psychological predictors of children's recess physical activity motivation and behavior

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This article was downloaded by: [Pennsylvania State University] On: 21 November 2014, At: 20:31 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/urqe20 Psychological Predictors of Children's Recess Physical Activity Motivation and Behavior Megan Babkes Stellino a & Christina D. Sinclair a a University of Northern Colorado Published online: 22 May 2013. To cite this article: Megan Babkes Stellino & Christina D. Sinclair (2013) Psychological Predictors of Children's Recess Physical Activity Motivation and Behavior, Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 84:2, 167-176, DOI: 10.1080/02701367.2013.786159 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2013.786159 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http:// www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

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Page 1: Psychological Predictors of Children's Recess Physical Activity Motivation and Behavior

This article was downloaded by: [Pennsylvania State University]On: 21 November 2014, At: 20:31Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House,37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Research Quarterly for Exercise and SportPublication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/urqe20

Psychological Predictors of Children's Recess PhysicalActivity Motivation and BehaviorMegan Babkes Stellino a & Christina D. Sinclair aa University of Northern ColoradoPublished online: 22 May 2013.

To cite this article: Megan Babkes Stellino & Christina D. Sinclair (2013) Psychological Predictors of Children'sRecess Physical Activity Motivation and Behavior, Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 84:2, 167-176, DOI:10.1080/02701367.2013.786159

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2013.786159

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) containedin the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make norepresentations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of theContent. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, andare not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon andshould be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable forany losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoeveror howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use ofthe Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematicreproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in anyform to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

Page 2: Psychological Predictors of Children's Recess Physical Activity Motivation and Behavior

Psychological Predictors of Children’s Recess PhysicalActivity Motivation and Behavior

Megan Babkes Stellino and Christina D. SinclairUniversity of Northern Colorado

Purpose: This study explored the relationship between children’s basic psychological needs

satisfaction at recess, level of recess physical activity motivation (RPAM), and recess physical

activity (RPA).Method: Fifth-grade children (N ¼ 203; 50.2% boys; 71.7% healthy-weight)

completed measures of age, gender, basic psychological need satisfaction, and level of self-

determined motivation for RPA. Children also wore pedometers during six consecutive

30-min mid-school-day recesses. Results: Multiple regression analyses indicated unique

significant predictors of RPAM and RPA according to gender and weight status. RPAM was

significantly predicted by all three basic psychological needs for boys and only competence

need satisfaction for girls and healthy-weight children. RPA was predicted by RPAM for girls,

competence need satisfaction for overweight children, and autonomy need satisfaction for

boys and healthy-weight children. Conclusions: Findings support self-determination theory

and provide important insight into the variations in psychological predictors of motivation for

RPA and actual physical activity behavior based on gender and weight status.

Keywords: basic psychological need satisfaction, childhood obesity, motivation, recess

Despite many recognized benefits of a healthy weight and

regular physical activity, the most recent analysis of trends

in body mass index (BMI) among children in the United

States indicated that the prevalence of high BMI among

children in the United States has remained steady for 10

years. Furthermore, the heaviest boys may be getting even

heavier (Ogden, Carroll, & Curtin, 2010). The cause of such

trends is straightforward: Young people seem to have

unhealthy eating behavior while simultaneously not getting

enough exercise (Wechsler, McKenna, Lee, & Dietz, 2004).

Many factors influence physical activity levels among

children including biological, psychological, social, and

environmental (National Association for Sport and Physical

Education [NASPE], 2006). Focus on the psychological

factors associated with how children choose to spend their

discretionary time is one approach that may yield ideas for

interventions that will increase physical activity.

Recess is a regularly occurring “free-choice,” or

discretionary, time period in elementary school children’s

days that is vital to a comprehensive school physical

activity program (NASPE, 2006). Daily recess at school

is a necessary experience; not only is this time period

important for physical benefits, but recess provides

opportunities that are invaluable for children’s cognitive,

social, and emotional development (Pellegrini & Bohn,

2005; Stratton, Fairclough, & Ridgers, 2008). Further,

recess is a relevant context that reflects the self-regulatory

processes used by children during discretionary time

regarding physical activity engagement.

School recess periods have great potential for children to

obtain some portion of recommended physical activity.

Daily recess is offered to children in all grades for an

average of 4.9 days per week and 30.2min per day by 79.1%

of U.S. schools (Department of Health and Human Services,

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2006).

