r

Review Article

Corrent Trends in Media Research

JUHA HERKMAN

In today's era of extensive specialisation researchers cornrnunication technology as well as fue econornicstend to know little about other approaches than that of communication insofar as fuese subjects were re-of their own expertise. Conceptions of research lated to media research. The project not onlyfields are often based more on personal and com- mapped academic media and communication re-mon assumptions than knowledge produced by em- search but algo, insofar as possible, research bypirical analyses. This article tries to clarify fue em- governmental institutions, prívate agencies andpirical reality of media research by summarising fue media companies. The findings were based on dataresults of the project 'Mapping Media and Com- conceming years 2005-2006, by and large, althoughmunication Research', which exarninedthe contents a few of the sub-projects have sample data from aand trends of current media and communication re- longer period and algo a more historical perspectivesearch in seven countries: Finland, the United on the changes and continuities in media and com-States, Germany, France, Japan, Estonia and Aus- munication research in a target country (e.g., Ger-tralia. The project was funded by the Helsingin many, France and Japan). The gathering and analy-Sanomat Foundation and carried out by the Com- gis of the data were carried out during autumn 2006munication Research Centre (CRC, University of and spring 2007.Helsinki) during a nine-month period between au- The project team agreed on the research ques-tumn 2006 and spring 2007.1 The purpose of the tions, the research principIes and the structure ofproject was to produce an overview of media-re- reports in advance in order to enhance meaningfullated research, in connection~with the launch of the comparison among the countries. Thus, the basicFoundation, but at the same time it offered a rafe questions and methods behind each country reportopportunity to outline the similarities and differ- are the same. The most important part of each sub-ences among academic approaches in the above- project was the interview study of key persons inmentioned countries. media and cornrnunication research. In all, 186 ex-

The project's main research questions were the perts were interviewed (see Table 1). Only the Ger-following: man sub-project wa~ based mainly on analysis of

written sources (Koivisto & Thomas 2007, 5).1. What kinds of media and communication re- The interviews produced data, not only facts

search are carried out in each specific country about media and communication research in eachand who is doing fue research? country, but algo evaluations and visions of the

2. How do different approaches relate to each state and future of such research. The project teamother? members together decided on the organisation,

themes and questions for the interviews. In all, the3. What is the relationship between research and data of the project consists of secondary data from

the media industries? previous studies and existing statistics and primary4. In which direction is research headed in the fu- data from interviews with key persons in media and

luce? communication research as well as some statisticalanalyses made by fue country teams themselves.

The focus of fue project was on media research, but At first glance the task of mapping the currentthe researchers algo took into account studies in state of media and communication research in largespeech cornrnunication, organisational cornrnunica- countries such as the U.S., Japan, France and Ger-tion, public relations, research and development of many looked like 'a rnission impossible'. It is clear

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Table l. Experts lnterviewedfor 'Mapping Media and Communication Research'

Finland Estonla Germany Franca U.S. Japan Australia N =

AII 32 22 12 19 40 37 24 186

Academy 16 9 11 16 35 14 18 119

Olher 16 13 1 3 5 23 6 67

~Men 20 13 7 12 31 30 19 132

Women 12 ~ 5 7 9 7 5 54 :,

j

Ihat this kind of short-term project cannot reveal all- of countries indicates the interests of the Founda-inclusive or complete knowledge of an issue as com- tion, which is no doubt interested in 'new innova-plex as media and communication research in any tive media markets' in South Korea and Japan, thecountry. Even the definitions of the key concepts of 'world's leading media market' -Ihe U.S. -various'media research' and 'communication research' vary examples of the 'Old World' (France, Germany,in different contexts which, in tum, has a multitude Great Britain), and the relationship of these coun-of effects on research institutions and disciplines in tries to the 'domestic context' (Finland) and itsthe countries studied. Thus, each country creates a close neighbour (Estonia).unique context for media and communication re- Variations among Ihe countries algo proved to besearch. Furthermore, the national media statistics as interesting from the academic point of view. Differ-well as the statistical analyses used as a background ences in size, languages, societies, cultures and poli-in country-specific sub-projects are often based on cies in each country made for an unusual combina-data and methods that are not directly comparable tion and forced the researchers to Ihink about theirto each olher. positions as researchers in a new way. Academic re-

As a result, this article will not provide statisti- search nowadays is remarkably specialised and re-caUy comparable knowledge about media and com- searchers tend to know little about approachesmunication research in the target countries. More- other than their own, even in their borne country -over, it may not be possible to make broad conclu- not to speak of approaches in other countries orsions from Ihe qualitative comparisons between the continents. 'Mapping Media and Communicationcountries. The goal of the article is simply to pro- Research' can therefore help media scholars to 10-vide a general overview of the current media and cate themselves in the broader context of the wholecommunication research in Ihe countries studied and field of research.to compare the countries descriptively rather than This article adopts the structure used in coun- IanalyticaUy. The comparison here is based mainly try-specific reports. Therefore, the four main sec- ¡on the country-specific sub-reports of 'Mapping tions are: 1) The media landscapes, 2) Main re- jMedia and Communication Research', but in search institutions and organisations, 3) Main ap-contextualising the project, the article algo draws proaches in media and communication research, andupon olher references.2 4) Future challenges to research. In the country-

It rnight be asked why Ihese particular countries specific reports each section was considered mainlywere included in the project. The target countries do from a national perspective. In Ibis paper the goal isnot constitute any homogenous group, quite the to clarify Ihe sirnilarities in research traditions in ad-contrary. They are located far from one another, dition to identifying national characteristics. TheIhey represent various languages and cultures and in first section then outlines the contexts -the struc-some cases their connections to media and commu- tures of the media market, media and communica-nication research do not appear self evident. The tion legislation, and media consumption -and indi-choise ?f target countries ,,:,as. originaUy made by c.ates where the resear~h in ea~h country i~ posi- ~the proJect's sponsor, Helsrngrn Sanomat Founda- tloned. The second sectlon conslders Ihe marn aca- ,tion. The Foundation has algo funded the same demic and non-academic research organisations inkinds of projects for Soulh Korea and Great Britain. each country, and the third section focuses on theThose projects are being carried out at the Univer- contents and trends in media and communication re-sity of Jyvaskyla, and they are not included in this search. These sections are based on data gatheredsummary because their results were not yet avail- by interviews as well as data from quantitativeable at the time of writing this article. The selection analyses made either by the research teams or by

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earlier researchers. The fourth section summarises tion and distribution but also media policies and leg-the views of the experts interviewed on the future islation in the target countries (e.g., Valaskivi 2007,challenges and developments of media and cornmu- 23-24; Herkman & Viihiimaa 2007, 11-12). Conver-nication research. gence and its consequences for media markets, con-

tent and communication policies have been much.discussed in many countries since the early 1990s

