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PULVERISED NATURAL DYES FOR TEXTILE DYEING

Feroza Ahmad Faiz

A thesis submitted

in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts

(Fashion and Textiles)

Faculty of Applied and Creative Arts

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK

2015

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AUTHOR’S DECLARATION

I declare that the work in this thesis was carried out in accordance with the regulations of

Universiti Malaysia Sarawak. It is original and is the result of my work, unless otherwise

indicated or acknowledge as referenced work. This thesis has not been submitted at Universiti

Malaysia Sarawak or to any other academic institution or non-academic institution for any

degree or qualification.

Name of student : Feroza binti Ahmad Faiz

Student ID No : 10021626

Programme Degree : Master of Arts (Fashion and Textiles)

Faculty : Applied and Creative Arts

Thesis title : Pulverised Natural Dyes for Textile Dyeing

Signature of student :

Date : 14th

November 2015

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DEDICATION

All praise is due to Allah s.w.t., for the continuous blessing that I have received during those

challenging phases that I have gone through from the starting until the end of this project.

This thesis is dedicated to my old folks for the continuous moral and financial support since

the beginning of my studies, and thus, gave me strength to walk bravely through my hardest

time. No wealth on earth could repay my debts to you guys.

I also dedicate this work to my best friend and soul mate Ms. Noor Aziatul Akma Zabidin, as

well as my aunts and cousins especially Pn. Baizura Abdullah, Ms. Khairunnisha Ismail, Pn.

Nazirah Ismail, Ms. Munawirah Mukhtar, and Pn. Mawarni Zainal Abidin. All of you have

been my best cheerleaders.

Special dedication is extended to kind friends cum critique partners who always help and

support, whose friendship, hospitality, knowledge and wisdom have supported, enlightened,

and entertained me over the years: Ms. Aminah Abdul Karim, Ms. Khatijah Hanapi, Ms.

Nurul Aniza Mijan, Ms. Nur Diyana Ishak, Ms. Farawahida Abu Zaharin, Mr. Mohamad

Faizal Hajar Maidin, Mr. Muhammad Zakaria, Mr. Sharih Ahmad Mohamad, Mr. Ahmad

Anwar Safwan Sidek, Mr. Fandi Ahmad Syah Amir Syah, Ms. Zara Zaidi, Ms. Sri

Visaladchy Nantha Kumar, and Ms. Yong Choi Yen.

Finally, this thesis is dedicated to all those who believe in the richness of learning.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My deepest gratitude and sincere appreciation to my supervisor, Dr. June Ngo Siok Kheng

for her support, guidance and giving me chance of a life time to be involved in this project.

Thanks to my co-supervisors Prof. Dr. Kopli Bujang (FRST UNIMAS) and Ms. Norhayati

Suleiman, as well as other lecturers for the advices and building comments from the very

beginning until the completion of this research. Also, I would like to thank UNIMAS for

sponsoring the lab test under research grant, Ms. Ong Wan Fen for helping me during the

pilot experiments, Prof. Dr. Zaini Assim (FRST UNIMAS) for experimental method

explanation, Mr. Mohamad Azhar Samin from UiTM Shah Alam and Mr. Tony Rantai Roti

from MHDC Sarawak Branch for giving utmost cooperation during the interview session,

and not forgetting the Faculty of Applied and Creative Arts technicians: Mr. Azman Mustapa,

Mr. Mohamad Saufian Suhaili, Mr. Chairul Reduan, and Mr. Herman Tambeng for assistance

in the workshops. My special thanks, again, to those who contributed to the collection of

plant samples especially Pn. Hjh Rabitah Abdul Samad, Ms. Norrihan Sam, Mr. Mohamad

Azhar Samin, Mr. Asrul Asshadi Mohamad Morni, Mr. Adham Imtiyaz Baharudin, Ms.

Christina Anthony Belikau, Pn. Syarafina Abdullah, Ms. Aminah Abdul Karim, Ms. Khatijah

Hanapi, Mr. Sharih Ahmad Mohamad, and Mr. Ahmad Anwar Safwan Sidek. Last but not

least, I would like to thank Dr. Hjh. Nazlina Shaari for giving me chance to be her lab

demonstrator and share my working as well as research experience with her students.

It has been a remarkable journey of mine and each of the problems faced were resolved by

great people around me.

