psychological predictors of children's recess physical activity motivation and behavior
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Psychological Predictors of Children's Recess PhysicalActivity Motivation and BehaviorMegan Babkes Stellino a & Christina D. Sinclair aa University of Northern ColoradoPublished online: 22 May 2013.
To cite this article: Megan Babkes Stellino & Christina D. Sinclair (2013) Psychological Predictors of Children'sRecess Physical Activity Motivation and Behavior, Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 84:2, 167-176, DOI:10.1080/02701367.2013.786159
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Psychological Predictors of Children’s Recess PhysicalActivity Motivation and Behavior
Megan Babkes Stellino and Christina D. SinclairUniversity of Northern Colorado
Purpose: This study explored the relationship between children’s basic psychological needs
satisfaction at recess, level of recess physical activity motivation (RPAM), and recess physical
activity (RPA).Method: Fifth-grade children (N ¼ 203; 50.2% boys; 71.7% healthy-weight)
completed measures of age, gender, basic psychological need satisfaction, and level of self-
determined motivation for RPA. Children also wore pedometers during six consecutive
30-min mid-school-day recesses. Results: Multiple regression analyses indicated unique
significant predictors of RPAM and RPA according to gender and weight status. RPAM was
significantly predicted by all three basic psychological needs for boys and only competence
need satisfaction for girls and healthy-weight children. RPA was predicted by RPAM for girls,
competence need satisfaction for overweight children, and autonomy need satisfaction for
boys and healthy-weight children. Conclusions: Findings support self-determination theory
and provide important insight into the variations in psychological predictors of motivation for
RPA and actual physical activity behavior based on gender and weight status.
Keywords: basic psychological need satisfaction, childhood obesity, motivation, recess
Despite many recognized benefits of a healthy weight and
regular physical activity, the most recent analysis of trends
in body mass index (BMI) among children in the United
States indicated that the prevalence of high BMI among
children in the United States has remained steady for 10
years. Furthermore, the heaviest boys may be getting even
heavier (Ogden, Carroll, & Curtin, 2010). The cause of such
trends is straightforward: Young people seem to have
unhealthy eating behavior while simultaneously not getting
enough exercise (Wechsler, McKenna, Lee, & Dietz, 2004).
Many factors influence physical activity levels among
children including biological, psychological, social, and
environmental (National Association for Sport and Physical
Education [NASPE], 2006). Focus on the psychological
factors associated with how children choose to spend their
discretionary time is one approach that may yield ideas for
interventions that will increase physical activity.
Recess is a regularly occurring “free-choice,” or
discretionary, time period in elementary school children’s
days that is vital to a comprehensive school physical
activity program (NASPE, 2006). Daily recess at school
is a necessary experience; not only is this time period
important for physical benefits, but recess provides
opportunities that are invaluable for children’s cognitive,
social, and emotional development (Pellegrini & Bohn,
2005; Stratton, Fairclough, & Ridgers, 2008). Further,
recess is a relevant context that reflects the self-regulatory
processes used by children during discretionary time
regarding physical activity engagement.
School recess periods have great potential for children to
obtain some portion of recommended physical activity.
Daily recess is offered to children in all grades for an
average of 4.9 days per week and 30.2min per day by 79.1%
of U.S. schools (Department of Health and Human Services,
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2006).
Findings indicate that children can accumulate up to 40% of
their total daily physical activity during recess (Robert
Wood Johnson Foundation [RWJ], 2012). Research on
children’s recess physical activity (RPA) levels has focused
attention on number of steps taken, intensity, and time spent
Submitted February 1, 2012; accepted November 18, 2012.
Correspondence should be addressed to Megan Babkes Stellino, School
of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Northern Colorado, Gunter
Hall, Mailbox 39, Greeley, CO 80639. E-mail: [email protected]
Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 84, 167–176, 2013
Copyright q AAHPERD
ISSN 0270-1367 print/ISSN 2168-3824 online
DOI: 10.1080/02701367.2013.786159
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being physically active (Beighle, Morgan, Le Masurier, &
Pangrazi, 2006; Lopes, Vasques, Pereira, Maia, & Malina,
2006; Tudor-Locke, Lee, Morgan, Beighle, & Pangrazi,
2006). Results consistently suggest that children tend to
average between 1,090 and 1,250 steps during 15-min
recess periods. Studies conclude that overall, children were
physically active during approximately 35% to 60% of
recess time and typically engaged in a moderate-to-vigorous
level of physical activity. Findings from these studies reveal
that healthy-weight (BMI , 85th percentile), male, or older
elementary-age children take more steps and spend more
time being physically active at a higher intensity compared
with their weight-, gender-, and age-status counterparts.