Findings indicate that children can accumulate up to 40% of

their total daily physical activity during recess (Robert

Wood Johnson Foundation [RWJ], 2012). Research on

children’s recess physical activity (RPA) levels has focused

attention on number of steps taken, intensity, and time spent

Submitted February 1, 2012; accepted November 18, 2012.

Correspondence should be addressed to Megan Babkes Stellino, School

of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Northern Colorado, Gunter

Hall, Mailbox 39, Greeley, CO 80639. E-mail: [email protected]

Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 84, 167–176, 2013

Copyright q AAHPERD

ISSN 0270-1367 print/ISSN 2168-3824 online

DOI: 10.1080/02701367.2013.786159

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Page 3: Psychological Predictors of Children's Recess Physical Activity Motivation and Behavior

being physically active (Beighle, Morgan, Le Masurier, &

Pangrazi, 2006; Lopes, Vasques, Pereira, Maia, & Malina,

2006; Tudor-Locke, Lee, Morgan, Beighle, & Pangrazi,

2006). Results consistently suggest that children tend to

average between 1,090 and 1,250 steps during 15-min

recess periods. Studies conclude that overall, children were

physically active during approximately 35% to 60% of

recess time and typically engaged in a moderate-to-vigorous

level of physical activity. Findings from these studies reveal

that healthy-weight (BMI , 85th percentile), male, or older

elementary-age children take more steps and spend more

time being physically active at a higher intensity compared

with their weight-, gender-, and age-status counterparts.

Recess-based research has gone beyond description of

children’s behavior and examined various interventions

designed to increase physical activity. The intervention

research has focused on the effects of providing structured

fitness breaks, additional equipment, playground markings,

or recess activities of the week (Babkes Stellino, Sinclair,

Partridge, & King, 2010; Scruggs, Beveridge, & Watson,

2003; Stratton & Mullan, 2005; Verstraete, Cardon,

DeClercq, & DeBourdeaudhuij, 2006) on children’s level

of RPA. Short-term increases in children’s RPA were

evidenced in each of these intervention efforts. Although

these findings are encouraging, existing studies on efforts to

increase children’s RPA have yet to examine theoretically

based predictors that may account for variations in

children’s recess physical activity motivation (RPAM) as

well as RPA behavior levels. Therefore, prior to continued

intervention efforts, research should focus on exploration of

the psychological mechanisms identified in theoretical

frameworks that would explain these variations in

motivation and behavior.

Self-Determination Theory

Basic needs theory (BNT), one of four self-determination

theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000)-based mini

theories, is a particularly applicable framework for

examining the predictors of children’s RPAM. Contentions

of BNT suggest that the extent to which an individual is

intrinsically motivated depends on satisfaction of his/her

basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and

relatedness. These needs provide the framework for

psychological functioning and goal pursuit. SDT is a

major theory of motivation that both acknowledges

spontaneous, intrinsically motivated activity and pinpoints

the factors that either enhance or debilitate it (Ryan &

Deci, 2007).

SDT proposes that people typically have multiple

motives, both intrinsic and extrinsic, that are simultaneously

in play and must together be assumed to determine the

overall quality of motivation (Ryan & Connell, 1989).

Extrinsic motivation refers to motivated behavior carried

out to attain contingent outcomes outside the activity. Deci

and Ryan (1985) suggest that within SDT, there are various

types of extrinsic motivation, ranging from those that are

controlled externally to those that are self-endorsed and

personally valued and are therefore volitional and

autonomous (Ryan & Deci, 2007). The four types of

extrinsic motivation suggested by Deci and Ryan (2000)

are: external regulation, introjected regulation, identified

regulation, and integrated regulation. There is considerable

evidence that these forms of regulation typically represent a

continuum ranging from less to more autonomous (Ryan &

Connell, 1989). Depending on the social conditions and

context provoking necessary regulation, individuals can

begin and ultimately maintain self-regulation anywhere

along this continuum (Ryan & Deci, 2007).

BNT assumes that all humans possess three basic

psychological needs: for autonomy, competence, and

relatedness. The need for autonomy refers to the human

desire to be the origin of one’s behaviors and perceive

their own behaviors as self-endorsed (Deci & Ryan, 1985;

Ryan & La Guardia, 2000). The need for competence

pertains to the human desire to efficiently interact with

one’s environment so as to feel competent in producing

desired outcomes and preventing undesired outcomes

(Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000). The need for relatedness

implies a desire to feel connected to significant

individuals, to feel cared for, or to feel that one belongs

within a specific social context (Baumeister & Leary,

1995; Deci & Ryan, 2000).