The MedIa Landscapes (see Baldwin et al. 1996; Küng et al. 1999; MarsdenOne task of the project was to map the structures & Verhulst 1999; Hassan 2000; Murdock 2000;ofmedia landscapes in fue target countries. This ob- Iosifidis 2002; Lowe & Hujanen 2003).jective was emphasised especially iffthe case of Ja-pan because the Japanese context is the most unfa- 2) Concentration of media ownership was an issuemiliar from a European point of view. Because the that carne up in one way or another in every targettarget countries are remarkably divergent, it was country. Most evident was the historical concentra-not easy to find dimensions in the various media tion of the press (e.g., Puustinen 2007, 18;landscapes that are clearly comparable. Neverthe- Rahkonen 2007, 25-31), but it was clear that cross-less, the connections of the media and communica- media ownership and conglomerates have also be-tion industries to the so-called globalisation process come more and more common in every target coun-reveals at least three interrelated but possibly con- try during the past few decades (e.g., Aslama et al.tradictory tendencies that link the target countries' 2007,22-23; Herkman & Viihiimaa 2007, 15-16;media landscapes, namely: 1) changes in media and Koivisto & Thomas 2007, 8). Another tendency hascommunication technologies, 2) concentration of been fue globalisation, or at least the internationali-media ownership, and 3) the ideal of a diverse or sation, of media corporations. This tendency haspluralistic public sphere. not only occurred in the homelands of the world's

biggest media corporations (e.g., the U.S., Japan,1) In each target country it has been clear for several Germany and France), but also in smaller countriesyears that fue diffusion of fue Internet, online com- and media markets such as Finland and Estonia. Formunication and mobile technology challenges the example, the Finnish company SanomaWSOY was'old media' in various ways. First, 'old media' have the largest media company in the Nordic countriesbeen digitalised and fused with the Internet and mo- until year 2007 and is also a leading magazine pub-hile networks, as fue digitalisation of television, fue lisher in the Benelux countries as well as in someincreasing number of web-papers and magazines, East European countries. Similarly, the Norwegianand the pilots of mobile- TV demonstrate (e.g., firm Schibsted and fue Swedish houses of BonnierAslama et al. 2007, 27-28, 40-42; Herkman & and Kinnevik own substantial shares of EstonianViihiimaa 2007, 15-31; Valaskivi 2007, 38-39). Sec- newspaper and television markets (Salovaara-ond, technological changes have also re-arranged glo- Moring & Kallas 2007, 16, 19). Along with concen-bal and national media markets so that the 'old tration fueTe has simultaneously -and paradoxicallymedia' increasingly have to compete with new net- -been a tendency towards micro-level and user-gen-work communication and ICT industries. erated content production by social networks (e.g.,

The most immediate pressure has been directed Aslama et al. 2007, 16-17). According to Davidtowards print media, which in every target country Hesmondhalgh (2002), this trend has be en morehas lost its strength as a media form and advertising general among globalising cultural industries duringchannel. Even though changes have not Jet been fa- the late 1990s and early 2000s.tal or devastating, in every target country the press In each country the media market could best beis now searching for ways to maintain its audience described as an 'oligopoly', in which the market isand advertising share especially in the competition mostly shared by a few large companies (see Picardfor younger media consumers. A good example of 1989,31-33). In most target countries there wasthis is fue New York Times Company, which on the also one media corporation that was remarkablyone hand is one of the most traditional and recog- larger than the others and therefore undeniably lednised U.S newspaper houses, while on the other the competition. These corporations included, forhand it has successfully invested a great deal in example, Time Warner in the U.S., Bertelsmann inonline services. (Aslama et al. 2007, 36-38) Germany, Vivendi in France, News Corporation in

The third change is the technological conver- Australia and SanomaWSOY in Finland. These weregence ofbroadcasting and telecornmunication, which the companies that were also more internationalwill affect not only media markets or media produc- than their local competitors. Time Warner, News

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Table 2. Some Details on Media Markets ofTarget Countries in 2004-2005

Flnland Estonla Germany France U.S. Japan Australia

Largest media co. Sanoma- Eesti meedial Bertelsmann Vivendi Time Warner Sony Co. News Co.WSOY Schibsted

Revenue,in US$ million c.2,700 -22,196 22,194 43,652 63,895* 23,859

TV viewing

~(min/day) 169 270 226 207 491 190 187 Leaderin i

advertisingshare ("lo) Papers (55) Papera (44) Papera (45) TV (33) TV (42) TV (47)TV (35), ..1,

* Total revenue: Sony's media revenue in 2004-2005 was 'only' 6,375 million US$. The advertising Agencies Dentsu and

Hakuhodo have higher net revenues and are larger Iban the largest 'pure' media company, the newspaper firm Yomiuri Shimbun.

Corporation, Bertelsmann and Vivendi belonged to However, since 9/11 and the Iraq war there hasthe ten largest media companies in the world been widespread discussion about the 'dumbing(Joukkoviestimet 2006,333), while SanomaWSOY, down' and narrowing ofU.S. news content (Aslamain terms of its net revenue, was the largest media et al. 2007,32-34), which suggests that the 'liberal'company in the Nordic countries until year 2007, tradition might have serious problems with increas-when Swedish Bonnier overhauled it. It is clear that ing news competition and its relationship to socialmedia industries would be even more concentrated and national interests (cf. CurTan 2002). In contrastwithout state regulation and legislation that pre- to the U.S., France has relied on state regulation tovents monopolisation and trusts. Among the target guarantee the diversity of the public sphere. Incountries Estonia had a surprisingly diverse media France the public sphere and freedom of expressionownership that must have something to do with the have been linked to national interests to whose cul-relative youth and small size of the Estonian media tural integrity the dominance of the U.S. entertain-market. By contrast the Japanese media market is ment industries, for example, is seen as a threat.structured quite differently and in a way that makes This kind of 'protectionism' may in turn causeit difficult to compare to the other ta:tget countries: other problems (including for media and communi-large advertising agencies in Japan, for example, also cation research) than would a more 'liberal' ap-have an important Tole in content production, and proach. (Puustinen 2007,11-12.)these agencies are even bigger players in the media Since the 1990s the dominant question in estab-markets than 'traditional' media companies (see lishing a diverse and pluralistic public sphere in Eu-Valaskivi 2007, 14, 30). Tope has been the status of public service broadcast-

ing (PSB). The liberalisation and deregulation ofthe3) Even though there has been a drastic change to- media has been a growing trend in many Europeanwards a market-driven or commercial media land- countries, not least because of an EU media policyscape in the target countries, there is still a strong that has stressed econornic values over a civic soci-argument for the idea of a pluralistic or diverse pub- ety, for example, and the expanding markets in tel-lic sphere as the core of a democratic society. How- ecommunication instead of in other media (Kaitatzi-ever, strategies to achieve this ideal vary from Whitlock 1996; Jakubowicz 2004). In Finland somecountry to country. For example, the U.S. has from 40 per cent of the audience share of public servicethe very beginning relied on commercially-based television has been parallel to that in Germany,media competition alongside objectivity as a news France and many other EU countries (Joukko-standard. It is taken for granted that the less the viestimet 2006, 338), but there has also been con-state regulates media, the better the result for de- stant and lively criticism of PSB's Tole in the mediamocracy: free news competition guarantees diver- market in Finland (Herkman & Viihamaa 2007,16-sity of media contento Thus, public service broad- 17). In France the state has interfered in televisioncasting accounts for only two per cent of the operation perhaps more than in any other targetAmerican television audience share (Joukkoviesti- country represented in the 'Mapping Media andmet 2006, 338). Communication Research' project, thanks to a

