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Psychological Type as a Modelof Personality DevelopmentRowan Bayne aa Department of Psychology North East LondonPolytechnicPublished online: 16 Oct 2007.

To cite this article: Rowan Bayne (1988) Psychological Type as a Model of PersonalityDevelopment, British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 16:2, 167-175, DOI:10.1080/03069888808253549

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Psychological Type as a Model of Personality Development

Rowan Bayne

Department of Psychology North East London Polytechnic

Contemporary psychological type theory is discussed, empharising its model of development and showing that in this theory ‘type’ is not used in a static sense (though there is an element of continuity) but rather as indicating each type’s different, ‘normal’ pattern of development. The concepts of good type development and false type development are touched on. A self-development exercise is described which (a) applies and illustrates aspects of the theory, and (b) provides an opportunity to practise listening and action skills.

Psychological type theory In contemporary type theory, Myers (1980; Myers and McCaulley, 1985) has refined and substantially clarified some of Jung’s (1921) ideas about personality. In particular, Myers emphasises the strengths of each type, the constructive use of differences between the types, the implications of the differences for communication, and developmental aspects of the theory. Type theory is quite well supported as a description of aspects of personality by the research to date, though much of this is in one area: relationships between type and occupation (Myers and McCaulley 1985). More pertinent to this part of the theory, but not yet carried out, would be studies of competence, enjoyment, type and occupation.

Type theory has many valuable qualities (Myers and McCaulley, 1985; Bayne, 1987): it is intended primarily to promote realistic self-esteem and esteem for others; it is optimistic and versatile; it provides stimulating perspectives on basic counselling qualities and skills, and on most aspects of behaviour and mental life; and its areas of application include education (Lawrence, 1982), counselling (Provost, 1984), business (Hirsh, 1985), and careers guidance (Myers and McCaulley, 1985, chapter 7). For example, different types are seen as in general finding different careers and kinds of activity more fulfilling than others. At a more subtle level of interpretation, someone whose type would not seem appropriate for a particular career might make an unusual contribution to it: type is not a rigid or prescriptive approach. Different types are also reported as experiencing most difficulty with those stages of counselling which the theory predicts, both as clients and counsellors (Provost, 1984). Similarly, different types tend to prefer different ways of learning (Lawrence, 1982) and to respond to ‘burnout’ differently, the latter idea having strong empirical support (Garden, 1985).

Myers proposes 16 psychological types, each described in terms of four

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preferences (Myers, 1980; Bayne, 1986). The concept of ‘preference’ is important in the theory and in administering and interpreting the associ- ated measure, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). Preference means ‘feeling most comfortable and natural with’. For example, everyone behaves extravertedly at some times and introvertedly at others, but according to type theory everyone has a preference for extraversion or introversion, and most people tend to behave more in accord with their preference and to feel ‘most themselves’ when doing so. The MBTI is designed to measure preferences rather than abilities, skills, or how well-developed the preferences are. It is therefore essentially a categorising measure, and the numerical part of an MBTI result indicates the degree of confidence in the chosen preference, not the degree of development. For example, someone who scores 23 points for extraversion will probably prefer extraversion much more than someone who scores 5 points, but either person may have developed the characteristics associated with extraversion to a greater or lesser extent. The numerical part of the MBTI result can be used to indicate the relative development of preference wirhin each person, but comparing scores between people is a mk-use (Myers and Mcdaulley, 1985). T G theory suggests four pairs of preferences, defined in a fairly

concrete way in figure 1: extraversion (E) and introversion (I); sensing ( S ) and intuition (N); thinking (T) and feeling (F); and judging (J) and perceiving (P). E, I, J and P are called attitudes; S , N, T and F are called functions. A person’s ‘type’ is described in four letters, one from each pair of preferences, e.g. ENTJ, INFJ, ISFP. Each type describes only part of a person’s personality and is not meant to capture uniqueness, or to sound static and ‘pigeon-holing’. ‘Style’ probably captures the tone of the theory better. However, the value of type as a term lies in its emphasis on the profound differences between people: as not just different but in some respects opposite to one another.

