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1991 9: 59Clothing and Textiles Research JournalDeanna J. Radeloff

Psychological Types, Color Attributes, and Color Preferences of Clothing, Textiles, and Design Students  

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Psychological Types, Color Attributes, andColor Preferences of

Clothing, Textiles, and Design Students

Deanna J. Radeloff

Author’s Address: Department of Applied Human Ecology,Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH 43403

Abstract

The purposes of this study were to determine (a) if color attributes affect color preferences and (b) if psychologi-cal types affect colorpreferencesfor apparel fabrics. Color theory was applied using hue seasonal color categories,value categories, and chroma categories. The experimental research design used a sample of 111 clothing, textile,and design majors to determine color preferences. Results of analysis of variance and Tukey’s HSD revealed severalsignificant differences with respect to color preferences. Summer andwinter colors were significantlypreferred morethan autumn colors, while spring colors were significantly more preferred than autumn colors. Medium, dark, andlight values were significantly different from each other, most preferred in the order listed. Significance was alsofound for each level of chroma with dull most preferred; then medium, then intense chroma as least preferred. Allof the eight psychological types showed significant differences in seasonal color preferences except for introvertedthinking types. Extroverted sensing types were found to be the most discriminating across the four season colorcategories and preferred colors with the least intensity. Extroverted and introverted thinkers did not have significantdifferences in value color preferences. Introverted feeling and introverted intuitive types did not have significantpreferences for chroma. While color is a complex phenomenon, this study suggests that distinctions are part of aperson’s natural propensities. It also supports the theory that hue seasonal color categories, value, and chroma canbe used to elicit variations in human response to color.

The relationship between color preferences and person-ality has been studied by color experts and researchers.Luschner (1979) postulated that the function of the color,defined as the person’s attraction, rejection, or neutralitytowards that color, reveals personality.

Munzert (1980) developed a personality-compatibilityindex with 31 descriptions. He considered individual reac-tion to color to be spontaneous and uninhibited, thereforeindicative of basic emotions and attitudes. Munzert believedcolor preferences reveal an individual’s level of inhibition.Extroverted people tend to choose the warm colors andbrighter, clearer tones of the cool colors, while introvertedindividuals tend to choose the blues and greens and subdued,washed-out tones of the warmer colors.

Furthermore, Munzert (1980) believed that color prefer-ences are affected by mood and the circumstances of thesituation or time in which they are made. Thus, persons whoare depressed at the time they make a color selection opt forcooler colors; persons who are happy tend to select brighter,warmer colors.

The empirical studies on color preferences and person-ality have failed to support any one theory. Bjerstedt (1960)used a paired color pattern device in a series of cross-sectional studies of 900 people, examining the relationshipbetween color and personality. Active and direct personswho needed gratification preferred warm colors.

University students evaluated as anxious selected cool,dark colors over light, bright colors in Domfeld’s study(1982). On the other hand, Nelson, Pelech, and Foster ( 1984)found that adolescents who were seekers of high stimulationpreferred the color red as opposed to seekers of low stimula-tion, who preferred the color blue. Turoczi (1985) studiedthe color preferences of several thousand Hungarians be-tween 1948 and 1975. She found that subjects who preferredred were prone to be nervous and that females who preferredpurple displayed exhibitionism, excitability, or sleep distur-bance. In an investigation of the relation between impulsive-ness and preferences for stimulating colors as mediated bytime of day, Zuber and Ekehammer (1988) found that highlyimpulsive persons preferred more stimulating colors in themorning than did less impulsive subjects but that a reversepattern emerged in the evening.

A few clothing researchers have examined color prefer-ence and personality. Compton (1962), using various agegroups, found that persons who favored strong value contrast

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and cool colors scored high in sociability. Cave (1965),however, found that secure subjects preferred duller colorsthan did those in the insecure group.

Ford and Drake (1978) experimented with color valueswith 372 female undergraduates. Color value preference forclothing was measured by six sets of colors with hue andintensity kept constant. It was found that subjects choosingdarker values tended to be more aggressive than thosechoosing lighter values.