Recess-based research has gone beyond description of
children’s behavior and examined various interventions
designed to increase physical activity. The intervention
research has focused on the effects of providing structured
fitness breaks, additional equipment, playground markings,
or recess activities of the week (Babkes Stellino, Sinclair,
Partridge, & King, 2010; Scruggs, Beveridge, & Watson,
2003; Stratton & Mullan, 2005; Verstraete, Cardon,
DeClercq, & DeBourdeaudhuij, 2006) on children’s level
of RPA. Short-term increases in children’s RPA were
evidenced in each of these intervention efforts. Although
these findings are encouraging, existing studies on efforts to
increase children’s RPA have yet to examine theoretically
based predictors that may account for variations in
children’s recess physical activity motivation (RPAM) as
well as RPA behavior levels. Therefore, prior to continued
intervention efforts, research should focus on exploration of
the psychological mechanisms identified in theoretical
frameworks that would explain these variations in
motivation and behavior.
Self-Determination Theory
Basic needs theory (BNT), one of four self-determination
theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000)-based mini
theories, is a particularly applicable framework for
examining the predictors of children’s RPAM. Contentions
of BNT suggest that the extent to which an individual is
intrinsically motivated depends on satisfaction of his/her
basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and
relatedness. These needs provide the framework for
psychological functioning and goal pursuit. SDT is a
major theory of motivation that both acknowledges
spontaneous, intrinsically motivated activity and pinpoints
the factors that either enhance or debilitate it (Ryan &
Deci, 2007).
SDT proposes that people typically have multiple
motives, both intrinsic and extrinsic, that are simultaneously
in play and must together be assumed to determine the
overall quality of motivation (Ryan & Connell, 1989).
Extrinsic motivation refers to motivated behavior carried
out to attain contingent outcomes outside the activity. Deci
and Ryan (1985) suggest that within SDT, there are various
types of extrinsic motivation, ranging from those that are
controlled externally to those that are self-endorsed and
personally valued and are therefore volitional and
autonomous (Ryan & Deci, 2007). The four types of
extrinsic motivation suggested by Deci and Ryan (2000)
are: external regulation, introjected regulation, identified
regulation, and integrated regulation. There is considerable
evidence that these forms of regulation typically represent a
continuum ranging from less to more autonomous (Ryan &
Connell, 1989). Depending on the social conditions and
context provoking necessary regulation, individuals can
begin and ultimately maintain self-regulation anywhere
along this continuum (Ryan & Deci, 2007).
BNT assumes that all humans possess three basic
psychological needs: for autonomy, competence, and
relatedness. The need for autonomy refers to the human
desire to be the origin of one’s behaviors and perceive
their own behaviors as self-endorsed (Deci & Ryan, 1985;
Ryan & La Guardia, 2000). The need for competence
pertains to the human desire to efficiently interact with
one’s environment so as to feel competent in producing
desired outcomes and preventing undesired outcomes
(Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000). The need for relatedness
implies a desire to feel connected to significant
individuals, to feel cared for, or to feel that one belongs
within a specific social context (Baumeister & Leary,
1995; Deci & Ryan, 2000).
Experiences of competence and autonomy are both
theoretically proposed to be necessary conditions for the
maintenance and enhancement of intrinsic motivation (Deci
& Ryan, 1985, 2000). Environmental conditions that
support feelings of competence and autonomy are expected
to facilitate intrinsic motivation, whereas factors that
diminish feelings of autonomy or competence are theorized
to undermine intrinsic motivation. Contentions of BNT
further suggest that intrinsic motivational processes are
most likely in contexts where need for relatedness is
supported (Ryan & Deci, 2007). That is, when people feel
relationally insecure or alienated, they are more inhibited,
defensive, and less likely to experience interest, enjoyment,
or intrinsic motivation in their activities.
The particular physical domain context (e.g., exercise,
sport, daily physical activity, or physical education) appears
relevant to the predictive nature of which specific basic
psychological need is related to self-determined motivation.
Although most studies reveal that competence, autonomy,
and relatedness need satisfaction are all relevant to
individuals’ levels of self-determination in that context,
differences exist depending on the demographic aspects
(e.g., age, weight status, socioeconomic status) of the
sample examined. The relationship between autonomy and
competence need satisfaction and self-determined motiv-
ation has been supported in many studies (Edmunds,
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Ntoumanis, & Duda, 2006; Kowal & Fortier, 2000;
Sarrazin, Vallerand, Guillet, Pelletier, & Cury, 2002;
Vierling, Standage, & Treasure, 2007; Wilson & Rodgers,
2002). For example, Edmunds et al. (2006) found that all
three basic psychological needs were associated with more
self-determined motivational regulation in adult exercisers
but that competence need satisfaction in particular predicted
strenuous exercise engagement. Similarly, Vierling et al.