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ABSTRACT

Natural dyes are an alternative to synthetic dyes as they are eco-friendly and not

hazardous to health. However, the conventional way of natural dyeing is a complex process

which lack of convenience in terms of preparation and storage as the fresh plant materials

need to be processed as soon as possible in order to prevent them from getting mouldy or

rotting. Therefore in this research, the plant materials have been converted into pulverised

dyes using the dry pulverisation technique, as the dried materials are expected to be more

practical, economical and have longer shelf life. This study aims to improve the natural

dyeing recipe with better lightfastness and colourfastness using the pulverised plants which

can be used as a guide for dyers or textile craft producers. A total of 10 types of plants

involved in the experiments using100% silk and cotton fabrics. Other materials used in the

dyeing experiments are mordants such as Alum (Aluminium Ammonium Sulphate), “Tawas”

(Aluminium Potassium Sulphate), Limewater (Calcium Hydroxide) and an antioxidant

additive namely Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid). The techniques used were pre-mordanting and

direct dyeing, followed by Vitamin C aftertreatment utilising the immersion method. The

lightfastness of the dyed and aftertreated fabric samples was observed after 40 hours

exposure to direct sunlight. Subsequently, advanced experiments were conducted using

“Sepang” wood (Caesalpinia sappan), “Engkerabai” (Psychotria viridiflora) and “Ketapang”

leaves (Terminalia catappa), representing three different colours of the pulverised dyes. The

effect of different amount of mordant and dyes on colour intensity, Vitamin C aftertreatment

and lightfastness tests was further observed where the result shows that the fabric type, the

dyeing properties together with the dyebath concentration and amount of mordant will

determine the colourfastness and lighfastness quality of pulverised plant dyes. More

importantly, the research has discovered that the fabric samples with Vitamin C

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aftertreatment especially for silk exhibited slower rate of fading as compared to non-treated

fabric samples. This shows that Vitamin C is an effective agent in improving the lightfastness

of pulverised plant dyes produced in this research namely mangosteen (Garcinia

mangostana), mangrove / “Tengar” (Ceriops tagal), “Mengkudu” (Morinda citrifolia), betel

nut (Areca catechu), Ebony spleenwort (Asplenium platyneuron), “Ketapang” (Terminalia

catappa), henna (Lawsonia inermis) and “Engkerabai” leaves (Psychotria viridiflora).

However, Vitamin C has reversed effect if used on onion skins (Allium cepa) and “Sepang”

wood. Therefore, due to its enhancing and discharging characteristics, Vitamin C has the

potential to increase the practicality in natural dyeing as it can be used to change the intensity

of colour in creating textile patterns.

Keywords: Eco-friendly, pulverised dyes, Vitamin C, natural dyeing recipe, colourfastness

lightfastness.

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SERBUK PEWARNA ASLI UNTUK PEWARNAAN TEKSTIL

ABSTRAK

Pewarna asli merupakan pewarna alternatif kepada pewarna sintetik memandangkan

ianya bersifat mesra alam serta tidak membahayakan kesihatan. Walau bagaimanapun,

kaedah yang biasa digunakan dalam proses pewarnaan asli adalah agak rumit terutama dari

segi penyediaan dan penyimpanan kerana bahan mentah yang segar perlu diproses secepat

mungkin supaya tidak berkulat atau rosak. Oleh yang demikian,bagi penyelidikan ini,

material tumbuhan pewarna telah dijadikan serbuk melalui teknik ‘penghancuran kering’

kerana bahan kering dijangkakan lebih praktikal serta memberikan jangka hayat yang lebih

lama. Penyelidikan ini bermatlamat memperbaharui resipi pewarnaan dengan ketahanan

cahaya dan warna yang lebih baik menggunakan serbuk tumbuhan-tumbuhan ini yang

bertindak sebagai panduan bagi pengamal pewarna asli atau penggiat tekstil. Sejumlah 10

jenis tumbuhan digunakan untuk dieksperimen ke atas fabrik 100% sutera dan kapas. Bahan-

bahan lain yang digunakan adalah mordant-mordant mesra alam yang terdiri daripada Alum

(Aluminium Ammonium Sulfat), Tawas (Aluminium Kalium Sulfat) dan air kapur (Kalsium