In a clothing study Duntley (1982) examined differ-ences and preferences of male and female adolescents forwarm versus cool colors in relation to first impressions ofpersonality traits. She found cool colors produced morefavorable personality-trait ratings than did warm colors.Gender was not a factor.

Francis and Evans (1987) found that stimulus-orientedpersons were generally perceived least positively whenwearing the garment colors recommended for their personalcoloring. They suggested that research should explore therelationship between aesthetics and personality.

No color preference and personality study could befound that has used the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)to assess relationships. Since the MBTI is concerned withthe differences in people that result from the way theyperceive and the way they judge, it is an appropriate tool toexamine differences in color preferences.

Myers-Briggs Psychological TypesThe MBTI has eight broad categories of psychological

types (Myers, 1980). These are extroverted and introvertedthinking types, feeling types, sensing types, and intuitivetypes.

Through reliance on thinking, the extroverted thinkingtypes become logical, analytical, often critical, impersonal,and unlikely to be convinced by anything but reasoning.They organize their facts and operations well in advance,define their objectives, and make a systematic drive to reachthese objectives on schedule. Introverted thinkers organizefacts and ideas. They are quiet, reserved, detached, aloof,objectively critical, and quite adaptable until one of theirruling principles is violated. Extroverted feeling types arefriendly, tactful, sympathetic, loyal, conscientious, perse-vering, and talkative. Reliance on feelings gives them apersonal approach to life. This latter trait makes it difficultfor them to be brief and businesslike. Introverted feelingtypes are idealists with a wealth of warmth and enthusiasmthat may not be apparent. Reliance on feeling leads them tojudge everything by personal values without reference tojudgment of others.

As realists, extroverted sensing types learn by doing andare adaptable, good natured, and open-minded. They knowwhat the facts are since they notice and remember more thanany other type. Introverted sensing types have a complete,realistic, practical respect both for the facts and for respon-sibilities that facts create. Practical judgment and memoryfor detail make them good team members. However, thesetypes of personalities may be limited by their focus on self-interest.

Extroverted intuitive types are imaginative, perceptive,enthusiastic innovators who try to understand people. They

see new possibilities and new ways of doing things andpursue their ideas eagerly. They use imagination and initia-tive to originate projects and impulsive energy to carry themout. Introverted intuitive types are goal-oriented and innova-tors in the field of ideas. They trust their intuitive insight andhave single-minded concentration. They want to see theirideas applied.

The MBTI has been used to predict teaching styles(Kagan & Grandgenett, 1987) and to examine the associa-tion between psychological types and achievement levels ofretail managers (Gaster, 1982). Kean, Mehlhoff, andSorensen (1988) compared psychological types of collegestudents in home economics to agricultural students. In thepresent study, psychological types of college students areidentified, and whether or not these psychological types havedistinct color preferences is examined.

Theoretical FrameworkThe foundations of this study are the attributes of the

visual experience as a subcomponent of overall humanexperience in relation to color. Color, according to Burnham,Lanes, and Bartleson (1963), is an aspect of visual experi-ence that may be referred to as scales of hue, saturation, andbrightness, comprising a three-dimensional complex apartfrom, but affected by, spatial and temporal aspects of thevisual experience. Within this framework, any of the kindsof perceived differences that can be seen when two colors areplaced side by side are referred to as the perceptual colorvariable.

Amore recentuse of colorhas been promoted by fashioncolor consultants. Popularized by color analysts (Cayghill,1980; Jackson, 1980), consumers are given a set of recom-mended color choices to wear (Abramov, 1985). Usingnature as a basis for explaining color tones and experimen-tation with various colors of fabrics draped on numerousindividuals, Cayghill (1980) identified four major seasoncolor palettes, one of which was most suitable for any givenindividual.

Winter colors are pure, cool hues with full chroma or

crystal value tones. These colors are clear red, pink, fuschia,magenta, burgundy, purple, emerald green, pure yellow,royal blue, mint green, very light blue, and pale aqua.