(2007) found that autonomy, competence, and relatedness
together accounted for a considerable amount of the
variance in “at-risk” minority youths’ autonomous motiv-
ation for daily physical activity, with competence need
satisfaction emerging as the strongest predictor.
Less consistent evidence exists regarding the relationship
between relatedness need satisfaction and self-determined
motivation (Frederick-Recascino, 2002). Of the three basic
psychological needs, relatedness was the weakest, or a
nonsignificant, predictor of self-determined motivation
among adult exercisers (Wilson & Rodgers, 2002), female
handball players (Sarrazin et al., 2002), and youth athletes
(Reinboth, Duda, & Ntoumanis, 2004). In contrast,
relatedness and competence were strong positive predictors
of self-determined motivation among masters-age swim-
mers (Kowal & Fortier, 2000) and British physical
education students (Standage, Duda, & Ntoumanis, 2003).
The specific context within which an individual’s
motivational regulations are of concern dictate under-
standing of an individual’s context-specific perceptions of
basic need satisfaction. Children’s school-based discre-
tionary time, such as recess, is a unique context for
examination of the relationship between psychological
needs satisfaction and motivational regulation. Exploration
of predictors of children’s motivation for, and actual, RPA
is a relevant direction for the research framed by SDT
within physical domain environments.
Purpose
The purpose of the present study was to explore the
relationship between children’s basic psychological needs
satisfaction (autonomy, competence, relatedness) for
physical activity at recess, level of RPAM, and actual
RPA behavior (steps and time) within the framework of
SDT (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000). The following specific
questions guided this exploration: (a) Do differences in
children’s recess-related needs satisfaction for autonomy,
competence, relatedness, RPAM, and actual RPA steps and
time exist according to demographic variables? (b) What is
the relationship between children’s recess basic psycho-
logical need satisfaction (autonomy, competence, related-
ness) and RPAM? And (c) what is the relationship between
children’s recess-related physical activity psychological
predictors (all three basic psychological needs and RPAM)
and actual RPA behavior (steps and time)?
METHOD
Participants
Participants were 203 (49.8% girls, 50.2% boys) fifth-grade
(Mage ¼ 10.75 years, SD ¼ 0.59) children from 1 of 40
elementary schools in a suburban school district within the
Rocky Mountain region of the United States. The entire
school population was 804 children, 18.7% of whom
received free reduced lunch. The majority of children had a
healthy (less than the 85th percentile using the online CDC
BMI Percentile Calculator for Children [2009]) BMI
(72.4%), and the remaining Children had a BMI equal to
or above the 85th percentile (overweight or obese; 27.6%).
Most children reported their race/ethnicity as Caucasian
(51.7%), while the remainder included diverse represen-
tation of African American (10.2%), Hispanic (10.2%),
Asian American (9.8%), Biracial (10.2%), and Other (6.8%;
including Native American and Multiracial). These were
coded as Non-Caucasian for analysis purposes.
Measures
Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction—Recess
Children completed a modified version of the Basic
Psychological Need Satisfaction Scale (BPNS; Deci
et al., 2001). The original 21-item questionnaire designed
to assess individual perceptions of autonomy (7 items),
competence (6 items), and relatedness (8 items) need
satisfaction at work was modified for the current study to
specifically examine children’s need satisfaction during
recess. All responses corresponded to a 5-point Likert
scale (5 ¼ high need satisfaction) on items such as, “I
feel like I can say my ideas about what I want to do at
recess” (autonomy); “Kids tell me I am good at things I
do at recess” (competence); and “I really like the kids I
play with at recess” (relatedness). Previous research
consistently reported adequate reliability for each of the
three areas of need satisfaction, including use of the
measure adapted to physical education (Deci et al., 2001;
Ntoumanis, 2005). Prior to use in the present study, the
modified BPNS for recess was examined for develop-
mental appropriateness in item wording as well as
construct and face validity by an expert in SDT and an
elementary physical education teacher who was not
involved in the study. Experts coded the questionnaire
items according to definitions of each form of need
satisfaction (autonomy, competence, and relatedness) and
agreed with the majority of intended item constructs of
focus. They consistently determined that item wording
was suitable for older elementary-age children. The
modified survey was then administered to one 10-year-
old fifth-grade girl to determine time to complete,
interpretability of items, and understanding of response
format.
