d , wh i t e

    s a n ds t o n e .

    S o r t i n g i s

    o f t e n

    p o o r

    and t h i n

    h a n d s

    o f f i n e q ua r t z pe bb l e s a r e common.

    S a nd s t o ne

    a d j a c e n t t o g r a n i t e s a r e p r e - e mi n e nt l y q u a r t z

    w i t h

    no f e l d s p a r s o r d a r k mi n e r a l s .

    The

    T a b u k

    f o r ma t i o n o f

    Or d o v i c i a n

    age

    o v e r l i e s S a q

    s a n ds t o ne

    and i s

    c ompos ed

    o f t h r e e p r o mi ne n t s h a l e l a y e r s

    s e p a r a t e d b y t wo

    t h i c k

    l a y e r s o f

    s a n ds t o ne ,

    and r e p r e s e n t s

    t h e

    Mi d d l e and

    Up p e r A y o u n

    f o r ma t i o n . I t o u t c r o ps

    i n t e r

    mi t t e n t l y

    a l on g a 300 km

    s t r i p

    f r o m t h e

    Gr e a t

    Nu f u d ( N )

    t o t h e t o wn o f A u n a y z a h ; a l o ng t h e n o r t h e r n t wo t h i r d s o f

    t h i s h a n d

    ( N . o f

    J a b a l

    Ha na d i r ) i t i s 35 km wi d e .

    S o ut h

    o f t h i s

    p o i n t t h e we s t e r n b a s a l c o n t a c t i s c ov e r e d by g r a v e l

    and s a n d d u n e s . The s u r f a c e o f t h e o ut c r o p i s i n p a r t c u t

    by an

    i n t r i c a t e s y s t e m

    o f

    mi n o r

    d r a i n a g e c h a n ne l s a nd no

    ma j o r wa d i s

    a r e p r e s e n t . On t h e o t h e r

    h a n d ,

    t h e

    d u r i c r u s t

    c o v er wh i c h

    o b s c u r e s

    t h e

    o r i g i n a l

    t o po gr a ph y makes t h e

    o u t c r o p s a p p e a r o n l y i n a d i s c o n t i n u o us c h a i n o f b a s i n s wh e r

    l o c a l i n t e r i o r

    d r a i n a ge has

    br e a c h ed

    t h i s T e r t i a r y

    c o ve r .

    The

    Ha n a d i r

    s h a l e

    member

    i s a t t h e

    b a s e

    o f t h e f o r ma t i o

    and has

    a t h i n z o n e

    i mme di a t e l y

    a b o v e

    t h e Saq

    s a n ds t o ne

    wh i c

    i s a v e r y p a l e , b l u e - g r e y ,

    s l i g h t l y

    ma r l y s h a l e ( P l a t e i i i .

    A b o v e

    t h i s

    t h e s h a l e

    be c omes

    g r e e n i s h - g r e y ,

    w i t h

    i n c r e a s i n g

    i n t e r c a l a t i o n s

    o f e x t r e me l y

    t h i n

    b e d d e d

    s e r c i t i c

    s a n ds t o ne

    t o wa r d t h e t o p o f t h e

    member.

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    l i e s o v e r t h e s e p a r a t i v e l a y e r o f

    s a n ds t o ne

    wh i c h o v e r l i e s

    t h e

    Ha na d i r

    s h a l e . I t i s s pe c k l e d

    w i t h

    d a r k mi n e r a l s up t o

    2 cm i n d i a me t e r and c o n t a i n s i n c r e a s i n g

    amount s

    o f

    t h i n

    b e d d e d s a nd s t o ne

    t o wa r d t h e t o p o f t h e

    member.

    The f t u s a i b a

    s h a l e member i sL v e r y f i n e g r a i n e d

    w e l l b e d d e d ,

    g r e y t o

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    P l a t e

    N o . i i i .