Summer colors are also cool colors but are softer,ranging from dusty pink, mauve, and orchid to mid-brightred, rich purple, medium greens, all mid-bright blues, andblue-greens to paler blues. The color range for summer isreferred to as sherbet-toned. Spring colors are bright, warmcolors with a lighter value than the bright, cool colors of thewinter palette. Caramel tans, spring greens, corals, aquas,and blues undertoned with yellow and light orange tones arerecommended for a spring person’s wardrobe. Autumn col-ors are the pumpkins, spices and rusts, muted golds, andoranges. Olive greens, teal blues, and browns are alsoincluded in this color palette of warm muted tones.

The color attributes in previous studies have not beencarefully controlled, which could be a major reason for thedisparity in the research fmdings on color preferences. Inorder to compare the results of this study with future studiesrelated to color preferences and personality, the Munsell hue,value, and chroma notations are presented.

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ObjectivesIn this study, fabric samples were used to elicit color

preferences for apparel. The colors were organized accord-ing to the following aspects of color theory: (a) Hue wasscaled into seasonal color categories of summer, winter,autumn, or spring; (b) value was scaled into color categoriesof light, medium, or dark; and (c) chroma was scaled intocolor categories of intense, medium, or dull. The objectivesof this study were to determine (a) if subjects had colorpreferences in relation to season, value, and chroma catego-ries ; (b) what psychological types of students were repre-sented in the clothing, textiles, and design major as measuredby the MBTI; and (c) if the students’ psychological typesaffected color preferences.

Procedure

One hundred eleven college-age women enrolled in anundergraduate fashion or design class participated in thestudy. All subjects had completed a basic textiles class, anintroductory apparel construction class, and a home furnish-ings class. Administration of the instruments by trainedresearch assistants took place during two class periods oneweek apart.

Two instruments were used for collecting the data. TheMyers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Form F was used todetermine the dependent variable, psychological types. TheMBTI test-retest reliabilities have been proved consistentwhen testing psychological types. Internal consistency onpreference scores has been estimated by phi coefficients andtetrachoric coefficients, both with application of the Spear-man-Brown prophecy formula.

The second instrument was a researcher-developedrating form with a set of fabrics precategorized into fourseasonal hue categories, three value categories, and threechroma categories for the independent color preferencevariable. The response categories were analyzed by 15female home economics professionals with clothing andtextiles backgrounds to see whetherthey were appositive andindependent. The fmal rating form stated, &dquo;Think about theclothes you like in relation to color. Of the fabric samplesexamined, rank each as follows:

1. I really love this! It caught my eye right away. I

could see myself wearing an outfit in this.2. I sort of like this. It has possibilities for an outfit for

me. I’d have to consider it.3. I couldn’t see myself wearing anything in this color.

To me this color is ugly!&dquo;An accompanying set of 20 5 x 7 in. plain note cards with

two coordinated 3 x 5 in. fabric samples attached to the notecards was used. Since apparel often involves more than onefabric as part of an outfit, one solid color or a solid neutralcolor (Fabric A) was coordinated with the fabric having adesign variation (Fabric B). The predominant color withinany given fabric was assumed to be that to which the subjectswould respond. No controls were established for texture,pattern, or fiber content in this study. For reliability theMunsell system of color notation was used to describe and

analyze the dominant color of the fabric samples in terms of

three attributes: hue, value, and chroma. In this system, hueis indicated by the capital H followed by a fraction in whichthe numerator represents the value and the denominatorindicates the chroma. Value has nine visible steps with thedarkest value of hue being 1 and the lightest 9. Pure black isdesignated as 0/ and pure white as 10/. In the Munsell

system, chroma is used as the term for intensity, indicatingthe degree of departure of a given hue from a neutral gray ofthe same value. The chroma of a hue varies from /2 (the mostgrayed value) to / 12 (the strongest chroma).

As noted by Judd and Wyszecki (1975) the Munsellcolor system is the most important single body of datadeveloped on value and chromaticity scales. It is used as astandard in the American Society for Testing and Materialsstandard procedures for visual measurement of color (ASTMD 1729) and the Intersociety Color Council (ISCC) and theNational Bureau of Standards (NBS)(now the National Insti-tute of Standards and Technology) methods of designatingcolors (ASTM, 1989; Kelly & Judd, 1976). The standardused for this study was the glossy edition of the MunsellBook of Color (Munsell Color Co., 1966).