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media policy that regulates programming directly by understand the conditions necessary for the emer-nationality and language (Puustinen 2007, 11-12). gence of a well-functioning public service broad-

It is interesting that broadcasting in Japan and caster'. They continue, that 'a weakness is minorityAustralia have close resemblances to the European programming, an important and sensitive issue in Es-model with their mixed systems of public service tonia and also in Latvia since both countries haveand private commercial networks (Valaskivi 2007, large Russian-speaking communities. ...The other18; Rahkonen 2007, 22). The influence of the BBC major problem for public broadcasting in Estonia ishas been important all over the world in initiating the absence of an independent, predictable, stable,public broadcasting in the early twentieth century. and adequate system of funding' (ibid., 27). TheAlso the problems of Japanese and Australian PSB problems of PSB in small countries like Estonia andseem to be similar to Europe's. Japanese public Finland are therefore basically problems created bybroadcaster NHK has encountered difficulties, ow- limited resources.ing to credibility problems, political scandals, As the Estonian example illustrates, there aredigitalisation and financing. NHK has a 'renewal perhaps more country-specific differences thanprogram' to reduce the number of employees by ten similarities in societies, cultures, languages, marketsper cent by the end of 2008. (Valaskivi 2007, 27.) A and media policies. Table 3 summarises some na-similar renewal programme has been enforced, for tional characteristics in media landscapes of theexample, in the Finnish public broadcasting com- countries included in the 'Mapping Media andpany YLE. Meanwhile, in the Australia report Juho Communication Research' project.Rahkonen emphasises the pressure that liberalisa- Television has been, and still is, the most popu-tion of media market places on public service lar medium in every target country: people spendbroadcasting in general: 'Given the neo-liberal mar- most of their media time watching television (seeket economy and the keen competition, the legiti- Table 2). Television has also constructed the mostmacy ofnon-commercial broadcasting can no longer influential medium for publicity. In many countriesbe taken for granted' (Rahkonen 2007, 22-23). television has been the leading medium for advertis-

Estonia presents an interesting exception among ing. But if we estimate the relative status of eachthe European target countries in its relation to PSB. medium in relation to media landscapes, we see pro-The 19 per cent channel share of public television in found differences among the target countries. ForEstonia is remarkablyless than in other European example, Finland and Japan even today are tradi-target countries or the- EU average (Salovaara-Moring tional 'newspaper countries' in which circulations of& Kallas 2007, 18-19; Joukkoviestimet 2006,338). In dailies per person are among the top five in theits strong emphasis on commercial broadcasting Es- world along with Norway, Sweden and Switzerlandtonia represents a typical post-communist society in (Joukkoviestimet 2006, 335).the Baltic afea, where, since the collapse of Soviet Even though circulation of dailies is continu-Union and the regaining of independence, media legis- ously but slowly decreasing, newspapers are stilllation has supported a U.S. style liberal market by far the most popular channel for mass media ad-po.licy. As Salovaara-Moring and Kallas (2007, 26) vertising in Finland: newspapers dominate advertis-put it: '... each Baltic state displays a problem com- ing by 54 per cent of the market share, substan-mon to Central and Eastem Europe: a failure to fully tially more than television's share of 19-20 per

Table 3. Some National Characteristics in Media Landscapes (2004-2005)

Finland Estonia Germany France U.S. Japan Australia'-

...Relatlvely high newspaper television, television cinema, television, mobile. Iv, television,cable-Iv magazines cinema newspaper magazines

Relatively low television? print media newspaper newspaper, print media? newspaperInternet

State regulation deregulation weak deregulation strong weak quite high deregulation

Historical small market, independent in World War 11, strong national 'world's biggest', World War 11, small anddimension high tech, 1991, Russian federal republic identity, culture high tech, isolated

Nokia minority language industries u-strategy market.conservative

'New' media falling behind, in frontline, 'neweconomy' coming to in frontline most behind,

digital TV e-voting crisis 2002 frontline, developed. going onllneMinitel mobile

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lI

cent, which again is much less than television's av- The German media landscape has be en struc-erage 30 per cent share of mass media advertising in tured by decisions made by the Allies after the Sec-the EU (Herkman & Viihiimaa 2007, 18-20; ond World War that even now influence the GermanJoukkoviestimet 2006, 122, 334). In Japan tele- press and broadcasting which are constricted fromvision still dominates media markets both in terms taking form as 'total' mass media (see Koivisto &of viewing time and advertising revenue (Valaskivi Thomas 2007, 6). The Federal Republic emphasises2007, 27), but the very special characteristic of the the regional press, and therefore 'a specificity of theJapanese media landscape is the incredible boom of German media landscape is the relatively under-mobile communication including the mobile internet, sized role of the supra-regional party press' (ibid.,broadcasting, books, online music downloading and 8). Even the public media in Germany is organisedeven the 'virtual wallet'. Japan is the indisputable by federal structure instead of by centralised modeloleader in mobile content development and approxi- New media in Germany suffered significantly frommately two to four years ahead of Europe. (Ibid., the crises of 2002, which ended the hype of the vir-30-32, 38-39.) The status of each medium in such tual 'New Economy'. Since that time, media indus-country-specific characterisations is classified in tries have paid more attention to the so-called coreTable 3 as 'relatively high' or 'relatively low'. Ja- business. (Ibid., 8-9.)pan is actually among the top countries in the world The crises of the 'new media bubble' and 3Gin every media sector, and it is therefore hard to de- mobile licenses in Germany also upset the Finnishrifle any medium that would have relatively low sta- media landscape at the beginning of the twenty-firsttus in the Japanese media landscape. century. Before that, Finland has been on the

The 'statuses' of media are, of course, linked to frontline of the 'digital revolution', and the key-historical, social and cultural developments in each word in the media branch was convergence. Butcountry. For example, Japanese success in the mo- more recently, media companies have focused onhile market is connected to a post-war policy that their traditional trade instead of such things ashas emphasised technological and economic devel- mergers with the ICT business. However, the influ-opment and led to an information society and 'u-Ja- ence of Nokia on the national economy is so hugepan' (Ubiquitous Japan) strategies as national en- that the ICT branch is an engine of the twenty-firstdeavours (ibid., 10-11,24). The same kinds of vi- century Finnish media business. In householdsions or strategies have recen ti y come into the Internet connections Finland has not been amongworld in all the target,countries one way or another, the world's flor even Europe's top countries (e.g.,but there are significant differences in the commit- Joukkoviestimet 2006, 346), but Finland was thement to the development of ICT. first country in the world to move completely to