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Recess Physical Activity Motivation
Children completed a modified version of the 40-item
Academic Self-Regulation Questionnaire (SRQ-A; Ryan &
Connell, 1989) to assess motivation for being physically
active at recess according to a 4-point Likert scale
(4 ¼ high). Each item presented a reason why children
might be physically active during recess. The four subscales
range from more to less autonomous forms of motivation
including intrinsic motivation (behavior done for inherent
enjoyment), identified regulation (behavior done to achieve
a self-valued goal), introjected regulation (behavior done to
avoid guilt or anxiety or because a child thinks adults would
approve), and external regulation (behavior done to avoid
external consequences or to obey rules). Ryan and Connell
(1989) originally found alpha coefficients ranging from .66
to .82 for the four subscales, indicating acceptable
reliability. Evidence of concurrent validity has also
previously been established with the SRQ-A through
positive correlations with scales of the intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation in the classroom (Harter, 1981) and
has been shown to negatively correlate with perceived
control by powerful others and unknown sources (Connell,
1985). The modified version of the SRQ-A to examine RPA
was subjected to consideration of construct validity and was
pilot-tested for developmental appropriateness in wording,
interpretability, and understanding similar to the methods
described earlier for the BPNS modified survey. The
relative autonomy index was calculated using individual
subscale scores according to the following formula: 2
£ Intrinsic Motivation þ Identified Regulation – Intro-
jected Regulation – 2 £ External Regulation. This was used
in subsequent analyses. A higher positive relative autonomy
index indicated more intrinsic, or self-determined, RPAM.
Relative autonomy index scores range from 215 (strongly
not self-determined) to 15 (strongly self-determined).
Calculation and use of the relative autonomy index has
been recommended as a conceptually meaningful way of
scoring the SRQ-A (Grolnick & Ryan, 1987) and has been
used in other physical activity research (e.g., Gagne, Ryan,
& Bargmann, 2003; Kowal & Fortier, 2000). Children’s
calculated relative autonomy index represented their
RPAM.
Physical Activity Behavior
Walk4 Life Model Neo II (Walk4Life, Plainfield, IL)
pedometers were used to measure children’s step counts and
activity time. Various models of pedometers have unique
features, but the same mechanical function is used to
measure steps and activity time. It is therefore assumed to be
acceptable to establish validity, reliability, and objectivity
for use of pedometers using tests of other Walk4Life
models. Crouter, Schneider, Karabulut, and Bassett (2003)
found the Walk4Life LS 2525 model to be accurate
within ^ 1 of actual steps taken. Furthermore, according to
Trost (2001), pedometers are considered to be a valid
mechanism for assessment of children’s total volume of
physical activity.
Weight Status
BMI was calculated according to height, weight, age, and
gender assessments using the online CDC BMI Percentile
Calculator for Children (2009). Healthy weight included
children with BMI , 85th percentile, and overweight
included children with BMI $ 85th percentile (including
those in the obese category). Height and weight measure-
ments were obtained once by a qualified school nurse within
a month prior to other data collection and were used along
with the date of measurements and children’s birth date to
calculate BMI scores. Weight status was categorized at two
levels of healthy weight versus overweight/obese for
analysis purposes.
Procedures
After receiving approval from the university institutional
review board, school district, principal, and teachers,
informed consent from the parents and assent from children
was obtained from 100% of children in eight fifth-grade
classrooms. All children wore sealed pedometers for 6
consecutive school days with a 30-min mid-day recess that
followed lunch during a total 2-month time period at the
beginning of the school year. Pedometers were worn for
6 days to reduce any potential reactivity to the
instrumentation. Upon lunchroom monitor dismissal, all
children retrieved their individually numerically identifiable
pedometer from a storage box as they left the cafeteria.
Pedometers were worn throughout the recess period and
were returned to the storage box as children re-entered the
school building. Pedometer data, which included the
number of steps and time children were active during each
recess period activity time, were recorded by one of the
researchers daily. The pedometers were then reset, resealed,
and placed in a box. Children completed the modified BPNS
and SRQ-A in their classroom on the morning before the 1st
day of wearing the pedometers. Demographic information
including birth date, gender, and race/ethnicity was obtained
from children on the first page of the surveys. Numeric
identifiers were used to link each child’s survey, pedometer,
and BMI data.
The recess environment consisted of a large hard-top
area with two basketball hoops, one tether ball, one large
backboard, two markings for four-square games, and space
for children to jump rope or do other activities. The
environment also consisted of a large open grass area and a
standard playground with various sorts of slides, swings,
monkey bars, and climbing apparatuses. Equipment that
was available for use during each recess when data were
collected included balls, jump ropes, and hoops.
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Data Analysis
Means and standard deviations for daily RPA (step count
and activity time), autonomy, competence, and relatedness
need satisfaction for physical activity, and RPAM were
calculated for the overall sample as well as by gender,
weight status, and race/ethnicity. Internal consistencies
were calculated for each psychological predictor and self-
regulation subscale for RPA. Correlations among all
variables were then conducted. A 2 £ 2 £ 2 factorial
multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA; Gender
£ Weight Status £ Race/Ethnicity) was conducted to
determine if differences in the psychological predictor
variables of interest (RPAM and competence, autonomy,
and relatedness need satisfaction for RPA) and actual RPA
indicators of steps and time existed according to gender,
weight status, and race/ethnicity. Multiple regression
analyses were conducted to determine the relationships
between basic psychological need satisfaction for RPA and
RPAM as well as between all psychological variables and
actual RPA behavior (steps and time).