Experiences of competence and autonomy are both

theoretically proposed to be necessary conditions for the

maintenance and enhancement of intrinsic motivation (Deci

& Ryan, 1985, 2000). Environmental conditions that

support feelings of competence and autonomy are expected

to facilitate intrinsic motivation, whereas factors that

diminish feelings of autonomy or competence are theorized

to undermine intrinsic motivation. Contentions of BNT

further suggest that intrinsic motivational processes are

most likely in contexts where need for relatedness is

supported (Ryan & Deci, 2007). That is, when people feel

relationally insecure or alienated, they are more inhibited,

defensive, and less likely to experience interest, enjoyment,

or intrinsic motivation in their activities.

The particular physical domain context (e.g., exercise,

sport, daily physical activity, or physical education) appears

relevant to the predictive nature of which specific basic

psychological need is related to self-determined motivation.

Although most studies reveal that competence, autonomy,

and relatedness need satisfaction are all relevant to

individuals’ levels of self-determination in that context,

differences exist depending on the demographic aspects

(e.g., age, weight status, socioeconomic status) of the

sample examined. The relationship between autonomy and

competence need satisfaction and self-determined motiv-

ation has been supported in many studies (Edmunds,

168 M. BABKES STELLINO AND C. D. SINCLAIR

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Page 4: Psychological Predictors of Children's Recess Physical Activity Motivation and Behavior

Ntoumanis, & Duda, 2006; Kowal & Fortier, 2000;

Sarrazin, Vallerand, Guillet, Pelletier, & Cury, 2002;

Vierling, Standage, & Treasure, 2007; Wilson & Rodgers,

2002). For example, Edmunds et al. (2006) found that all

three basic psychological needs were associated with more

self-determined motivational regulation in adult exercisers

but that competence need satisfaction in particular predicted

strenuous exercise engagement. Similarly, Vierling et al.

(2007) found that autonomy, competence, and relatedness

together accounted for a considerable amount of the

variance in “at-risk” minority youths’ autonomous motiv-

ation for daily physical activity, with competence need

satisfaction emerging as the strongest predictor.

Less consistent evidence exists regarding the relationship

between relatedness need satisfaction and self-determined

motivation (Frederick-Recascino, 2002). Of the three basic

psychological needs, relatedness was the weakest, or a

nonsignificant, predictor of self-determined motivation

among adult exercisers (Wilson & Rodgers, 2002), female

handball players (Sarrazin et al., 2002), and youth athletes

(Reinboth, Duda, & Ntoumanis, 2004). In contrast,

relatedness and competence were strong positive predictors

of self-determined motivation among masters-age swim-

mers (Kowal & Fortier, 2000) and British physical

education students (Standage, Duda, & Ntoumanis, 2003).

The specific context within which an individual’s

motivational regulations are of concern dictate under-

standing of an individual’s context-specific perceptions of

basic need satisfaction. Children’s school-based discre-

tionary time, such as recess, is a unique context for

examination of the relationship between psychological

needs satisfaction and motivational regulation. Exploration

of predictors of children’s motivation for, and actual, RPA

is a relevant direction for the research framed by SDT

within physical domain environments.

Purpose

The purpose of the present study was to explore the

relationship between children’s basic psychological needs

satisfaction (autonomy, competence, relatedness) for

physical activity at recess, level of RPAM, and actual

RPA behavior (steps and time) within the framework of

SDT (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000). The following specific

questions guided this exploration: (a) Do differences in

children’s recess-related needs satisfaction for autonomy,

competence, relatedness, RPAM, and actual RPA steps and

time exist according to demographic variables? (b) What is

the relationship between children’s recess basic psycho-

logical need satisfaction (autonomy, competence, related-

ness) and RPAM? And (c) what is the relationship between

children’s recess-related physical activity psychological

predictors (all three basic psychological needs and RPAM)

and actual RPA behavior (steps and time)?

METHOD

Participants

Participants were 203 (49.8% girls, 50.2% boys) fifth-grade

(Mage ¼ 10.75 years, SD ¼ 0.59) children from 1 of 40

elementary schools in a suburban school district within the

Rocky Mountain region of the United States. The entire

school population was 804 children, 18.7% of whom

received free reduced lunch. The majority of children had a

healthy (less than the 85th percentile using the online CDC

BMI Percentile Calculator for Children [2009]) BMI

(72.4%), and the remaining Children had a BMI equal to

or above the 85th percentile (overweight or obese; 27.6%).