According to interviews in information technol- terrestrial digital television, during the year 2007.ogy, for example, Australia 'lags behind other devel- The special characteristics of the U.S. mediaoped countries' and 'the digital revolution is just landscape are, of course, its leading role as an enter-[now] about to hit Australia' (Rahkonen 2007, 17).3 tainment producer in the world and the vastness andThe reason for this may well be the isolation of the diversity of its national media markets. A strong do-continent, the relatively small population and the mestic market makes the U.S. media branch quitehigh degree of urbanisation, which in turn have led independent from international influences and alsoto a combination of conservative media policy and keeps it on the frontline of technological and con-concentrated media market (ibid., 18-21). Likewise, tent development (Aslama et al. 2007, 14-15). Thelate assimilation into global information networks in U.S. is still unquestionably 'a television country':France can be linked to the strong maintenance of 'Although on-line and mobile media have become in-national identity through language law and cultural creasingly important, ...the statistics illustrate theprotectionism. By contrast, by developing and re- crucial role of television as a medium in the U.S.'taining its own network communication system (ibid., 15-16). After becoming independent in 1991'Minitel', averted the spread of the Internet in Estonia adopted the U.S. model of liberal mediaFrance for many years. Later, the French eagerly markets in many ways. Television also dominatesadopted the Internet while European ICT enthusi- the Estonian media landscape, and cable- TV espe-asm crystallised at the EU's Lisbon meeting in cially has a relatively strong position there2000, and today France is one ofthe top-countries (Salovaara-Moring & Kallas 2007,18-22). Rapidin European Internet connections. Nevertheless, the social changes and the role of the Russian-speakingcinema still has a unique status in French media cul- minority have been the key questions of Estonianroce. (Puustinen 2007,10-12,19.) media landscape and policies (ibid., 6, 27).

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Main Research Institutions countries. Especially in countries with very tradi-and Organisations tional academic institutions like France and Ger-

many, much of the research is carried out by otherThe country-specific characteristics in the media disciplines than those specifically called media orlandscapes discussed above constitute background cornmunication research. A great deal of humanisticfor media and cornmunication research in each coun- and social scientific media and communication re-try. Because the size of the population varies search isdone, for example, in sociology, the politi-among fue target countries, fue sizes and structures cal sciences, linguistics, psychology and fue educa-of the university systems are al so quite different. tional sciences. The roots of media and communica-But there are also congruencies in structuring media tion research are found in more traditional academicand cornmunication research in each country studied disciplines such as history, philosophy, sociology,for 'Mapping Media and Communication Re- science of law, the study of literature, psychologysearch'. and political sciences -a fact that still affects meth-

First, in all countries media and communication odologies, theories and perspectives in media andresearch is carried out by universities and other aca- cornmunication research.demic institutions such as polytechnical schools as Table 4 illustrates the size of fue acadernic insti-well as by non-academic research institutions and tutions of media and communication education inorganisations. Non-academic research is done by each target country. It has to be kept in mind that itpublic and private agencies or by research teams in is very difficult to obtain comparable data even formedia companies and funded both publicly and pri- the numbers of universities, BA/MA/PhD pro-vately. In each country there is a much greater de- grarnmes and professors for a specific discipline. Asgree of private funding of media and cornmunication mentioned, the definition of disciplines and numberresearch than public funding. This is evident in the of subjects included in the disciplines vary frombroadly business-orientated ICT sector. Basically, country to country. The subjects mar also go byorganisations doing media and cornmunication re- different llames.search in each country are not after all so different. Another problem is that the bigger the country,

Second, in all financing of academic media and the more difficult it is to obtain reliable data aboutcornmunication research the share of humanities and fuese kinds of numbers: tracing all media and cornmu-social sciences is marginal compared to that of fue nication prograrnmes in fue U.S., for example, is ex-natural sciences, cornmunication technological de- tremely time consuming work, and the numbers ofvelopment and business research. As the U.S. re- programmes and professors change continuously.port explains it, 'compared to other social sciences, Therefore fue data in Table 4, especially vis-a-vis fuecommunication has traditionally received less fund- U.S. and Germany, have been culled from variousing' in general (Aslama et al. 2007, 72). Hence, hu- secondary sources, and, in fue case of Germany, aremanistic and social media and communication re- from seven to ten years old. Because fue number ofsearch is not at the core of the academic funding universities, programmes and professorships ofsystem in any target country. media and communication research has steadily

Third, the discipline of academic media and grown in Germany (Koivisto & Thomas 2007, 26-cornmunication research is undefined in many target 30), it is assumed that fue German numbers in Table

Table 4. Some Details oi Academic Media and Communication Education and Research at the NationalLevelI

Finland Estonia Germany Franca U.S. Japan Australia

Universitles 13 2 52 (1997) 22 c.400 c.230 37

MA/PhDprogrammes 27 11/1 131 (2000) -109/93* 53/39 118

Professors 42 13 160(2000) 147 ---

National Nokia/ITC, new centres formal and state control, hard to strong private Non-characteristics private of excellence hierarchical unclear discern, sector, hierarchical,

funding system discipline health comm. research industries vs.associations academy

, , :: ; , ',i , ,* In joumalism and mass communication only.

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~

4 are too small. The total numbers of MA and PhD pline, but the main reason is the richness of fue re-prograrnmes in fue U .S. will algo be much greater than search conducted by fue industries (Valaskivi 2007,the numbers in Table 4, which includes only pro- 42). In Japan fue Tole of research associations is algOgrarnmes injoumalism and mass cornrnunication. Pre- exceptionally strong (ibid.). In countries like Japansumably, fue U.S. is a leader in media and cornrnuni- and fue U.S. where 'media has become a huge busi-cation education and research in fue world. Thus, Ta- ness', media-related research is algo big businessble 4 tells more in a generallevel about the scale of (Aslama et al. 2007, 66), and the Tole of academicacadernic media and cornrnunication education in tar- media and cornrnunication research has remained mar-gel countries than it does about exact figures. ginal from fue point of view of fue media industries.