RESULTS
Descriptive Statistics
Means and standard deviations were calculated for all
variables overall and according to gender, weight status, and
race/ethnicity (see Table 1). The means and standard
deviations for RPA steps and time represent the average of
the 6 days of activity data collected. Children indicated
moderate autonomy need and competence need satisfaction
levels. Level of relatedness need satisfaction was highest for
this sample of children as compared with the other basic
psychological needs. Children’s RPAM was relatively high
overall.
Internal Consistencies and Correlation Analyses
Table 2 includes correlations between variables and
reliability for each relevant variable in the diagonal.
Cronbach’s (1951) alpha coefficients were calculated to
determine adequate reliability (. .70) for each of the basic
psychological needs and subscales of the modified SRQ-A to
assess RPAM prior to computing the relative autonomy
index used in subsequent analyses. Each of the modified
SRQ-A subscales used in the relative autonomy index
for RPA were found to be reliable with alpha coefficients
of .79 (IM), .80 (IdReg), .84 (IntrReg), and .75 (ExtReg).
Correlation analyses indicated that each of the psychological
needs was statistically significant in relation to each other
psychological need at moderate to moderately high levels.
RPAM was statistically significant in relation to each basic
psychological need with low correlations. Low correlations
between autonomy need satisfaction and RPA (steps and
time) and no correlation between competence need
satisfaction and RPA steps were statistically significant.
Demographic Differences
The 2 £ 2 £ 2 factorial MANOVA (Gender £ Weight
Status £ Race/Ethnicity) revealed no significant interaction
effects. A significant main effect for gender, F(6,
170) ¼ 2.71, p ¼ .02, was found with differences between
boys’ and girls’ RPAM and RPA steps and time. Girls had
higher RPAM as compared with boys, whereas boys had
higher RPA steps and time. Analyses revealed a main effect
for weight status, F(6, 170) ¼ 2.11, p ¼ .05. Healthy-
TABLE 1
Means and Standard Deviations for All Variables
Autonomy Need Satis-
faction M ^ SD
Competence Need Satis-
faction M ^ SD
Relatedness Need Satis-
faction M ^ SD
RPAM
M ^ SD
Steps
M ^ SD
Activity Time
M ^ SD (minutes)
Overall
3.79 ^ 0.66 3.60 ^ 0.63 4.06 ^ 0.64 4.96 ^ 2.1 1,420 ^ 618 12:11 ^ 5:01
Gender
Boys
(n ¼ 103)
3.73 ^ 0.68 3.57 ^ 0.68 3.96 ^ 0.63 4.54 ^ 2.00 1,582 ^ 676 13:29 ^ 5:29
Girls (n ¼ 100) 3.84 ^ 0.63 3.62 ^ 0.58 4.16 ^ 0.65 5.38 ^ 2.12 1,276 ^ 446 11:01 ^ 3:38
BMI (Weight Status)
Healthy
(n ¼ 147)
3.82 ^ 0.64 3.66 ^ 0.60 4.12 ^ 0.61 5.02 ^ 2.19 1,476 ^ 553 12:36 ^ 4:28
Overweight
(n ¼ 56)
3.72 ^ 0.70 3.41 ^ 0.67 3.86 ^ 0.67 4.74 ^ 1.85 1,294 ^ 660 11:16 ^ 5:24
Race/Ethnicity
Caucasian
(n ¼ 106)
3.79 ^ 0.68 3.61 ^ 0.59 4.08 ^ 0. 64 5.19 ^ 2.14 1,471 ^ 676 12:32 ^ 5:28
Non-Caucasian
(n ¼ 97)
3.79 ^ 0.65 3.60 ^ 0.67 4.05 ^ 0.63 4.74 ^ 1.97 1,365 ^ 549 11:48 ^ 4:29
Note. Scale of measures range from 1 to 5 for autonomy, competence and relatedness need satisfaction and from 215 (strongly not self-determined
motivation) to 15 (strongly self-determined motivation) for RPAM.
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weight children had greater competence and relatedness
need satisfaction than did overweight/obese children.
Predictors of RPAM and RPA
Six separate multiple regression analyses were conducted.
For the first two regressions, RPAM was predicted by
autonomy, competence, and relatedness separately by gender
and weight status. The next two regressions predicted RPA
steps by RPAM and autonomy, competence, and relatedness
need satisfaction separately by gender and weight status.