A uniform gray matte background material provided bythe Munsell company was used in viewing the colors of thefabrics. Openings were cut to expose only the fabric beingidentified. Backgrounds sized to hide all surrounding colorwere used. Following the recommendations of Chamberlinand Chamberlin (1980), the sample size viewed was the sizeof a thumbnail, for purposes of standardization interpreted tobe I lh cm sq., the size of the opening cut out in the back-ground material.

Fabric swatches and standard were placed side by sideon the viewing table. The smooth, nonglare gray viewingtable was 28 in. above the floor. The fabric swatches andstandard were viewed from approximately 16 in. on a flatsurface. The researcher who made the color identificationshad normal vision, as determined by an opthalmologist, andhad normal color vision as determined by testing, using theFarnsworth-Munsell 100 Hue color test.

Since an objective of this aspect of the research was tostandardize the colors of the fabric samples, a daylightincandescent bulb was used. Minimum light used was 100 .fc, measured by a light meter. The light struck the table at a45° angle from the horizontal (ASTM, 1989).

A panel of 10 trained color analysts was used to classifythe samples into seasonal color categories. There were fivesamples for each of the hue seasonal color categories ofwinter, summer, spring, and autumn. Color designations forthe fabric samples are reported in Table 1. The ISCC-NBSmethod (Kelly & Judd, 1976) was used to identify names forthe hues of the fabric samples. For further comparisoncapabilities of the samples, reflectance was obtained fromthe Optical Society of America (Agoston, 1979).

To examine value, an arbitrary scale was established.Munsell notations of 0-3 were considered to be dark value;4-7 medium value; and 8-10 light value. Based upon apparelfabric A, the solid colored fabrics, there were seven fabricsof dark value, six fabrics of medium value, and seven fabricsof light value.

Chroma was also segmented into three categories.Fabrics identified as 1-4 by the Munsell notations were themost grayed or dull. Fabrics with a numerical code between

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5-9 were of medium chroma while fabrics in the range of 10-14 were considered bright or intense. Eight fabrics wereconsidered to have dull chroma, six to have medium chroma,and six to have intense chroma. During the administration ofthe color preference ratings, samples were randomly placed

on a window ledge for daylight viewing between the hoursof 11 a.m. and 2 p.m. Time limits were not established for

viewing of the samples. This procedure was used to simulatea more natural setting for the students as they made theirchoices.

Table 1. Color designations for apparel fabrics.

areflectance is reported per the Optical Society of America’s definition of value in relation to luminance factors (Agoston, 1979, p. 91).’’(black) or (white) = achromatic neutrals.°Summer categorydwinter category’Spring categoryfautumn category

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Results

Color Attributes and Color PreferenceData from this study indicated that clothing, textiles, and

design students have color preferences for apparel that relateto colors grouped into seasonal color palettes. Repeated-measures analysis of variance indicated season

(F[3,330] = 59.13, p < .0001),. value (F[2,220] = 27.87,p < .0001 ), and chroma (F[2,220] = 71.14, p < .0001 ) weresignificant predictors of color preference. Using a multiplecomparison technique, the Tukey’s HSD, as a post hoc testof differences, significant differences were found within thevariables.

Table 2 shows subjects most preferred fabrics catego-rized as summer colors and least preferred fabrics catego-rized as autumn colors. There were no significant differ-ences in preferences for summer or winter categorized fab-rics, but both were significantly different from spring orautumn categories. Spring colors were also preferred signifi-cantly more than autumn colors. All three levels of value andchroma were significantly different from one another. Col-ors of medium value and dull chroma were the most preferredin the two categories.

Table 2. Mean ratings for color preference categories of apparelfabrics.

Note: Low mean is more preferred.a...p < .05.

Psychological TypesData from this study suggest that students in clothing,

textiles, and design (CTD) have a predominant psychologi-cal type. The fmdings are presented in Table 3.