Most children reported their race/ethnicity as Caucasian

(51.7%), while the remainder included diverse represen-

tation of African American (10.2%), Hispanic (10.2%),

Asian American (9.8%), Biracial (10.2%), and Other (6.8%;

including Native American and Multiracial). These were

coded as Non-Caucasian for analysis purposes.

Measures

Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction—Recess

Children completed a modified version of the Basic

Psychological Need Satisfaction Scale (BPNS; Deci

et al., 2001). The original 21-item questionnaire designed

to assess individual perceptions of autonomy (7 items),

competence (6 items), and relatedness (8 items) need

satisfaction at work was modified for the current study to

specifically examine children’s need satisfaction during

recess. All responses corresponded to a 5-point Likert

scale (5 ¼ high need satisfaction) on items such as, “I

feel like I can say my ideas about what I want to do at

recess” (autonomy); “Kids tell me I am good at things I

do at recess” (competence); and “I really like the kids I

play with at recess” (relatedness). Previous research

consistently reported adequate reliability for each of the

three areas of need satisfaction, including use of the

measure adapted to physical education (Deci et al., 2001;

Ntoumanis, 2005). Prior to use in the present study, the

modified BPNS for recess was examined for develop-

mental appropriateness in item wording as well as

construct and face validity by an expert in SDT and an

elementary physical education teacher who was not

involved in the study. Experts coded the questionnaire

items according to definitions of each form of need

satisfaction (autonomy, competence, and relatedness) and

agreed with the majority of intended item constructs of

focus. They consistently determined that item wording

was suitable for older elementary-age children. The

modified survey was then administered to one 10-year-

old fifth-grade girl to determine time to complete,

interpretability of items, and understanding of response

format.

PSYCHOLOGICAL PREDICTORS OF RECESS PA 169

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Page 5: Psychological Predictors of Children's Recess Physical Activity Motivation and Behavior

Recess Physical Activity Motivation

Children completed a modified version of the 40-item

Academic Self-Regulation Questionnaire (SRQ-A; Ryan &

Connell, 1989) to assess motivation for being physically

active at recess according to a 4-point Likert scale

(4 ¼ high). Each item presented a reason why children

might be physically active during recess. The four subscales

range from more to less autonomous forms of motivation

including intrinsic motivation (behavior done for inherent

enjoyment), identified regulation (behavior done to achieve

a self-valued goal), introjected regulation (behavior done to

avoid guilt or anxiety or because a child thinks adults would

approve), and external regulation (behavior done to avoid

external consequences or to obey rules). Ryan and Connell

(1989) originally found alpha coefficients ranging from .66

to .82 for the four subscales, indicating acceptable

reliability. Evidence of concurrent validity has also

previously been established with the SRQ-A through

positive correlations with scales of the intrinsic and

extrinsic motivation in the classroom (Harter, 1981) and

has been shown to negatively correlate with perceived

control by powerful others and unknown sources (Connell,

1985). The modified version of the SRQ-A to examine RPA

was subjected to consideration of construct validity and was

pilot-tested for developmental appropriateness in wording,

interpretability, and understanding similar to the methods

described earlier for the BPNS modified survey. The

relative autonomy index was calculated using individual

subscale scores according to the following formula: 2

£ Intrinsic Motivation þ Identified Regulation – Intro-

jected Regulation – 2 £ External Regulation. This was used

in subsequent analyses. A higher positive relative autonomy

index indicated more intrinsic, or self-determined, RPAM.

Relative autonomy index scores range from 215 (strongly

not self-determined) to 15 (strongly self-determined).

Calculation and use of the relative autonomy index has

been recommended as a conceptually meaningful way of

scoring the SRQ-A (Grolnick & Ryan, 1987) and has been

used in other physical activity research (e.g., Gagne, Ryan,

& Bargmann, 2003; Kowal & Fortier, 2000). Children’s

calculated relative autonomy index represented their

RPAM.

Physical Activity Behavior

Walk4 Life Model Neo II (Walk4Life, Plainfield, IL)

pedometers were used to measure children’s step counts and

activity time. Various models of pedometers have unique

features, but the same mechanical function is used to

measure steps and activity time. It is therefore assumed to be

acceptable to establish validity, reliability, and objectivity

for use of pedometers using tests of other Walk4Life

models. Crouter, Schneider, Karabulut, and Bassett (2003)

found the Walk4Life LS 2525 model to be accurate

within ^ 1 of actual steps taken. Furthermore, according to

Trost (2001), pedometers are considered to be a valid

mechanism for assessment of children’s total volume of

physical activity.