RPA time was separately predicted by RPAM and all three
basic psychological needs according to gender and weight
status in the last two regression analyses. Results from each
of the regression equations appear in Table 3. Predictor
variables were entered simultaneously to determine the
variance that was accounted for by their influence in RPAM,
RPA steps, or RPA time in each regression analysis.
Predictors of RPAM
In the first set of regression analyses, RPAM was the
dependent variable and levels of autonomy, competence,
TABLE 2
Correlations for All Variables; Psychological Subscale Reliabilities on Diagonal
Measure 1 2 3 4 5
1. Physical Activity Step —
2. Physical Activity Time .99**3. Autonomy Need Satisfaction-Recess .22** .22** .74
4. Competence Need Satisfaction-Recess .16* .14 .56** .72
5. Relatedness Need Satisfaction-Recess .05 .04 .56** .63** .81
6. Recess Physical Activity Motivation .02 .02 .26** .37** .29**
*p , .05. **p , .01.
TABLE 3
Regression Analyses Results of Psychological Predictors of Recess Physical Activity Motivation (RPAM) and Actual Recess Physical Activity
(RPA) Steps and Time
Dependent Variable Predictor Variable beta t p DR2
RPAM
Boys .122**Autonomy Need Satisfaction 2 .109 20.89 .38
Competence Need Satisfaction .232 1.77 .08
Relatedness Need Satisfaction .214 1.55 .12
Girls .209***Competence Need Satisfaction .393 3.23 .002
Healthy Weight .171***Competence Need Satisfaction .370 3.68 .000
RPA Steps
Boys .103*Autonomy Need Satisfaction .270 2.15 .03
Girls .133**RPAM .285 2.66 .009
Healthy Weight .053 ( p ¼ .097)
Autonomy Need Satisfaction .263 2.43 .02
Overweight/Obese .142 ( p ¼ .093)
Competence Need Satisfaction .356 1.98 .05
RPA Time
Boys .097*Autonomy Need Satisfaction .274 2.18 .03
Girls .116*RPAM .262 2.42 .02
Healthy Weight .048 ( p ¼ .13)
Autonomy Need Satisfaction .257 2.37 .02
Overweight/Obese .136 ( p ¼ .10)
Competence Need Satisfaction .336 1.87 .05
* p , .05. ** p , .01. *** p , .001. Only variables accepted in the regression models are shown.
Nonbolded DR 2 indicates no statistically significant regression model.
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and relatedness for RPA were the independent variables.
Results revealed a significant regression, F(3, 99) ¼ 4.57,
p ¼ .005, for male RPAM. Autonomy, competence, and
relatedness need satisfaction for RPA in combination
significantly accounted for 12.2% of the variance.
A significant regression emerged for female RPAM, F
(3, 96) ¼ 8.44, p , .001, which was significantly predicted
by only competence need satisfaction for RPA, which
accounted for 20.9% of the variance. Competence need
satisfaction for RPA was the only significant contributor
to 17.1% of the variance explained in the significant
regression for RPAM among healthy-weight children, F
(3, 143) ¼ 9.83, p , .001. A significant regression did not
emerge for overweight/obese children’s RPAM, F(3,
52) ¼ 1.98, p ¼ .129.
Predictors of RPA Steps
Results from the second set of regression analyses, where
RPA steps was the dependent variable and RPAM and all
three basic psychological needs for RPA were independent
variables, revealed separate significant regressions for boys,
F(4, 98) ¼ 2.8, p ¼ .03, and girls, F(4, 95) ¼ 3.64,
p ¼ .003. Autonomy need satisfaction was the only
significant psychological predictor of RPA steps for boys
accounting for 10.3% of the variance, while 13.3% of
female RPA steps were significantly predicted by RPAM.
Regressions were not significant for either healthy-weight,
F(4, 142) ¼ 2.00, p ¼ .09, or overweight, F(4, 51) ¼ 2.11,
p ¼ .09, children. However, autonomy need satisfaction
significantly accounted for the variance in healthy-weight
children’s RPA steps, whereas competence need satisfaction
emerged in connection to overweight/obese children’s RPA
steps.
Predictors of RPA Time
In the last set of regression analyses, RPA time was the
dependent variable and RPAM and autonomy, competence,
and relatedness need satisfaction for RPA were the
independent variables. Statistically significant regressions
were found for boys’, F(4, 98) ¼ 2.62, p ¼ .04, and girls’, F
(4, 95) ¼ 3.12, p ¼ .018, RPA time. Autonomy need
satisfaction was the only statistically significant psycho-
logical predictor and accounted for 9.7% of the relationship
with boys’ RPA time, and RPAM significantly explained
11.6% of the variance in girls’ RPA time. A significant
regression did not emerge for either healthy-weight, F(4,
142) ¼ 1.79, p ¼ .13, or overweight/obese children’s, F(4,
51) ¼ 2.0, p ¼ .11, RPA time. It is, however, somewhat
meaningful that autonomy need satisfaction emerged as the
most important possible predictor for healthy-weight
children’s RPA time, while competence need satisfaction
showed the most potential for explaining variance of
overweight/obese children’s RPA time.