More interesting in Table 4 are the short de- Social scientists have algo positioned themselves toscriptions of fue national characteristics of research be critical actors in society, thereby increasing theorganisations and institutions. For example, France gap between academics and industries. Among theand Germany pro ved to serve quite conservative target countries the critical tradition has remainedand constricted academic environments for media quite strong in the U.S., France and Finland, whileand cornrnunication research because of their hierar- algO in Japan, Australia and Germany many scholarschical and introverted university structures. In Ger- see their task as constituting a critical counterforcemany the postgraduate qualification process, Ha- against fue econornic interests of industry.bilitation, 'does not encourage scientific originality' The gap between industries and academic re-(ibid.,18). In France the problem has been the rela- search has not encouraged industries to finance hu-ti ve youth of discipline and the low status of manistic and social scientific research or education.'Infocom' (Sciences de 1 'information et de la com- The problem has been sharply criticised by an Aus-munication) in the government controlled system of tralian professor: 'Industry takes the graduales butacadernic research and disciplines (Puustinen 2007, puts very little back to the journalism academy'26-31). In both countries the identity of media and (Rahkonen 2007, 56). In Finland, the situationcommunication research has been poorly defined, changed after the Helsingin Sanomat Foundation,and much of the research has been splintered among based in fue Sanoma WSOY corporation, was estab-various more traditional and established disciplines lished in 2005. The Foundation has become the(Koivisto & Thomas 2007, 15, 43-44; Puustinen most prominent sponsor of humanist and social2007, 30-32). media research in Finland. Helsingin Sanomat Foun-

In 'the new world', academic systems seem to dation algo funded the 'Mapping Media and Com-be less hierarchical than in fue borne countries of fue munication Research' project. (Herkman &modero European university, and media and com- Viiharnaa2007,47-51.)munication research in Japan, fue U.S. andAustralia But the difficulties in obtaining funding for aca-is in many ways more pragmatically oriented than, demic humanistic or social scientific media andfor example, in Germany and France. But this does communication research become more evident innot mean that academic research and media indus- comparison with technological or natural scientifictries are closely linked in fuese countries either. On research in every target country. For example,the contrary, there seems to be quite a gap between whereas the Academy of Finland and prívate Finn-media industries and academic research in every tar- ish foundations financed humanistic and social sci-gel country. The only exception might be Estonia entific media and cornrnunication research with somewhere recent social changes have encouraged aU ac- 7 rnillion euros in 2006, Nokia alone financed its re-tors in fue field to work together. In a small country search and development by almost 3.9 billion euroslike Estonia, humanists and social scientists have to in the very same year (ibid., 45). In many targetlook for collaborative projects if they are to obtain countries, owing to the strong economic assump-extensive funding for larger research projects. (See tions of ICT, state organised research funds are algoSalovaara-Moring & Kallas 2007,56-57.) nowadays channeled mostly to information techno-

It is actually quite surprising how separate are fue logical development by various national researchacadernic humanistic and social scientific media and programmes and semi-public foundations. For ex-cornrnunication research from media industries in the ample, fue total research financial by the AcademyU.S. and Japan, where cornrnunication and media in- of Finland in 2006 was approximately 257 milliondustries have an essential position in structuring euros. The share of humanistic and social scientificwhole societies. In Japan the relative modesty of media and communication research was betweenacademic media and communication research can one and two per cent, with the majority of thepartly be explained by the obscurity of the disci- funding allocated to technological and biD sciences.

152

Meanwhile, fue Finnish Funding Agency for Tech- cultural aspects of media and communication, and

nology and Innovation (TEKES) funds research and 3) those that focus on media and communication

development activities undertaken by companies technology. These three categories could be found in

and research organisations registered in Finland. In all countries but their ratings and precise definitions

2006, TEKES invested 465 million euros in research vary from country to country (see Table 5). Fur-

and development projects in companies, universi- thermore, the categories are not exclusive and, in

ties and research institutes, but humanistic or social many cases, they overlap. For example, cultural and

scientific media research had only a very limited feminist studies often combine cultural and political

role in those projects. aspects with their analyses, and technological re-

On a nationallevel, then, fue funding of human- search is sometimes linked to social and political

istic or social scientific media and communication re- analysis as it is in the case of information society

search is quite marginal in every target country and research. Thus, definitions here simply mean that

dependent on prívate funding. Country-specific in- some dimension of the research appears to be more

terests may arise in some approaches, however, be- prominent than others. It is also necessary to note

cause they fit current economic and social conjunc- that 'political' is understood more traditionally here

tures. A good example is health communication re- as 'politics' or 'policy' than in representation or au-

search in fue U.S., which does not at all have fue dif- dience analyses of cultural or feminist studies,

ficulties that are discussed above (Aslama et al. where 'political' often refers to identity politics or

2007,73,83-84). constructionofmicro-levelpowerrelations.In Estonia almost all media and communication

Main Approaches in Media and r:search see~~d to have. some connection with s?-

C " t " R h clal and pol1tlcal queshons because of the rapldornrnurnca Ion esearc ...

changes m soclety after the collapse of fue SovIet

Many generalisations made in this paper are based Union: 'Media is analysed as part of society and

on interviews rather than on statistics, but in defin- not as a separate unity. The rapidly changing soci-

ing fue main research approaches in target countries ety creates new problems to which the academic

the conclusions are based mostly on various statis- community must respond.' (Salovaara-Moring &

tical analyses found in research publications. The Kallas 2007, 63.) Specific social and political

problem is that primary data, methods and fue clas- themes in Estonia are fue Russia-speaking minority

sifications behind these statistics have been so het- and adaptation to fue post-communistic era (ibid.,

erogeneous that it is hard to make sophisticated 61). It is thus not an overstatement to claim that all

comparisons between countries. Nevertheless it is academic media and communication research in Es-

still possible to give a rough overview of fue main tonia has a strong connection to social and political

approaches in media and communication research. questions. It is notable that some topics that are

In most countries the main approaches found in highly popular in the Nordic countries, such as

media and communication research can be classified popular culture, feminist media studies and organi-

in one of three general categories: 1) those that em- sational communication, are dealt with only in fue

phasise political and social questions in relation to student MA theses but otherwise remain in Estonia

media or communication, 2) those that emphasise unpublished (ibid., 62). A special national character-

Table 5. MainApproaches in Media and Communication Research in 2006

Flnland Estonla Germany France u.s. Japan Australia

Most popularlhernes Media and Politicall Mass media; ICT; Media and Mass media; ICT; Media and Journalismin academic journals popular societal Communi- popular culture; ICT; Advetising popular culture; and news media;(or books) culture; cation in Politicall and PR* Mass media * Communication

Politicall societal; general societal studies;Journalism Cultural studiesstudies

National Feminist Semiotics, Humanities, Social con- Diversity, National- Cultural studies,characteristics critique, Ethnicily, Unübersicht- structivism, MCR, Media Asian, Political

Cultural Post- lickeit, Online New technology, ellects Western economystudies socialism National

* The U.S. and lapan data are based on published books (not articles) and are Iherefore not directly comparable to other countries.