Hidroksida), termasuklah sejenis bahan tambahan antioksida iaitu Vitamin C (Asid

Askorbik). Teknik-teknik yang digunakan adalah pramordant dan pewarnaan terus, diikuti

dengan rawatan akhir Vitamin C menggunakan kaedah rendaman. Ketahanan cahaya bagi

sampel fabrik yang telah diwarna serta dirawat diperhatikan setelah penjemuran di bawah

cahaya matahari selama 40 jam. Seterusnya, eksperimen lanjutan dilakukan dengan

menggunakan Kayu Sepang (Caesalpinia sappan), daun Engkerabai (Psychotria viridiflora)

dan daun Ketapang (Terminalia catappa), mewakili tiga warna berbeza daripada serbuk

pewarna-pewarna asli tersebut. Kesan amaun mordant dan pewarna yang berbeza ke atas

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kepekatan warna diperhatikan dengan lebih lanjut. Dapat disimpulkan bahawa jenis gentian

fabrik, sifat pigmen pewarna, begitu juga dengan kepekatan larutan pewarna dan amaun

mordant akan menentukan kualiti ketahanan warna serta cahaya bagi serbuk pewarna asli.

Penyelidikan ini juga telah menghasilkan penemuan terbaru apabila didapati bahawa sampel

fabrik yang telah dirawat dengan Vitamin C terutamanya fabrik sutera mempamerkan kadar

pemudaran yang lebih perlahan berbanding dengan sampel fabrik yang tidak dirawat. Ini

menunjukkan bahawa Vitamin C adalah agen yang efektif dalam memperbaiki daya tahan

cahaya bagi kebanyakan jenis serbuk pewarna yang telah dihasilkan iaitu manggis (Garcinia

mangostana), bakau / Tengar (Ceriops tagal), Mengkudu (Morinda citrifolia), buah pinang

(Areca catechu), paku-pakis (Asplenium platyneuron), Ketapang, inai (Lawsonia inermis)

and Engkerabai (Psychotria viridiflora). Walau bagaimanapun, Vitamin C memberi kesan

yang sebaliknya terhadap kulit bawang (Allium cepa) dan Kayu Sepang. Oleh yang demikian,

disebabkan sifat-sifatnya yang ‘menambah’ dan ‘mengeluarkan’ ini, Vitamin C membolehkan

pewarnaan asli dilakukan dengan lebih praktikal kerana ia dapat digunakan untuk

mengubah kepekatan warna dalam menghasilkan reka corak tekstil.

Kata kunci: Serbuk pewarna, mesra alam, Vitamin C, resipi pewarnaan, ketahanan warna,

ketahanan cahaya

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TABLE OF CONTENT

AUTHOR’S DECLARATION

DEDICATION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

ABSTRACT

ABSTRAK

TABLE OF CONTENT

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF ABREVIATION

LIST OF APPENDICES

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CHAPTER ONE : INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

1.2 Problem statement

1.2.1 Facts on natural dyes

1.2.2 Application of Shibori technique in natural dyeing.

1.3 Objectives

1.4 Research questions

1.5 Hypothesis

1.6 Scope of research

1.7 Limitation of research

1.8 Significance of research

1.9 Summary of chapters

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CHAPTER TWO : LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Conceptual Framework

2.2 History of natural textile dyeing

2.3 Terminology and definition (natural dyes, mordants, fastness)

2.4 Past researches

2.4.1 Dyeing process

2.4.2 Colourfastness (light and washing test)

2.4.3 UV absorbers and antioxidants aftertreatments to

improve the lightfastness of natural dyes

2.5 Shibori

2.5.1 Background

2.5.2 Shibori techniques

2.5.2.1 “Kanoko” Shibori

2.5.2.2 “Nui” Shibori

2.5.2.3 “Arashi” Shibori

2.6 Summary

CHAPTER THREE : RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Research framework

3.3 Method and methodology

3.3.1 Observation

3.3.2 Interviews

3.3.2.1 Natural dyes: The problem faced and its

distinctive qualities

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3.3.2.2 Mordants

3.3.2.3 The common dye plants

3.3.3 Experiments

3.3.3.1 Materials

3.3.3.2 Equipments

3.3.3.3 Pilot experiments: Direct dyeing, Shibori,

and Vitamin C aftertreatments

3.3.3.4 Final experiments: Pulverised dyes production,

Dyeing process and Vitamin C Aftertreatment

3.3.4 Colour Analysis and Evaluation: The lightfastness test

3.4 Summary

CHAPTER FOUR : DATA ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Pilot experiments