DISCUSSION
An increasing amount of research seeks to provide the basis
for understanding how to increase children’s physical
activity levels. Schools are being called upon to improve
and intensify efforts to promote physical activity. Research
is needed to extend our understanding of how physical
activity programs in schools influence children to become
and stay physically active during discretionary time
(Siedentop, 2010). Results of this study revealed that
children were physically active for 40% of daily recess time,
which falls within the previously reported ranges of 15% to
68% (RWJ, 2012). Twenty percent of total recommended
daily physical activity time was acquired on average by
children in the present study. Taken together, these findings
add additional support to previous assertions that recess is
an essential school-based opportunity for children to
achieve adequate daily physical activity levels (RWJ, 2012).
This study is the first to consider the tenets of SDT (Deci
& Ryan, 1985, 2000) to understand predictors of children’s
recess, or discretionary-time, physical activity motivation
and behavior levels. SDT states that children’s basic
psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and
relatedness must be satisfied to be intrinsically motivated
(Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000). The following discussion is
presented according to the specific questions that guided the
present study.
Overall levels of children’s basic psychological needs
satisfaction at recess as well as RPAM were examined.
Results revealed moderately high levels of need satisfaction
at recess in the areas of autonomy and competence, and high
levels of relatedness. This finding extends the literature by
providing initial evidence about psychological mechanisms
associated with RPA that have not yet been previously
explored in that children felt they had choices for how they
could be physically active, felt capable in the physical
activity options available, and felt connected to others
during recess. According to SDT (Deci & Ryan, 1985,
2000), this increases the chances that those children would,
or could, be intrinsically motivated to be physically active
during recess. Findings were in fact consistent with the SDT
framework and revealed that overall, children were
relatively self-determined in their reasons for RPA, meaning
they reported more intrinsically and internally based
motivation.
Further scrutiny of the data showed significant gender
differences among multiple variables. These differences
existed for level of RPAM as well as for RPA steps and time
as measured by pedometers. Girls reported greater self-
regulation for physical activity during recess and were
therefore more intrinsically/internally motivated in their
RPA as compared with their male counterparts. This finding
was particularly noteworthy because it suggests that girls
were more internally motivated in their reasons for being
physically active; therefore, according to SDT (Deci &
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Ryan, 1985, 2000), one could expect girls to be more
physically active than boys when in fact this was not the
case. Although boys were more externally motivated and
were therefore less self-determined, they took more steps
and spent more time being physically active during recess
than did girls. Although the findings of gender differences in
physical activity behavior are consistent with extant
literature that consistently reveals higher physical activity
levels among boys (Stratton et al., 2008), the disparate
results between levels of girls’ versus boys’ motivation for
physical activity during recess contribute new information
to the literature. This suggests that although helping
children become more motivated for RPA is important,
further investigation is warranted to understand how
possible existing gender differences actually provoke
variations in RPA.
Investigation of differences by weight status indicated
trends toward a differentiation in need satisfaction for RPA
among healthy-weight children and their overweight/obese
peers. Higher levels of competence and relatedness need
satisfaction for physical activity during recess were found
for healthy-weight children as compared with overweight/
obese children. Within the SDT (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000)
framework, this finding means that during recess, healthy-
weight children’s need to feel capable and connected
to others is being satisfied to a further extent than that
of overweight/obese children. Healthy-weight children also
reported slightly higher self-determination, or RPAM,
as compared with their overweight/obese counterparts.
Although only a slight difference was detected, the finding
was considered noteworthy given the small number of
overweight/obese children represented in the sample, and
it implies that healthy-weight children were more internally
or intrinsically motivated in their reasons for being
physically active during recess. These findings extend the
literature by providing initial evidence for consideration
of weight status in efforts to increase children’s RPAM
and RPA.
Examination of the relationship between basic psycho-
logical needs and RPAM also revealed gender differences.
The extent to which girls indicated their need for
competence was satisfied during recess was the only
significant psychological need predictor of variance in level
of motivation to be physically active. In contrast, variance in
boys’ motivation to be physically active during recess was
significantly explained by the extent to which the
combination of all three basic psychological needs was
satisfied. Similar to the findings for girls, healthy-weight
children’s need for competence satisfaction for RPA
significantly predicted their level of RPAM. These findings
suggest that to better motivate boys to be physically active
during recess, they need the opportunity to choose activities,
how physically challenged they will be, and with whom
they are active. In contrast, girls’ and healthy-weight
children’s RPAM seems to hinge only on the extent to
which opportunities provide the basis for feeling capable of
performing physical activities.