153

-

istic in Estonia is the influence of the famous Tartu Germany and France have quite different rela-school of semiotics (ibid., 64). tions to media and popular culture studies. While

In Finland media and popular culture proved to such approaches are popular in France, the researchbe the most popular topic in academic theses espe- has been concluded more under the distinctive na-cially at fue MA level (Herkman & Viihamaa 2007, tional traditions rather than under the label of57), but a later analysis of academic articles pub- Anglo-American cultural studies. This has meant alished in English reveals that Finnish scholars em- more elitist-based and more protectionist attitudephasise algo social and political themes, especially vis-a-vis commercial popular culture, and the ap-in their postgraduate work. There were algo clear proach has tberefore been highly critical in nature.differences among Finnish university departments However, since the 1990s, French media and com-and disciplines: the humanities emphasised media munication research has opened up to internationaland popular culture, while social science empha- influences, and a new generation of scholars hassi sed social and poli tic al as well as journalism re- emerged with a different relationship to popularsearch (ibid., 57-59). However, it became clear that culture studies. (Sumiala-Seppanen 2007, 99-101.)in Finland, it is possible to speak of 'linguistic' or Today the point of view of social constructivism'cultural' turns in media and communication re- dominates French media and communication re-search because cultural and feminist studies have search, and the fascination with new media tech-algo had such a great influence on more socially ori- nologies has broken through to fue extent that it canented mass communication research. be classified as the most popular theme in France

Popular culture was algo a popular research sub- (Puustinen 2007, 63-69).ject in Japan and Australia. Japan has a strong re- Research into new media technology -especiallysearch tradition into Japanese popular culture and online communication -is steadily becoming moremedia history (Valaskivi 2007, 72-75), while Aus- common in Germany as well, even though, the con-tralia is world famous in Anglo-American cultural servative and hierarchical academic system empha-studies (Rahkonen 2007, 58-62). However, in Japan sises more traditional approaches such as researchtoday popular culture studies are often connected into mass communication and media effectsto 'new media' phenomena such as anime, digital (Koivisto & Thomas 2007, 42-43). German nationalgames and World Wide Web (Valaskivi 2007, 66). characteristics include the strikingly high share ofTherefore, Japanese academic media and communi- humanities -for example, linguistics -among mediacation research in many cases is highly focused on and communication scholars' orientation (ibid., 32-new information and communication technology as 33) as well as 'the lack of clarity' (Unübersicht-is the research by private organisations. It is worth lickeit) in the field (ibid., 15). Koivisto and Thomasrecalling that the Japanese data here are based argüe that the conservatism of universities has ledsolely on books published on media and communi- to difficulties inserting cultural studies into a Ger-cation issues and the ranking of approaches might man context, and authors see that multidisciplinarybe quite different had the ranking been made by aca- cultural studies could serve as a way out of the cul-demic articles. Overall, Japanese academic media de-sac of the 'deadlocked political constellation ofand communication research is modest compared to fue German university' (ibid., 66-71).the private sector, with strong roots in traditional Lack of clear definition could algo describe thewestern mass communication research (ibid., 67- U.S. media and communication approaches in that69). In Japan technological approaches are very fue research field is so huge and diverse that it is al-strong, and recently there have been efforts to pro- most impossible to make any generalisations. How-mote collaboration between academic and private ever, there are some approaches that are obviouslyresearch as well as effects to develop genuinely stronger than others in the U.S. Traditional massinterdisciplinary projects between technological and communication research (MCR) is still perhaps thesocial approaches (ibid., 82-83). most popular approach found in U .S. media and

The national characteristic of Australian media communication research, even though interest inand communication research is pragmatism new communication technology -especialIythe(Rahkonen 2007, 57). Another key aspect in Aus- Internet -increases continuously. National charac-tralia is the popularity of the political economy re- teristics of the U.S. are the continuous popularitysulting from 'fue exceptionally concentrated owner- of media effects research and the strong emphasisship structure' of Australian media. 'The Australian on research into advertising and public relations.version of poli tic al economy is algo known as the (Aslama et al. 2007, 83, 110-111.) It is evident that"media mates approach".' (Ibid., 60.) the remarkable role of commercial media industries

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in the U.S. has led to these kinds of national em- manistic approaches are more 'cultural' in that theyphases in media and communication research. rely on qualitative methods and put more emphasis

A common feature in every target country is an on theories and concepts of symbolic reality thanemphasis on empirical research, The status of em- do social approaches, which are more 'materialist'pirical research is naturally highest among prívate and have stronger traditions in the use of quantita-research organisations, but academic media and tive methods and the reliance on empirical datacommunication research is algo mainly based on em- about social realities. These differences, however,pirical analyses, even though the academy discusses are ill-defined and by no means all-inclusive. Quitetheoretical questions more than does prívate, indus- the contrary. It seems that discourse analysis andtry-based applied research. Yet solely theoretical in- textual analysis as well as criticism of post-mod-vestigations seem to be quite marginal in today's ernism and post-structuralism have today becomeacademy. According to interviews, the most empiri- part of almost all humanistic and social media andcal emphasis among the target countries is found in communication research in fue target countries.the U.S. and Australia, while theory has the strong-est support in France and Japan, and perhaps inGermany. Future ChaUenges to Research

In most countries quantitative methods still have Even though there were many differences among thethe strongest position in empirical analysis, but target countries, those scholars interviewed seemedqualitative methods have increased their popularity to be strikingly unanimous about the future chal-since fue 1980s and fue so-called 'cultural' or 'lin- lenges to academic media and communication re-guistic turn' (see e.g., Bonnell & Hunt 1999). Pri- search. The challenges can be grouped in five inter-vate research organisations still rely on quantitative related categories that were crystallised in fue U.S.methods, especially on surveys, Jet algo in the report (Aslama et al. 2007, 121). The same catego-academy quantitative methods such as laboratory ríes can be found in one form or another in every re-experiments, surveys and content analyses evi- port:dently domínate in the U.S., Estonia, Germany and 1 Th h . d..

, , ..e c angmg me la envuonmentJapan. In France and Fmland qualItat1ve methodsseem to have an exceptionally strong position in 2. National vs. international orientationacademic media and communication research, but 3 Th 1,

f h hh ' ." b d ' . h h .e qua Ity o t e researct lS 1mpress10n lS ase on mterv1ews rat er t anbeing the result of statistical analyses. 4. Affirming the institutional status of the disci-

The differences among methodologies and the plineconfrontation between theory and empiricism vary ."b th d.. 1. d h th t d . t th 5. Improvmg relatIonsh1ps between academia and

y e lSC1p mes an approac es a omma e e .d.m ustry

nat10nal contexts. Aslama et al. (2007, 138-139) ar-gue that tension between humanistic and social sci- The first challenge is fue rapidly changing media en-entific approaches is especially characteristic of the vironment that has been discussed in more detail inU.S. media and communication research, but it is the section 'The media landscapes'. In the Japan re-evident that the same kind of distinctions can be port Katja Valaskivi (2007, 79-80) summarises thefound in most of the target countries. There are changes with the term 'convergence', which com-clear differences between humanistic media (film and bines technological, economical and cultural dimen-television studies, literature studies, linguistics, art sions of 'converging media systems' (cf. Murdockhistory, etc.) and social scientific media (mass com- 2000; Iosifidis 2002). In particular changes in com-munication research, media sociology, journalism munication technology and markets have been sostudies) and communication approaches, even rapid that many scholars distrusted the ability ofthough fue 'linguistic' or 'cultural turn' and the in- academic research to react fast enough: the academyfluences of cultural and feminist studies have per- seems to lag behind in technological, social and eco-haps made disciplines more similar than ever before nomic changes. On the other hand it is possible to(see e.g., Ferguson & Golding 1997; Murdock ask to what extent academic research should react to1997). rapid changes in fue media environment and to what