Thinking as the dominant function was the least popu-lated category with 9°6 representation (N = 11). Kean,

Table 3. Psychological types of TCD students.

Mehlhoff, and Sorensen (1988) found 6 of 61 CTD majors tobe of this psychological type.

Students whose dominant function was feeling ac-counted for 28% (N = 31) of the sample surveyed. Most ofthe CTD students in this group were extroverted (23 % of thesample).

Twenty-eight ( 25 %) of the students surveyed weredominant sensing types. They were fairly evenly distributedbetween extroverted and introverted.

Intuitives represented the largest segment (37 % ) of thesample (N = 41 ). Again, this finding is consistent with Kean,et al. (1988). The greatest percentage of intuitives (30% ofthe sample) were the extroverted type.

Psychological Types and Color PreferencesThe results reported in this section are all significant

(p < .05). Repeated analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealedthat all psychological types except introverted thinkingshowed differences in seasonal color preferences Bothintroverted and extroverted thinking types did not havedifferences in preferences for value. Introverted feelingtypes and introverted intuitive types did not have preferencesfor chroma (Table 4).

Using Tukey’s HSD, it was found that extrovertedthinkers preferred summer and winter colors more thanautumn colors. Extroverted feeling types preferred summerand winter colors more than spring and autumn colors, whilethe introverted feeling types preferred summer and wintercolors more than autumn colors. The extroverted sensingtypes preferred summer colors more than spring colors andspring colors more than autumn colors, while the introverted

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Table 4. Main effects in ANOVA of color preference categories on eight psychological types.

*p<.05. **p<.01. *** P < .001.

sensing types preferred summer colors more than autumncolors. The extroverted intuitive types preferred summerand winter colors more than spring and autumn colors, whilethe introverted intuitive type preferred the summer andwinter colors more than the autumn colors (see Table 5).

Table 5. Mean ratings for eight psychological types by seasonalcolor preference.

Note: Low mean is more preferred.’&dquo;°p < .05.

Extroverted feeling types preferred medium and darkvalues more than light values, while the introverted feelingtypes preferred dark values over light values. Both sensingtypes preferred medium values over light values as did bothintuitive types (see Table 6).

Table 6. Mean ratings for eight psychological types comparedby color value preference.

Note: Low mean is more preferred.abep < .05

z

The results of Tukey’s HSD tests show that extrovertedthinking types prefer dull colors compared to intense colors

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as do extroverted feeling types. Introverted thinking, extro-verted sensing, and introverted sensing types prefer mediumor dull colors over intense colors. Extroverted intuitive typespreferred, in order, dull, medium, and intense chromas (seeTable 7).

Table 7. Mean ratings for eight psychological types by colorchroma preference.

Note: Low mean is more preferred.*&dquo;p < .05. ..

Discussion and Conclusions

The results provide support that fabrics categorized intohue seasonal color groupings can elicit differences in colorpreferences. Fabrics in summer and winter colors were notsignificantly different from one another but were signifi-cantly more preferred than spring colors. Autumn colorswere the least preferred. These findings suggest that coolbased clothing fabrics are more preferred than warm basedfabrics. Different color selections for summer and winterseasonal color fabrics need to be studied to determine if thereis a distinction in preferences for the cool grouped colors offabrics. Fabric texture, fiber content, surface or applieddesign variables need to be studied to determine their impactin relation to color preferences.

There seems to be merit in grouping hues into seasonalcolor categories in relation to color preferences. This sup-ports Revelli’s (1987) contention and that of other coloranalysts that people distinguish between warm and coolcolors and bright and dull colors which form the seasonalcolor groupings.

The effect of value in color preference for apparel wassignificant (p < .05) at all three levels. Colors of medium

value were more preferred than dark values, and dark valueswere more preferred than light values. It appears that valueis a critical determinant of color preferences and should becontrolled for in apparel color preference research.