4.2.1 The development of natural dyeing recipe: Dyebath

preparation and mordanting technique in conjunction

with amount of dyes and mordants

4.2.2 The dyeing recipe and condition

4.2.3 Preliminary test for vitamin C aftertreatments using

“Sepang” wood and onion skin

4.3 Final experiments

4.3.1 Pulverised dyes production

4.3.2 The pulverised dyes and their dyeing properties

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4.3.3 The characteristics of mordants and

mordanting process

4.3.4 Results and discussion of natural dyeing, Vitamin C

aftertreatment and lightfastness tests

4.3.4.1 “Sepang” wood

4.3.4.2 “Tengar” bark

4.3.4.3 “Mengkudu” root

4.3.4.4 Onion skin

4.3.4.5 “Ketapang” leaves

4.3.4.6 Mangosteen husk

4.3.4.7 Ebony spleenwort leaves

4.3.4.8 Henna leaves

4.3.4.9 Betel nut

4.3.4.10 “Engkerabai” leaves

4.3.5 Summary of full-scale experiments

4.3.5.1 Dyeing process and effects of Vitamin C

aftertreatments on cotton and silk

4.3.5.2 The improved lightfastness of pulverized

plant dyes: Vitamin C in conjunction with

lightfastness test

4.3.5.3 The five types of Vitamin C aftertreatment results

after 40 hours exposure to sunlight based on alum

mordanted silk samples

4.3.5.3 Effectiveness of The Aftertreatment Conditions

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4.4 Summary of advanced dyeing, Vitamin C aftertreatments and

lighfastness tests

4.4.1 Effects of different mordant and pulverised dyes

percentages on colour intensity

4.4.2 Effects of different percentages of mordant and pulverised

dyes on Vitamin C aftertreatment dyed samples and

lightfastness tests

CHAPTER FIVE : APPLICATION OF SHIBORI TECHNIQUE TO

CREATE PATTERNS ONTO CLOTH USING

THE PULVERISED NATURAL DYES

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Pilot experiments: Effects of Shibori, fabric weight and length on silk

dyeing

5.3 Exploration of common Shibori techniques

5.3.1 “Kanoko” Shibori

5.3.2 “Nui” Shibori

5.3.3 “Arashi” Shibori

5.4 Application of Vitamin C in creating Shibori patterns

5.5 Summary

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CHAPTER SIX : CONCLUSION

6.1 Summary of findings

6.2 Conclusion

6.3 Recommendations

BIBLIOGRAPHY

APPENDIX

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Table 2.1

Table 2.2

Table 2.3

Table 2.4

Table 3.1

Table 3.2

Table 3.3

Table 3.4

Table 3.5

Table 3.6

Table 3.7

Table 3.8

Table 4.1

Table 4.2

LIST OF TABLES

Natural Dyes History

Plant Materials and Colours Produced by National Craft Institute

(2009).

Differences in Dyeing Experiments between this Research and

Research by NCI (2009)

Past Researches on UV Absorbers and Antioxidants

Aftertreatment to Improve Lightfastness of Natural Dyes

Research Methods

Summarised Content of Natural Dyeing Videos

Fabrics and Auxiliaries used for Mordanting, Dyeing, and

Aftertreatment

Plant Types used in Pulverised Dyes Production

Preliminary Mordanting and Dyeing Test Condition using

“Sepang” Wood and Mangosteen Husk

Preliminary Test Conditions for Vitamin C Aftertreatment Using

“Sepang” Wood and Onion Skin

Aftertreatment Condition for Final Experiments

Difference of Test Condition between the Manual Lightfastness

Test and Lightfastness from SIRIM QAS International Sdn. Bhd.

Colour Shades for Pre-mordanted Cotton and Silk Dyed with

Onion Skin

Colour Shades for Meta-mordanted Cotton and Silk Dyed with

Onion Skin

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Table 4.3

Table 4.4

Table 4.5

Table 4.6

Table 4.7

Table 4.8

Table 4.9

Table 4.10

Table 4.11

Table 4.12

Table 4.13

Table 4.14

Table 4.15

Table 4.16

LIST OF TABLES

Colour Shades for Cotton and Silk Dyed with “Sepang” Wood

and Mangosteen Husk

Colour Shades for Cotton and Silk Dyed with “Sepang” Wood

and Mangosteen Husk using Strong, Medium, and Weak Bath

Fabric Samples of Preliminary Vitamin C Aftertreatments using

“Sepang” Wood and Onion Skin

Material Management of Pulverised Dyes Production

Pulverised Dyes

Plant Parts and Dyeing Properties

Mordants and Mordanting Process

Vitamin C Aftertreated Cotton and Silk Dyed with “Sepang”