The separation of social scientific 'research' and extent its task is to 'slow clown' or 'denaturalise'humanistic 'studies' algo draws lines between the continuous talk about change and the techno-theory and empiricism as well as between quantita- logical hype? Considerable continuity can algo betive and qualitative methods. It was clear that hu- found in media environments, while the social his-

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tory of the media has demonstrated that changes are in their world history The Human Web (2003). Aca-not always so 'radical' or 'revolutionary' as they are demic humanistic and social scientific media re-claimed to be in contemporary discourses (see e.g., search has become a 'second-class citizen', withWinston 1998; Mattelart 2001; Briggs & Burke short-term financing and employments that do not2002). support substantial research projects, which in tum

The second challenge is linked to the first that are essential for renewing the discipline. Today thederegulation and liberalisation of the media have majority of academic media research is carried outopened national media markets -at least to some by prívate funding that emphasises industry-basedextent -to intemational or global competition. Con- applied studies instead of so-called basic research.centration of media ownership and mergers of media Therefore, the key question in all target countriescompanies have been one result of this process and proved to be how to affirm the conditions for self-have made national media markets more dependent contained academic research.on global media corporations (see Croteau & The fourth challenge, affirrning the institutionalHoynes 2001; Doyle 2002). At the same time aca- status of the discipline, is also linked to the previ-demic media and communication research has been ous challenges. It is obvious that the relatively lowquite nation-bound because of its commitmentto institutional status goes hand in hand with a low de-nationallanguages and cultural boundaries as well as gree of academic financing. Many scholars inter-to national media and education policies. Many viewed believed that strengthening fue institutionalscholars interviewed saw a contradiction between status of fue media and communication discipline inthe emphasis in media research on national perspec- the academy would therefore mean more money fortive and media industries' emphasis on intemational research. But there are also other dimensions to fueissues. 'lack of disciplinary clarity'. As the country-spe-

According to the France report, cultural protec- cific reports of fue 'Mapping Media and Communi-tionism and accentuating French language in univer- cation Research' project demonstrate, fueTe are pro-sity policy is a problem in fue intemationalisation found disagreements in defining media and commu-of French media and communication research nication research as an academic discipline. Disa-(Puustinen 2007, 74-77). The situation is com- greements are in many cases so fundamental that itpletely different in Finland, for example, where really seems to be a 'mission impossible' to definepublishing in English is fue most important means any clear-cut discipline of media and communica-of achieving merit in fue academy. Interviewees, es- tion research. From this point of view, requirementspecially in small or isolated countries like Finland, for the congruency of the field can also be seen asEstonia and Australia, seemed to long for intema- belonging to paradigm battles and a threat againsttional research collaboration. Again it is possible to plurality or diversity of research; therefore, manyask if ranking by publications in intemational ref- scholars, especially those from humanistic or cul-ereed joumals -a habit adopted from natural sci- tural approaches, were quite happy with the cur-ences -is truly the best way to evaluate humanistic rent mixed situation in media and communication re-or social media and communication research. To search in fue academy.what extent should media and communication re- The fifth challenge is to overcome the gapsearch be national in, for example, and take part in between academic media research and media indus-public debates on media's Tole in society or fue na- tries. Many scholars both in fue academy and in pri-tion state? vate organisations voiced fue desire for increased co-

The third challenge, guaranteeing high quality of operation between industry and the academy. Aca-research, is intimately linked to complaints about demics were expected to take media industries' prac-the poor financing and resources of contemporary tical orientation more seriously, and vice versa, whileacademic media and communication research. As industries were expected to leam more substantialshown in the section 'Main research institutions thinking from the academy instead of purelyand organisations', humanistic and social scientific economy-oriented investigations. Some interviewedmedia and communication research is not at the core truly believed that academic research can help indus-of1he academy in any of the target countries. This tries to contextualise current changes in fue media en-is not surprise. Since the Second World War, devel- vironment and increase knowhow, for example, aboutopment in all research have emphasised large-scale, qualitative research methods. Academic researchersinstitutionalised and bureaucratically applied thought that they in tum could benefit from indus-projects whose goal is economic progress or mili- tries' huge resources and updated micro-level exper-tary success, as McNeill and McNeill demonstrate tise in media and communication technologies, pro-

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duction and marketing. The problem in developing of 'creative industries' among academic institutionscollaboration between the academy and industry is (e.g., Rahkonen 2007, 66-67). The key question herethe critical task of the academy, which was still seen is to what extent co-operation between fue academyas central by many scholars. The sub-projects and industry is possible without losing the criticalshowed that it is now trendy to speak, for example, potential of academic research.

Notes References

1. The main work behind this paper has therefore As1ama, Minna et al. (2007) Mapping Media andbeen done by the researchers and research teams Communication Research in the U.S. Researchof fue country-specific sub-projects. For work we11 Reports 2/2007. He1sinki: University of He1sinki,done I wou1d 1ike to thank Minna As1ama, Ka11e Communication Research Centre, Department ofSiira, Rona1d Rice and Pekka Aula from the U.S. Communication.project; Juho Rahkonen from the Australia project; Baldwin, Thomas et al. (1996) Convergence. IntegratingInka Salovaara-Moring and Triin Kallas from the Media, Information & Communication. London:Estonia project; Katja Valaskivi from the Japan Sage.project; Liina Puustinen and Johanna Sumia1a- Bonnell, Victoria E. & Hunt, Lynn (eds.) (1999) BeyondSeppanen from the France project; Juha Koivisto the Cultural Turn. Berkeley: University of Cali-and Peter Thomas from fue Germany project; and fornia Press.Miika Viihiimaa from fue Fin1and project. I worked Briggs, Asa & Burke, Peter (2002) A Social History ofas the project leader of fue 'Mapping Media and the Media. From Gutenberg to the Internet. Ox-Communication Research' as well as a leader of ford: Blackwell Publishers.the Finland sub-project. In the U.S. project, Pro- Croteau, David & Hoynes, William (2001) The Busi-fessor Philip Napoli served as an advisor and Katy ness of Media. Corporate Media and the PublicPearce as a research assistant; in fue France project Interest. London: Pille Forge Press.Aura Lindeberg and Elina Perttula worked as CurTan, James (2002) Renewing the Radical Tradition,research assistants; in the Japan project Hiromi in CurTan, James: Media and Power, 127-165.Tsuji worked as a research assistant with Professor London: Routledge.Noboru Sonehara serving as an advisor. In fue Aust- Doyle, Gillian (2002) Understanding Media Economics.ralia project the University of Queensland (Pro- London: Sage.fessor Jan Servaes and assistant Levi Obifiojor) Ferguson, Marjorie & Golding, Peter (eds.) (1997)and in the Japan project the National Institute of Cultural Studies in Question. London: Sage.Informatics in Tokyo (Professor Sonehara) were Hassan, Robert (2000) The Space Economy ofthe collaborative units. In the U.S. project the Convergence, Convergence: The Journal ofUniversity of California and fue Donald McGannon Research into New Media Technologies 6(2000):Communication Research Center at Fordham Uni- 4 (Winter), 18-35.versity were fue main units of collaboration. I would Hemondhalgh, David (2002) The Cultural Industries.alBo 1ike to thank all those media research experts London: Sage.who were interviewed in each country. Without Herkman, Juha & Viihiimaa, Miika (2007) Viestintiitutki-them fue whole project would have been a mission muksen nykytila Suomessa. Viestinnan laitoksenimpossible. For more information about the tutkimusraportteja 1/2007. Helsinki: Helsinginproject, see the Appendix. yliopisto, Viestinnan tutkimuskeskus CRC, Viestin-