This study adds to the existing body of knowledge on
RPA by providing evidence that boys’ physical activity
behavior (both steps and activity time) at recess is
significantly predicted by their level of autonomy need
satisfaction for RPA. Additionally, girls who indicated more
intrinsic/internally-based self-determination for RPA took
more steps and spent more time being physically active.
Although each of these findings support SDT (Deci & Ryan,
1985, 2000), it appears that the psychological factors that
most influence physical activity among boys and girls at
recess differ and should therefore be considered when
creating RPA opportunities for children. These results also
importantly shed initial light on understanding some of the
underlying mechanisms that account for gender differences
in RPA, noted by Stratton and colleagues (2008) as missing
in the literature.
As might be expected, overweight/obese children took
fewer steps and spent less time being physically active
during recess compared with their healthy-weight counter-
parts. Although nonsignificant regression models emerged,
analyses suggested autonomy need satisfaction and
competence need satisfaction best accounted for any
variance in steps and time for healthy-weight and
overweight/obese children, respectively. This finding is
particularly worth mentioning, because although research
on gender differences in physical activity is growing, we
know very little about the role of weight status in increasing
children’s RPA.
Limitations
The present study was exploratory and included new
variables in association with children’s RPA in an initial
attempt to use SDT (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000) contentions
to explore the relationships among children’s self-regulation
for RPA, basic psychological need satisfaction, and actual
physical activity behavior. Despite the encouraging
findings, a few limitations of the present study should be
acknowledged. First, as with all field-based research,
especially that which is conducted with children, there is
considerable variability and unpredictability in instrumen-
tation. Pedometers and implementation of study protocols,
including having children complete a somewhat lengthy
questionnaire and subsequently wear pedometers daily,
might have contributed to some measurement error. Second,
assessment of psychological predictors of only steps and
activity time via pedometers provides a somewhat limited
lens on children’s RPA motivation and behavior. Examin-
ation of physical activity intensity and simultaneous
collection of data through video, self-report, and obser-
vation assessment tools would beneficially augment
pedometer data and would provide information about the
choices of what children are actually doing during recess to
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accumulate the amount of physical activity recorded.
Finally, the sample size of overweight/obese children was
limited, which suggests that caution should be heeded in
interpretations of the analyses that focused on exploration of
relationships between psychological and behavior variables
in the overweight/obese subsample due to low statistical
power.
IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSION
The present findings suggest that not all children are alike in
what psychologically predicts their RPAM behavior.
Results specifically support the idea that key psychological
factors contribute to children’s motivation to be physically
active and to their actual physical activity levels during
discretionary periods such as recess. As a result, the
following implications should be considered when creating
recess, or discretionary-time, physical activity opportunities
for children. Physical activity opportunities that satisfy
girls’ need for competence, such as availability of
equipment and space during recess that build upon skills
learned in physical education, would increase their
internally based reasons for actual physical activity.
Regardless of whether the outcome of increased RPAM or
RPA is the focus, satisfaction with the activity choices
available is imperative for boys. Healthy-weight children
need to feel capable and be challenged by available RPA
opportunities to be more intrinsically motivated to be
physically active during discretionary times. However,
satisfaction with choices available during recess seems to
increase physical activity behavior. Although factors that
explain overweight children’s RPA remain somewhat
elusive, findings from this study call for further investi-
gation of their need for competence in physical activities
available at recess. The reoccurrence of competence need
satisfaction as a predictor of RPAM and RPA suggests that
even as early as late elementary school age, one’s
perception of physical competence seems to influence
motivation to be physically active as well as actual physical
activity during discretionary time. As a result, developing a
strong foundation of basic motor skills in physical education
as a means to feel competent is a critical first step toward
choosing to participate and ultimately enjoy the benefits of
lifelong physical activity. Findings support SDT (Deci &
Ryan, 1985, 2000) and provide some initial insight into how
to motivate children to actually be more physically active
during their school-based discretionary time with consider-
ation for demographic differences.
WHAT DOES THIS ARTICLE ADD?
This study provides evidence, grounded in the contentions
of SDT (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000), that prediction of
physical activity motivation and behavior is not explicable
by the exact same mechanisms for all children. Results
provide key insight into how variations in satisfaction of
autonomy, competence, and relatedness needs differentially
impact the motivation that boys versus girls and overweight
versus healthy-weight children maintain toward RPA.
Based on these findings, it is imperative to include key
psychological variables in the study of factors that
contribute to reaching and sustaining higher levels of
children’s physical activity. Interventions and programs
focused on children’s RPA promotion would benefit greatly
by incorporating the theoretically based perspective used in
the present study for aspects of design, implementation, and
evaluation.
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