Developmental aspects of psychological type! theory In type theory, each person uses all eight preferences every day, but either introversion (I) or extraversion (E) and one of the functions ( S , N, T o r F) are preferred and therefore, circumstances permitting, tend to be used most. Jung’s (1921) descriptions of types generally assumed good develop- ment of I or € and one - the dominant - function only. In her descriptions, Myers (1980) assumes good development of a second function as well. This - the auxiliary - function provides balance, i.e. if the dominant is for gathering information ( S or N) then the auxiliary is for making decisions (T or F), and vice-versa. Myers’ descriptions, incorporating a reasonably well-developed auxiliary function, are therefore considerably more posi- tive than Jung’s. Figure 2 (see p. 170) indicates, very crudely, the age at which attitudes and functions tend to develop most, and the normal

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sequence in which they develop, according to both Jung and Myers. It is assumed that developing a preference to the point where it is trusted and effective takes years, even in helpful circumstances.

Figure I : Some qualities associated with the four pairs of preferences in type theory and the MBTI (adapted from Myers, 1980; Lawrence, 1982; and Myers and McCaulley, 1985)

THE FOUR FUNCTIONS

Sensing (S) like facts

* realistic and practical observant about what is actually happening

* work steadily and step by step

enjoy owning things and

* patient, good with detail

Thinking (T) fair, finn-minded, sceptical

analytical and logical brief and businesslike

* critical clear and consistent principles

making them work

Intuition (N) see possibilities and patterns imaginative, speculative like to see the overall picture

* work in bursts of energy with quiet periods in between (need inspiration)

* like variety

impatient with routine

Feefing (F) warm, sympathetic, aware of how

trusting enjoy pleasing others need harmony clear and consistent values

others feel

THE FOUR A’ITITUDES

Extraversion (E) prefer the ‘outer world’ of

active * gain energy from others

want to experience things in order to understand them work by trial and error like variety

Judging ( J ) decisive industrious and determined

* organised and systematic take deadlines seriously

like to have things decided

people and things to reflection

and settled

Introversion ( I ) * prefer reflection and the ‘inner

prefer writing to talking may enjoy social contact but need

want to understand something

* persistent like a quiet space to work in

Perceiving (P) curious flexible and tolerant leave things open pull things together well at last minute

* sample many more experiences than can be digested or used

world‘ to action

to recover from it

before trying it

Brit&h Journal of Guidance and Counselling 169

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Figure 2: A model of ‘ n o d ’ development in psychologicnl type (adapted from Jung, 1921; and Myers and McCaulley. 1985)

Age ( v e v approximote)

0 - 10 Functions undifferentiated at first, then dominant function gradually develops most.

Both extraversion and introversion develop, but one is preferred and develops most.

Auxiliary function develops, but remains less influential than the domi- nant.

Third function (‘partner’ of auxiliary) may develop further, but remains less influential than the auxiliary.

10 - 20

20 - 30

30-40 Fourth function (opposite of dominant) may develop further, but remains less influential than the third function.

Individuated (if all four functions and UI are sufficiently and approp- riately developed).

40+

preference to the point where it is trusted and effective takes years, even in helpful circumstances.

In terms of normal development, type theory sees people as initially undifferentiated in their behaviour, but gradually developing or confirming preferences, e.g. someone who prefers E and S is by definition interested most in whatever is happening in the immediate environment. Because it is not possible to be interested simultaneously in what is happening (S) and in possibilities (N), the preference for S is used more, becomes more trustworthy and so on, as a cumulative and spiral effect. Indeed, a firm sense of self requires this kind of consistency and therefore a choice between opposites like S and N: each developed preference acts as a kind of ‘anchor’ for a person’s sense of self or identity.

Conversely, if choices are not made, the person vacillates between preferences, developing none of them well. Myers and McCaulley use the analogy of being left- or right-handed. Thus a right-handed person in the course of normal development uses their right hand (representing, say, I?) more than their left hand (T). In terms of the analogy, she or he becomes more skilful at making decisions on the basis of values (F) than by using analysis and logic (T). For Some adults, two functions - the dominant and auxiliary - are relied on for most purposes and the third and fourth functions are largely ignored. For other people, there is a diminishing

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return: they want to develop the ‘other side’ of themselves, i.e. their third and perhaps fourth functions. Jung suggested that this impulse - towards developing all the preferences - is experienced by all or most people in the second half of life.