Weight Status

BMI was calculated according to height, weight, age, and

gender assessments using the online CDC BMI Percentile

Calculator for Children (2009). Healthy weight included

children with BMI , 85th percentile, and overweight

included children with BMI $ 85th percentile (including

those in the obese category). Height and weight measure-

ments were obtained once by a qualified school nurse within

a month prior to other data collection and were used along

with the date of measurements and children’s birth date to

calculate BMI scores. Weight status was categorized at two

levels of healthy weight versus overweight/obese for

analysis purposes.

Procedures

After receiving approval from the university institutional

review board, school district, principal, and teachers,

informed consent from the parents and assent from children

was obtained from 100% of children in eight fifth-grade

classrooms. All children wore sealed pedometers for 6

consecutive school days with a 30-min mid-day recess that

followed lunch during a total 2-month time period at the

beginning of the school year. Pedometers were worn for

6 days to reduce any potential reactivity to the

instrumentation. Upon lunchroom monitor dismissal, all

children retrieved their individually numerically identifiable

pedometer from a storage box as they left the cafeteria.

Pedometers were worn throughout the recess period and

were returned to the storage box as children re-entered the

school building. Pedometer data, which included the

number of steps and time children were active during each

recess period activity time, were recorded by one of the

researchers daily. The pedometers were then reset, resealed,

and placed in a box. Children completed the modified BPNS

and SRQ-A in their classroom on the morning before the 1st

day of wearing the pedometers. Demographic information

including birth date, gender, and race/ethnicity was obtained

from children on the first page of the surveys. Numeric

identifiers were used to link each child’s survey, pedometer,

and BMI data.

The recess environment consisted of a large hard-top

area with two basketball hoops, one tether ball, one large

backboard, two markings for four-square games, and space

for children to jump rope or do other activities. The

environment also consisted of a large open grass area and a

standard playground with various sorts of slides, swings,

monkey bars, and climbing apparatuses. Equipment that

was available for use during each recess when data were

collected included balls, jump ropes, and hoops.

170 M. BABKES STELLINO AND C. D. SINCLAIR

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Data Analysis

Means and standard deviations for daily RPA (step count

and activity time), autonomy, competence, and relatedness

need satisfaction for physical activity, and RPAM were

calculated for the overall sample as well as by gender,

weight status, and race/ethnicity. Internal consistencies

were calculated for each psychological predictor and self-

regulation subscale for RPA. Correlations among all

variables were then conducted. A 2 £ 2 £ 2 factorial

multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA; Gender

£ Weight Status £ Race/Ethnicity) was conducted to

determine if differences in the psychological predictor

variables of interest (RPAM and competence, autonomy,

and relatedness need satisfaction for RPA) and actual RPA

indicators of steps and time existed according to gender,

weight status, and race/ethnicity. Multiple regression

analyses were conducted to determine the relationships

between basic psychological need satisfaction for RPA and

RPAM as well as between all psychological variables and

actual RPA behavior (steps and time).

RESULTS

Descriptive Statistics

Means and standard deviations were calculated for all

variables overall and according to gender, weight status, and

race/ethnicity (see Table 1). The means and standard

deviations for RPA steps and time represent the average of

the 6 days of activity data collected. Children indicated

moderate autonomy need and competence need satisfaction

levels. Level of relatedness need satisfaction was highest for

this sample of children as compared with the other basic

psychological needs. Children’s RPAM was relatively high

overall.

Internal Consistencies and Correlation Analyses

Table 2 includes correlations between variables and

reliability for each relevant variable in the diagonal.

Cronbach’s (1951) alpha coefficients were calculated to

determine adequate reliability (. .70) for each of the basic

psychological needs and subscales of the modified SRQ-A to

assess RPAM prior to computing the relative autonomy

index used in subsequent analyses. Each of the modified

SRQ-A subscales used in the relative autonomy index

for RPA were found to be reliable with alpha coefficients

of .79 (IM), .80 (IdReg), .84 (IntrReg), and .75 (ExtReg).

Correlation analyses indicated that each of the psychological

needs was statistically significant in relation to each other

psychological need at moderate to moderately high levels.

RPAM was statistically significant in relation to each basic

psychological need with low correlations. Low correlations

between autonomy need satisfaction and RPA (steps and

time) and no correlation between competence need

satisfaction and RPA steps were statistically significant.