Wood

Lightfastness Test Result of Vitamin C Aftertreated Cotton and

Silk Dyed with “Sepang” Wood

Vitamin C Aftertreated Cotton and Silk Dyed with “Tengar”

Bark


Silk Dyed with “Tengar” Bark

Vitamin C Aftertreated Cotton and Silk Dyed with “Mengkudu”

Root


Silk Dyed with “Mengkudu” Root

Vitamin C Aftertreated Cotton and Silk Dyed with Onion Skin

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Table 4.17

Table 4.18

Table 4.19

Table 4.20

Table 4.21

Table 4.22

Table 4.23

Table 4.24

Table 4.25

Table 4.26

Table 4.27

Table 4.28

LIST OF TABLES


Silk Dyed with Onion Skin

Vitamin C Aftertreated Cotton and Silk Dyed with “Ketapang”

leaves


Silk Dyed with “Ketapang” leaves

Vitamin C Aftertreated Cotton and Silk Dyed with Mangosteen

Husk


Silk Dyed with Mangosteen Husk

Vitamin C Aftertreated Cotton and Silk Dyed with Ebony

Spleenwort


Silk Dyed with Ebony Spleenwort

Vitamin C Aftertreated Cotton and Silk Dyed with Henna

Leaves


Silk Dyed with Henna Leaves

Vitamin C Aftertreated Cotton and Silk Dyed with Betel Nut


Silk Dyed with Betel Nut

Vitamin C Aftertreated Cotton and Silk Dyed with “Engkerabai”

Leaves

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Table 4.29

Table 4.30

Table 4.31

Table 4.32

Table 4.33

Table 4.34

Table 4.35

Table 4.36

Table 5.1

LIST OF TABLES

Lightfastness Test Result of Vitamin C Aftertreated Cotton and Silk

Dyed with “Engkerabai” Leaves

Lab Test Report of Vitamin C Aftertreated Alum and Lime

Mordanted Silk Dyed with “Engkerabai” Leaves by SIRIM QAS

International Sdn. Bhd.

Summary of the Dyeing and Vitamin C Aftertreatment Results before

Lightfastness Test

Tone Ranking after Lightfastness Test based on Silk Samples to

Determine the Best Aftertreatment Method for Each of the Pulverised

Plant Dyes

Tone Ranking of Silk Samples based on the Best Mordant for Each of

the Pulverised Dyes

Colour Shades for Cotton and Silk Dyed with “Sepang” Wood,

“Engkerabai”, and “Ketapang” Leaves using Different Amount of

Mordant and Dyes

Vitamin C Aftertreated Cotton and Silk Dyed with “Sepang” Wood,

“Engkerabai”, and “Ketapang” Leaves using Different Amount of

Mordant and Dye

Lightfastness Test Result for Vitamin C Aftertreated Cotton and Silk

Dyed with “Sepang” Wood, “Engkerabai”, and “Ketapang” Leaves

Using Different Amount of Mordant and Dyes

Effect of Shibori, Fabric Weight and Length on Silk Dyeing

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Table 5.2

Table 5.3

Table 5.4

LIST OF TABLES

Dyeing Condition for “Kanoko” Shibori Samples

Dyeing Condition for “Nui” Shibori Samples

Dyeing Condition for “Arashi” Shibori Samples

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Figure 2.1

Figure 2.2

Figure 2.3

Figure 2.4

Figure 2.5

Figure 2.6

Figure 2.7

Figure 2.8

Figure 2.9

Figure 3.1

Figure 3.2

Figure 3.3

Figure 3.4

Figure 3.5

Figure 3.6

Figure 4.1

Figure 4.2

Figure 4.3

Figure 4.4

Figure 4.5

LIST OF FIGURES

Conceptual Framework

“Seni Kraf Batik: Pewarnaan Asli” (2009), as the First Local

Academic Publication on Plant Dyes in Malaysia

Lightfastness Rate by Adrosko (1971)

Simple Light Test Method Diagram as explained by Adrosko (1971)

Wash Testing Method Diagram as explained by Adrosko (1971)

Shibori Fabrics (Wada et al., 1983)

“Hon Hitta” Kanoko; Dots within Squares Shibori (Wada et al., 1983)