Two further aspects of the theory will be touched on here: the roles of the dominant and auxiliary functions in introverts and extraverts, and good and false type development. First, normal development of the dominant function means different things in introverts and in extraverts. Introverts develop their dominant function mainly in their inner world, because that is what they are most interested in, while extraverts use theirs in the external world, for the same reason. Conversely, again for balance, introverts use their auxiliary function to deal with the outside world (most of the time), while extraverts use their auxiliary mainly in their inner world. The implications of this pattern include:

(1)

(2)

Introverts with a poorly-developed auxiliary function will be socially clumsy and awkward. Introverts are more likely to be underestimated, because their most skilful function is introverted, largely hidden in their inner experi- ence, and what people generally see, and judge as characteristic, is the relatively unskilled auxiliary. Extraverts with a poorly developed auxiliary function will be super- ficial, because they have relatively little contact with their inner experience and will be unduly influenced by circumstances and other people. An introvert and an extravert who have the same dominant function and have developed it will tend to have the same kinds of motive and interests and to do the same kinds of things, but to express them more in their inner experience and their behaviour respectively. The motives summarised in figure 3 illustrate in general terms this difference between introverts and extraverts.

(3)

(4)

Second, the theory assumes a ‘true type’ as well as the particular sequence and timing in normal development outlined in figure 2. ‘Clinical wisdom’ among MBTI users (the best evidence available) suggests that about 75% of people develop normally, i.e. their preferences have developed - through use - so that they have (1) competent or expert skill with the dominant function, (2) adequate skill with the auxiliary, and, therefore, (3) at least adequate development of both I and E. False type development on the other hand is the result of sufficient interference with the normal development of ‘true’ preferences. An example is an intro- verted child surrounded by extraverts who consistently urge her to ‘get out and do things’, ‘do it this way’, etc., and who complies; or someone whose ideal self-concept includes a preference for thinking and who therefore

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Figure 3: A main general motive Psociated with each dominant function (S, N, T or F) and attitude (I or E) (adapted from Myers, 1980)

Introverted Sensing (IS) To work quietly and systematically on something practical or tangible

To work with machines or objects in an easygoing, sociable setting

To develop new theories and ideas

To change the environment/situation

To analyse and understand ideas

To organise and criticise the environmentkituation

To work quietly and individually on something which is highly valued

To help o thcn

Extraverted Sensing (ES)

Introverted Intuition (IN)

Extraverted Intuition (EN)

Introverted Thinking (IT)

Extraverted Thinking (ET)

Introverted Feeling (IF)

Extraverted Feeling (EF)

neglects his true preference for feeling. Both people are, in type theory, ‘acting out of character’ and damaging their, respective senses of self.

A self-development exercise This exercise is consistent with the theory briefly discussed above. To use it, the tutor or trainer needs to be familiar with (a) psychological type theory and the MBTI, and (b) listening and action skills as described by e.g. Egan (1986) or, more simply, by Nicolson and Bayne (1984). The materials needed for each person are:

(1) Their MBTI result, e.g. ESFJ. This should have been treated as a hypothesis, tested with information and exercises, and perhaps revised by the person whose result it is.

(2) A list of characteristics for each preference (e.g. figure 1). (3) A flowchart (figure 4). (4) The instructions in figure 5 .

Several variations of the exercise can be used. The most obvious is to work on developing the auxiliary, third or fourth functions, or directly on one or more of the attitudes, whichever the client wishes. Some clients have no desire at all to work on their dominant function but want more ‘balance’. A second possibility is to leave out the action stage, and to treat the exercise as an approach to increasing self-awareness and self-esteem rather than to self-development. A third is to choose partners according to type theory, e.g. both with the same dominant function.

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Figure 4: Flowchart for self-development exercise

START

P

Identify your dominant function - * 1

Identify whether (in

mainly to your inner experience or to your be haviour

theory) i t applies

1 1

Take one quality from the list for the function

YES NOT NO

quality further?