    H a n a d i r

    s c a r p

    a t i t s

    p o i n t

    o f i n t e r s e c t i o n w i t h

    J a o a l S a q . M a r l

    a t

    t h e

    f o o t

    o f

    v e r t i c a l

    c l i f f i n d i c a t e s

    l o c a t i o n o f L o w e r

    O r d o r i c i a n G r a p t o l i t e

    h o r i z o n .

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    g r e y - g r e en , s h a l e w i t h s ma l l l a y e r s o f h e ma t i t i c s i l k s t o n e .

    L i k e t h e o t h e r t wo s h a l e z o n e s

    i t g r a de s

    u p wa r d i n t o f i n e

    g r a i n e d ,

    w e l l bedded s a n ds t o ne .

    The K h u f f f o r ma t i o n o f t h e P e r mi a n age i s known t o e x t e

    i n

    Na j d

    o v e r a

    b a n d

    9 00

    km l o n g and r o u g h l y 20 km wi d e .

    P r o m t h e t y pe l o c a l i t y a t a p o i n t

    5.3

    km

    8

    W o f A i n K h u f f

    a t 2k

    55

    * N. kk 1+2' E. ) s o u t h t o a l - Qa s s i m, t h e c o n t i n uo us

    e x p o s u r e s

    o f t h e K h u f f f o r ma t i o n f o r 200 km o r i e n t e d N2

    5 W, t h r o u gh o ut t h e Qa s s i m r e g i o n a r e b r ok en o n l y by t h e

    c h an ne l o f

    Wa d i

    A r Rma.

    T h i r t y kms. n o r t h

    o f Ar

    Rma

    c h a nn e l

    t h e o u t c r o p

    becomes

    g r a d u a l l y o bs c u r e d by t h e

    d u r i c r u s t

    bl a nk e t o f t h e No r t h e r n Qa s s i m. No c o mp l e t e o u t c r o p s o f K h u

    r e c u r

    N.W o f

    t h i s

    p o i n t . I n t h e d u r i c r u s t a r e a t wo ba s i ns

    b r e a c h i n g t h e d u r i c r u s t e x p o s e p a r t i a l K h u f f s e c t i o n s .

    A p a r t f r o m t h e s e , a l l

    e x po s u r e s

    o f K h u f f a r e s ma l l o u t c r o p s

    o f e x t r e me l y we a t h e r e d l i me s t o n e wh i c h oc c u r i n wi n d o ws

    t h r o u g h t h e d u r i c r u s t .

    I n wa t e r w e l l s t h a t p e n e t r a t e t h e K h u f f f o r ma t i o n i n t h

    Qa s s i m, t h e l i t h o l o g y ma i n l y c o n s i s t s o f a n u p p e r e v a p o r i t e

    and s h a l e

    s e c t i o n

    wh i c h

    shows

    a g r a d u a l i n c r e a s e i n t h i c k n e s

    down

    d i p , and

    a

    l o we r c a r b o n a t e s e c t i o n i n t e r c a l a t e d w i t h a

    s h a l e , d o l o mi t e

    s e c t i o n

    a t t h e t o p . T h i s

    c a l c a r e mi t e s e c t i o

    makes a n e x c e l l e n t ma r k e r f o r c o r r e l a t i o n i n t h e Qa s s i m a r e a

    I n

    t h e

    v i l l a g e

    o f Qu s a i b a

    ( P i g . 2 ) ,

    a

    d e e p

    w e l l a t t h e n o r t h e

    edge o f t h e r e g i o n , a t h i n be d o f c a r b on a t e was e n c o un t e r e d

    t h e t o p o f t h e e v a p o r i t e . L e n s e s o f s a n d s t o n e we r e o b s e r v e d

    t h r o u g h t h e

    ma i n

    c a r b o na t e

    s e c t i o n . F o s s i l

    wood

    was

    e nc o un t e r e d a t t h e l o we r K h u f f t r a n s i t i o n z o n e ( P l a t e s i v ,

    v and v i . )

    Rocks o f T r i a s s i c age a r e r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e As

    S i r r

    f o r m a t i o n . T h i s i s

    known

    t o

    l i e