Demographic Differences

The 2 £ 2 £ 2 factorial MANOVA (Gender £ Weight

Status £ Race/Ethnicity) revealed no significant interaction

effects. A significant main effect for gender, F(6,

170) ¼ 2.71, p ¼ .02, was found with differences between

boys’ and girls’ RPAM and RPA steps and time. Girls had

higher RPAM as compared with boys, whereas boys had

higher RPA steps and time. Analyses revealed a main effect

for weight status, F(6, 170) ¼ 2.11, p ¼ .05. Healthy-

TABLE 1

Means and Standard Deviations for All Variables

Autonomy Need Satis-

faction M ^ SD

Competence Need Satis-

faction M ^ SD

Relatedness Need Satis-

faction M ^ SD

RPAM

M ^ SD

Steps

M ^ SD

Activity Time

M ^ SD (minutes)

Overall

3.79 ^ 0.66 3.60 ^ 0.63 4.06 ^ 0.64 4.96 ^ 2.1 1,420 ^ 618 12:11 ^ 5:01

Gender

Boys

(n ¼ 103)

3.73 ^ 0.68 3.57 ^ 0.68 3.96 ^ 0.63 4.54 ^ 2.00 1,582 ^ 676 13:29 ^ 5:29

Girls (n ¼ 100) 3.84 ^ 0.63 3.62 ^ 0.58 4.16 ^ 0.65 5.38 ^ 2.12 1,276 ^ 446 11:01 ^ 3:38

BMI (Weight Status)

Healthy

(n ¼ 147)

3.82 ^ 0.64 3.66 ^ 0.60 4.12 ^ 0.61 5.02 ^ 2.19 1,476 ^ 553 12:36 ^ 4:28

Overweight

(n ¼ 56)

3.72 ^ 0.70 3.41 ^ 0.67 3.86 ^ 0.67 4.74 ^ 1.85 1,294 ^ 660 11:16 ^ 5:24

Race/Ethnicity

Caucasian

(n ¼ 106)

3.79 ^ 0.68 3.61 ^ 0.59 4.08 ^ 0. 64 5.19 ^ 2.14 1,471 ^ 676 12:32 ^ 5:28

Non-Caucasian

(n ¼ 97)

3.79 ^ 0.65 3.60 ^ 0.67 4.05 ^ 0.63 4.74 ^ 1.97 1,365 ^ 549 11:48 ^ 4:29

Note. Scale of measures range from 1 to 5 for autonomy, competence and relatedness need satisfaction and from 215 (strongly not self-determined

motivation) to 15 (strongly self-determined motivation) for RPAM.

PSYCHOLOGICAL PREDICTORS OF RECESS PA 171

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Page 7: Psychological Predictors of Children's Recess Physical Activity Motivation and Behavior

weight children had greater competence and relatedness

need satisfaction than did overweight/obese children.

Predictors of RPAM and RPA

Six separate multiple regression analyses were conducted.

For the first two regressions, RPAM was predicted by

autonomy, competence, and relatedness separately by gender

and weight status. The next two regressions predicted RPA

steps by RPAM and autonomy, competence, and relatedness

need satisfaction separately by gender and weight status.

RPA time was separately predicted by RPAM and all three

basic psychological needs according to gender and weight

status in the last two regression analyses. Results from each

of the regression equations appear in Table 3. Predictor

variables were entered simultaneously to determine the

variance that was accounted for by their influence in RPAM,

RPA steps, or RPA time in each regression analysis.

Predictors of RPAM

In the first set of regression analyses, RPAM was the

dependent variable and levels of autonomy, competence,

TABLE 2

Correlations for All Variables; Psychological Subscale Reliabilities on Diagonal

Measure 1 2 3 4 5

1. Physical Activity Step —

2. Physical Activity Time .99**3. Autonomy Need Satisfaction-Recess .22** .22** .74

4. Competence Need Satisfaction-Recess .16* .14 .56** .72

5. Relatedness Need Satisfaction-Recess .05 .04 .56** .63** .81

6. Recess Physical Activity Motivation .02 .02 .26** .37** .29**

*p , .05. **p , .01.