YES

Brainstorm programme and programmes

Set an appropriate goal

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Fipure 5: Instructions for the selfdevelooment exercise

Essentially, the exercise asks you to explore two questions: 'Do I experiencehehave in this way?' and 'Do I want to experiencehehave more in this way?' I n more detail:

1 .

2.

3.

4.

5 .

Work in pairs or threes, taking turns to be client.

You (the client) have been treating each preference in your type as a hypothesis, and may already have identified your type as different from the MBTI results on the basis of the sketches on the back of the Report Form or other information. Please continue to treat your MBTI results as hypotheses. The present exercise will provide further evidence on how accurate or not they are. (If you are uncertain after all the exercises, you can try other methods. e.g. asking close friends. observing which activities leave you most tired, etc.)

Identify your probable dominant function, using the table in Myers (1980, p. 16) or the following formulae:

If you are both I and J , then your dominant function is either S or N (whichever is part of your MBTI results). If you are both I and P, then your dominant function is either T or F (whichever is part of your MBTI results). If you are both E and P, then your dominant function is either S or N (whichever is part of your MBTI results). If you are both E and J , then your dominant function is either T or F (whichever is part of your MBTI results).

Take the list of characteristics describing your dominant function (figure 1) and use the flowchart (figure 4). Bear in mind that if you are extraverted, the characteristics of the dominant function will apply more to your behaviour, while if you are introverted they will apply more to your inner experience. An 'appropriate goal' (bottom left-hand comer of the flowchart) has the following qualities: clear and specific; verifiable; realistic; contributes to managing the problem (in this case, using and therefore developing a function); and consistent with the client's values (Egan, 1986).

'Brainstorm programmes' (the next step) may sound rather grand but is concerned with how, precisely, thc goal is to be achieved. The contract is about when and where the programme is camed out. For example, a client might decide she did want to develop her dominant function of 'feeling' further and to do this by (a) doing a values- clarification exercise on Tuesday at 2 p.m. and (b) giving at least one compliment per day. One or two programmes at a time per client is enough.

Conclusions Two distinctive features of contemporary psychological type theory are (1) its positive emphasis, for example on strengths, on life-long development of different 'sides' of oneself, and on the constructive use of differences, and (2) a measure, the MBTI, which is consistent with the theory. It can therefore be seen as a particularly promising approach to central issues in guidance and counselling, with the MBTI making adequate empirical tests

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more likely. However, no great claims can be made at present for the logical refinement of the theory. This paper is intended to contribute towards two goals: (1) formulating clear, testable statements which also do justice to the theory, and (2) applying and evaluating these statements.

References

pp. 1-4. Bayne, R.: ‘A User’s View of the MBTI’. Guidnnce and Assessment Review, Volume 2 No. 2,1986,

Bayne, R.: ‘Some Counselling Applications of Psychological Type and the MBTI’. Guldance and

Egan, G.: The Skilled Helper (3rd edition). Monrerey, California: Brooks Cole, 1986. Garden, A-M.: ‘The Effect of Jungian Type on Burnout’. J o u m l of Psychological Type, Volume

Hirsh. S.K.: Using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicutor in Organisarions: 4 Resource Book. California:

Assessment Review, Volume 3 No. 4, 1987, pp. 6-8.

10,1985, pp. %lo.

Consulting Psychologists Press; 1985.- Jung, C.: Psychological Types. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1971 (first published 1921). Lawrence. G.: Peoole Tvoes and Tiper Strives: 4 Practical Guide to Learninn Swles (2nd edition).

I _ . Gainesville, Floida: Cinter for XpplicaAon of Psychological Type. 1982.

Myers, I.B.: Gifts Differing. California: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1980. Myers, I .B. , and McCaulley. M.H.: Manunl: 4 Guide to the Development and Use of the

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. California: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1985. Nicolson, P., and Bayne, R.: Applied Psychology for Socid Workers. London: Macmillan, 1984. Provost, J.: A Cusebook: Applications of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator in Counseling. Gaines-

ville, Florida: Center for Applications of Psychological Type, 1984.

Received 29 September 1986; final-revisions received 16 December 1987.

Correspondence should be addressed to: Dr Rowan Bayne, Department of Psychology, North East London Polytechnic, The Green, West Ham, London El5 4LZ.

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