One reason that light values were least preferred couldbe that these clothing, textiles, and design majors havelearned that lighter colors present an image of a larger bodysize. Since fashion promotes a slim image, subjects may beusing darker colors to minimize their figures. Anotherreason for these fmdings could be the time of year duringwhich subjects rated the colors. Apparel of medium to darkvalue is more frequently worn in the midwest in the wintermonths when this study was conducted. Students may finddarker colors easier to care for also.

The present study also suggests that chroma is a factorin color preferences and that dull colors are preferred mostfor apparel. As with value, figure size and time of year couldbe providing confusing effects. The college students were nodifferent from older women in their preferences for lessbright colors (Pieper, 1968). Chroma is an important dimen-sion to be considered when studying color preferences forapparel. Further implications can be made relative to colorpreferences for the fashion industry. Textile producers andmanufacturers should possibly consider using more mediumvalues and dull chromas when providing raw materials forthe apparel industry. If cool colors are preferred more thanwarm colors, retailers may benefit by stocking more apparelmerchandise in the preferred summer or winter seasonalcategories than in the spring or autumn seasonal categories.Consumers may reap more satisfaction from their clothingpurchases if given a greater choice of garments in colors theyprefer.

In studying the relationships between color categoriesand psychological types, other distinctions can be made. Inthis study, extroverted dominant sensing types distinguishedcolors more significantly by seasonal categories than allother types. According to the Myers-Briggs model fordynamic interaction of preferences, this type is the mostperceptive and able to recognize quality, line, color, texture,and detail (Myers & McCaulley, 1985).

In this study, Munzert’s (1980) theory that open extro-verted people tend to choose the warm brighter colors wasnot supported. However, one conjecture from his theorycould be that the students were depressed and thus selectedcooler colors.

This study does not distinguish a difference for onlysocial persons favoring cool colors and strong value con-trasts as did Compton’s earlier study (1962). Use of differentmeasures could be one reason the findings are not consistent.

Of the eight psychological types, thinking extrovertsand introverts did not significantly differ in value prefer-ences. Of the three value categories, light was least preferredby six psychological types. Thinking, feeling, and intuitiveextroverts preferred dull chromas. Medium chroma wasneither most nor least preferred by any of the psychologicaltypes. Both thinking and sensing types least preferredintense chroma as did feeling and intuitive extroverts. Thesedata suggest that color preference studies should includecarefully controlled color samples that account for the di-mensions of value and chroma.

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Psychologists and color theorists have discussed thebuilt-in mechanism humans have for preferences (Aaronson,1970; Guilford & Smith,1959; Luschner,1979). These pref-erences are important indicators of environments in whichpeople can be constructive and effective. As noted earlier,Munzert (1980) believed color preference depends upon thesituation. In a contradictory mode, Wagner (1985) claimedthat, while color undoubtedly affects people, its effects varyfrom person to person; some select colors to contrast withtheir personality, and others choose colors that are similar totheir personality. This study supports the contention thatpsychological types do have differences in their color pref-erences but that no uniform pattern exists. One conclusionis that sensing types who are more color perceptive should beencouraged to pursue careers that require this skill. Anotherconclusion is that cool colors-colors in the blues, blue-reds,purples, greens-are more favored than warm colors-or-anges and yellows-when clothing choices are being made.This fmding supports much of the clothing color preferenceliterature (Cave, 1965; Rudd, 1972; Spriuell & Jernigan,1982).

One caution of these findings is the use of CTD majorsas subjects. In this study, as in the Kean et al. study (1988),subjects were not equally distributed among the psychologi-cal types. Thinking as a dominant function was least pre-ferred by these CTD majors, while intuitive as a dominantfunction was most preferred. This finding has two implica-tions. One is that students who major in clothing, textiles,and design seem to have similar psychological types. Thesecond implication is that research related to color prefer-ences in psychological types needs to address more diversesample populations.

A recommendation for future use of the MBTI in ratingcolor preferences is to change the stimulus. Do subjectsrespond to colors for apparel differently than colors forinteriors? Does the style of the garment have a spuriouseffect on color preference? Additional studies also need toconsider personal coloring, gender, and age differences aswell as psychological types in relation to color preferences.

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