TABLE 3

Regression Analyses Results of Psychological Predictors of Recess Physical Activity Motivation (RPAM) and Actual Recess Physical Activity

(RPA) Steps and Time

Dependent Variable Predictor Variable beta t p DR2

RPAM

Boys .122**Autonomy Need Satisfaction 2 .109 20.89 .38

Competence Need Satisfaction .232 1.77 .08

Relatedness Need Satisfaction .214 1.55 .12

Girls .209***Competence Need Satisfaction .393 3.23 .002

Healthy Weight .171***Competence Need Satisfaction .370 3.68 .000

RPA Steps

Boys .103*Autonomy Need Satisfaction .270 2.15 .03

Girls .133**RPAM .285 2.66 .009

Healthy Weight .053 ( p ¼ .097)

Autonomy Need Satisfaction .263 2.43 .02

Overweight/Obese .142 ( p ¼ .093)

Competence Need Satisfaction .356 1.98 .05

RPA Time

Boys .097*Autonomy Need Satisfaction .274 2.18 .03

Girls .116*RPAM .262 2.42 .02

Healthy Weight .048 ( p ¼ .13)

Autonomy Need Satisfaction .257 2.37 .02

Overweight/Obese .136 ( p ¼ .10)

Competence Need Satisfaction .336 1.87 .05

* p , .05. ** p , .01. *** p , .001. Only variables accepted in the regression models are shown.

Nonbolded DR 2 indicates no statistically significant regression model.

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Page 8: Psychological Predictors of Children's Recess Physical Activity Motivation and Behavior

and relatedness for RPA were the independent variables.

Results revealed a significant regression, F(3, 99) ¼ 4.57,

p ¼ .005, for male RPAM. Autonomy, competence, and

relatedness need satisfaction for RPA in combination

significantly accounted for 12.2% of the variance.

A significant regression emerged for female RPAM, F

(3, 96) ¼ 8.44, p , .001, which was significantly predicted

by only competence need satisfaction for RPA, which

accounted for 20.9% of the variance. Competence need

satisfaction for RPA was the only significant contributor

to 17.1% of the variance explained in the significant

regression for RPAM among healthy-weight children, F

(3, 143) ¼ 9.83, p , .001. A significant regression did not

emerge for overweight/obese children’s RPAM, F(3,

52) ¼ 1.98, p ¼ .129.

Predictors of RPA Steps

Results from the second set of regression analyses, where

RPA steps was the dependent variable and RPAM and all

three basic psychological needs for RPA were independent

variables, revealed separate significant regressions for boys,

F(4, 98) ¼ 2.8, p ¼ .03, and girls, F(4, 95) ¼ 3.64,

p ¼ .003. Autonomy need satisfaction was the only

significant psychological predictor of RPA steps for boys

accounting for 10.3% of the variance, while 13.3% of

female RPA steps were significantly predicted by RPAM.

Regressions were not significant for either healthy-weight,

F(4, 142) ¼ 2.00, p ¼ .09, or overweight, F(4, 51) ¼ 2.11,

p ¼ .09, children. However, autonomy need satisfaction

significantly accounted for the variance in healthy-weight

children’s RPA steps, whereas competence need satisfaction

emerged in connection to overweight/obese children’s RPA

steps.

Predictors of RPA Time

In the last set of regression analyses, RPA time was the

dependent variable and RPAM and autonomy, competence,

and relatedness need satisfaction for RPA were the

independent variables. Statistically significant regressions

were found for boys’, F(4, 98) ¼ 2.62, p ¼ .04, and girls’, F

(4, 95) ¼ 3.12, p ¼ .018, RPA time. Autonomy need

satisfaction was the only statistically significant psycho-

logical predictor and accounted for 9.7% of the relationship

with boys’ RPA time, and RPAM significantly explained

11.6% of the variance in girls’ RPA time. A significant

regression did not emerge for either healthy-weight, F(4,

142) ¼ 1.79, p ¼ .13, or overweight/obese children’s, F(4,

51) ¼ 2.0, p ¼ .11, RPA time. It is, however, somewhat

meaningful that autonomy need satisfaction emerged as the

most important possible predictor for healthy-weight

children’s RPA time, while competence need satisfaction

showed the most potential for explaining variance of

overweight/obese children’s RPA time.

DISCUSSION

An increasing amount of research seeks to provide the basis

for understanding how to increase children’s physical

activity levels. Schools are being called upon to improve

and intensify efforts to promote physical activity. Research

is needed to extend our understanding of how physical

activity programs in schools influence children to become

and stay physically active during discretionary time

(Siedentop, 2010). Results of this study revealed that

children were physically active for 40% of daily recess time,

which falls within the previously reported ranges of 15% to

68% (RWJ, 2012). Twenty percent of total recommended

daily physical activity time was acquired on average by

children in the present study. Taken together, these findings

add additional support to previous assertions that recess is

an essential school-based opportunity for children to

achieve adequate daily physical activity levels (RWJ, 2012).