“Nui” Shibori (Wada et al., 1983)

“Arashi” Shibori (Wada et al., 1983)

Research Framework

Important Equipments used in Dyeing and their Functions

Pulverised Dyes Production

Fabric Samples Preparation Diagram

Mordanting and Dyeing Condition for Final Experiments

Manual Lightfastness Test Method by Window-mounting the Fabric

Samples

Phases of Results and Discussion

“Sepang” Wood Dyebath with Alum Mordanted Fabric Samples before

and during Vitamin C Aftertreatment

Silk and Cotton Fabrics after Decoction with Lime Paste

Basic Phases in Conveyance of Substance into the Fabrics

Diagram of the Phases Involved in the Natural Dyeing Process of this

Research

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Figure 4.6

Figure 4.7

Figure 4.8

Figure 4.9

Figure 4.10

Figure 4.11

Figure 5.1

Figure 5.2

Figure 5.3

Figure 5.4

Figure 5.5

Figure 5.6

Figure 5.7

LIST OF FIGURES

Categorisation of the Manual Lightfastness Test Result

Vitamin C Aftertreatment Result after 40 Hours of Exposure

based on Alum Mordanted Silk Fabrics Dyed with

“Mengkudu” and Ebony Spleenwort

Vitamin C Aftertreatment Result after 40 Hours of Exposure

based on Alum Mordanted Silk Fabrics Dyed with Onion

Vitamin C Aftertreatment Result After 40 Hours of Exposure

based on Alum Mordanted Silk Fabrics Dyed with

“Engkerabai” and Mangosteen Husk


based on Alum Mordanted Silk Fabrics Dyed with “Ketapang”


based on Alum Mordanted Silk Fabrics Dyed with “Sepang”

Colour Combination Result for “Kanoko” Shibori Samples

Pleats Making using “Nui” Shibori

Colour Combination Result for “Arashi” Shibori Samples

Untying Process of Sample 2 First Layer

Basic and Direct Application of Vitamin C in Shibori Dyeing

with “Sepang” Wood to Produce Discharged Pattern

Basic and Direct Application of Vitamin C in Shibori Dyeing

with “Engkerabai” Produce Conventional Pattern

Application of Vitamin C in Final Process of Shibori Dyeing to

Produce Merged Layers Effects

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LIST OF ABREVIATIONS

A.D.

AT

AT 1

AT 2

AT 3

B.C.

d/s

g / L

IKN

MHDC

NCI

pH

SIRIM

UV

UVA

WEFT

w.o.f.

After death

Aftertreatment

Aftertreatment 1 fabric samples



Before christ

dyestuff

Gram per litre

“Institut Kraf Negara” (English: National Craft Institute)

Malaysian Handicraft Development Corporation

National Craft Institute

Acidity or alkalinity value

Standards and Industrial Research Institute of Malaysia

Ultraviolet

Ultraviolet absorber

World Eco-Fibre and Textile

Weight of fabric

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LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

APPENDIX B

APPENDIX C

Lab test report by SIRIM QAS International Sdn. Bhd.

The filing process of fabric samples

Publication

1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

Natural dyes for textile dyeing are ancient technologies which have gone through

various evolutions as colours play an important role in the world. However, there are

evidences of the natural dyes discoveries that are difficult to retrieve due to unwritten or

missing records. Generally, natural dyes are the coloured pigments which are obtained from

plants, animals, and minerals (Siva, 2007). Fabrics such as silk and wool can be coloured by

simply dipping it in the dyebath, but others such as cotton requires a mordant to fix the colour

and prevent the colour from fading. Also, mordant is used accordingly to the type of plant

used.

The discovery of mauveine, the first synthetic organic chemical dye, by Perkin in

1856 has resulted in a considerable decline in the use of natural dyes. Synthetic dyes are still

mainly used in the textile industry as the use of natural dyes incur high production costs that

resulted from the laborious extraction and dyeing methods (Goodarzian & Ekrami 2010). In

addition, conventional natural textile dyeing needs proper technical knowledge and

sustainable collections of plants. However, with the global concern over pollution, the

interest for biodegradable materials such as natural dyes increased recently. Research has

proven that synthetic dyes release harmful chemicals that can affect human health (Siva,

2007). This growing demand has resulted a continuous research and development in terms of

finding new ways or recipes to increase efficiency of natural colours in terms of

colourfastness (lightfastness and washfastness), similar to synthetic colours.

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