2. The research reports of each country have been nan laitos.published on CRC's web Bite: http://www.valt. losifidis, Petros (2002) Digital Convergence: Challengeshelsinki.fi/blogs/crc/en/mapping.htm for European Regulation, in The Public JavnostReports can alBo be downloaded from the Helsin- 9(2002): 3, 27-48.gin Sanomat Foundation's web Bite: http:// Jakubowicz, Karol (2004) A Square Peg in a Round Hole:

I www.hssaatio.fi/en/completed_projects.html The EU's Policy on Public Service Broadcasting.,3. Scholars interviewed in 'Mapping Media and In Bondebjerg, lb & Golding, Peter (eds.) 2004:

Communication Research' project disagree, for European Culture and the Media, 277-301. Bris-example, the United Nation's E-government tol: Intellect Books.Survey 2008, which values Australia really high in Joukkoviestimet 2006 -Finnish Mass Media. Helsinki:global e-governance. See http://unpanl.un.org/ Statistics Finland.intradoc/groups/public/documents/UN/UNPANO Kaitatzi-Whitlock, Sophia (1996) Pluralism and Media28607.pdf. Concentration in Europe. Media Policy and In-

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dustrial Policy, European Journal of Communi- Picard, Robert (1989) Media Economics: Concepts andcation 11(1996): 4,453-483. Issues. Newbury Park/California: Sage.

Koivisto, Juha & Thomas, Peter (2007) Mapping Com- Puustinen, Liina (2007) Mapping Media and Commu-munication and Media ~esearch: Germany. Re- nication Research: France. Research Reports 51search Reports 6/2007. Helsinki: University of 2007. Helsinki: University of He1sinki, Commu-Helsinki, Communication Research Centre, De- nication Research Centre, Department of Com-partment of Communication. munication.

Küng, Lucy et al. (1999) Impact of fue Digital Revolu- Rahkonen, Juho (2007) Mapping Media and Commu-tion on fue Media and Cornmunications Industries, nication Research: Australia. Research Reports 71The Public Javnost 6(1999):3, 29-48. 2007. Helsinki: University of He1sinki, Commu-

Lowe, Gregory Ferrell & Hujanen, Taisto (eds.) (2003) nication Research Centre, Department of Com-Broadcasting & Convergence: New Articulations munication.of the Public Service Remit. Goteborg: Nordicom. Salovaara-Moring, Inka & Kal1as, Triin (2007) Map-

Marsden Christopher T. & Verhulst, Stefaan G. (eds.) ping Communication and Media Research: Esto-(1999) Convergence in European Digital TV Regu- nia. Research Reports 3/2007. Helsinki: Univer-lation. London: B1ackstone Press Ltd. sity of He1sinki, Communication Research Cen-

Mattelart, Armand (2001) Histoire de la société de tre, Department of Communication.l'information. Paris: Decouverte. Sumiala-Seppanen, Johanna (2007) Cultural Studies in

McNeil1, J.R. & McNeill, Wil1iam H. (2003) The Hu- France -Receptions and Rejections, in Puustinen,man Web. The Bird's-Eye View of World History. Liina 2007, 97-101.New York: W. W. Norton. Valaskivi, Katja (2007) Mapping Media and Commu-

Murdock, Graham (1997) Base Notes: The Conditions nication Research: Japan. Research Reports 41of Cultural Practice, in Ferguson, Marjorie & 2007. He1sinki: University of He1sinki, Commu-Go1ding, Peter (eds.), 86-101. nication Research Centre, Department of Cornmu-

Murdock, Graham (2000) Digita1 Futures: European nication.Te1evision in the Age of Convergence, in Wieten, Winston, Brian (1998) Media Technology and Society.Jan et al. (eds.) (2000) Television Across Europe. A History: From the Telegraph to the Internet.A Comparative Introduction, 35-58. London: Sage. New York: Routledge.

JURA RERKMAN, D.Soc.SC., Academy of Finland Postdoctoral Researche1; Depart-ment of Communication, PL 54, FI-OOOI4 University of Helsinki, juha.herkman

@ helsinki.fi

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Appendix

Facts about the 'Mapping Media and Communication Research'The project'sbudget was a total of 275,000 euros (for seven countries). Tbere were nine researchers in allplus five research assistants and tour team leaders. Together their work was a little les s than five researcher-years (60 months). The U.S. sub-project's team, consisting of two team leaders, two researchers, a researchassistant and an advisor, was the largest, while the Australian project (one researcher for six months), theFinnish (a project leader and one researcher for five months) and the Estonian (two researchers, togetherworking five months) were the smallest sub-projects.

Table. Employees in 'Mapping Media and Communication Research'

Leaders Months Researchers Months Assistants Months

Finland 1 2 1 5 --

Estonia -2 5 --

Germany -1 9 1 2

France 1 1 1 5 2 2

U.S. 2 2 2 11 1 2

Japan -1 6 1 2

Australia -1 6 --

Cornmunication Research Centre CRC at the University of Helsinki is carrying out the same kinds of stud-ies on media and communication research in Belgium, the Netherlands and Russia between auturnn 2007 andspring 2008. More sophisticated summaries and meta-analyses ofall country-specific sub-projects will becompleted by the end of 2008.1 Tbe budgets of these projects are total some 150,000 euros, for which tourresearchers and three research assistants are working. This paper therefore, gives only a brief surnmary ofthe results of the 'Mapping Media and Cornmunication Research' project from auturnn 2007. Since auturnn2007 the director of the CRC and head of the projects has been Professor Hannu Nierninen.

Note1. The analysis will be done by Juha Koivisto and Peter Thomas, researchers from the German sub-project.

159