This study is the first to consider the tenets of SDT (Deci

& Ryan, 1985, 2000) to understand predictors of children’s

recess, or discretionary-time, physical activity motivation

and behavior levels. SDT states that children’s basic

psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and

relatedness must be satisfied to be intrinsically motivated

(Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000). The following discussion is

presented according to the specific questions that guided the

present study.

Overall levels of children’s basic psychological needs

satisfaction at recess as well as RPAM were examined.

Results revealed moderately high levels of need satisfaction

at recess in the areas of autonomy and competence, and high

levels of relatedness. This finding extends the literature by

providing initial evidence about psychological mechanisms

associated with RPA that have not yet been previously

explored in that children felt they had choices for how they

could be physically active, felt capable in the physical

activity options available, and felt connected to others

during recess. According to SDT (Deci & Ryan, 1985,

2000), this increases the chances that those children would,

or could, be intrinsically motivated to be physically active

during recess. Findings were in fact consistent with the SDT

framework and revealed that overall, children were

relatively self-determined in their reasons for RPA, meaning

they reported more intrinsically and internally based

motivation.

Further scrutiny of the data showed significant gender

differences among multiple variables. These differences

existed for level of RPAM as well as for RPA steps and time

as measured by pedometers. Girls reported greater self-

regulation for physical activity during recess and were

therefore more intrinsically/internally motivated in their

RPA as compared with their male counterparts. This finding

was particularly noteworthy because it suggests that girls

were more internally motivated in their reasons for being

physically active; therefore, according to SDT (Deci &

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Ryan, 1985, 2000), one could expect girls to be more

physically active than boys when in fact this was not the

case. Although boys were more externally motivated and

were therefore less self-determined, they took more steps

and spent more time being physically active during recess

than did girls. Although the findings of gender differences in

physical activity behavior are consistent with extant

literature that consistently reveals higher physical activity

levels among boys (Stratton et al., 2008), the disparate

results between levels of girls’ versus boys’ motivation for

physical activity during recess contribute new information

to the literature. This suggests that although helping

children become more motivated for RPA is important,

further investigation is warranted to understand how

possible existing gender differences actually provoke

variations in RPA.

Investigation of differences by weight status indicated

trends toward a differentiation in need satisfaction for RPA

among healthy-weight children and their overweight/obese

peers. Higher levels of competence and relatedness need

satisfaction for physical activity during recess were found

for healthy-weight children as compared with overweight/

obese children. Within the SDT (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000)

framework, this finding means that during recess, healthy-

weight children’s need to feel capable and connected

to others is being satisfied to a further extent than that

of overweight/obese children. Healthy-weight children also

reported slightly higher self-determination, or RPAM,

as compared with their overweight/obese counterparts.

Although only a slight difference was detected, the finding

was considered noteworthy given the small number of

overweight/obese children represented in the sample, and

it implies that healthy-weight children were more internally

or intrinsically motivated in their reasons for being

physically active during recess. These findings extend the

literature by providing initial evidence for consideration

of weight status in efforts to increase children’s RPAM

and RPA.

Examination of the relationship between basic psycho-

logical needs and RPAM also revealed gender differences.

The extent to which girls indicated their need for

competence was satisfied during recess was the only

significant psychological need predictor of variance in level

of motivation to be physically active. In contrast, variance in

boys’ motivation to be physically active during recess was

significantly explained by the extent to which the

combination of all three basic psychological needs was

satisfied. Similar to the findings for girls, healthy-weight

children’s need for competence satisfaction for RPA

significantly predicted their level of RPAM. These findings

suggest that to better motivate boys to be physically active

during recess, they need the opportunity to choose activities,

how physically challenged they will be, and with whom

they are active. In contrast, girls’ and healthy-weight

children’s RPAM seems to hinge only on the extent to

which opportunities provide the basis for feeling capable of

performing physical activities.

This study adds to the existing body of knowledge on

RPA by providing evidence that boys’ physical activity

behavior (both steps and activity time) at recess is

significantly predicted by their level of autonomy need

satisfaction for RPA. Additionally, girls who indicated more

intrinsic/internally-based self-determination for RPA took

more steps and spent more time being physically active.

Although each of these findings support SDT (Deci & Ryan,

1985, 2000), it appears that the psychological factors that

most influence physical activity among boys and girls at

recess differ and should therefore be considered when

creating RPA opportunities for children. These results also

importantly shed initial light on understanding some of the

underlying mechanisms that account for gender differences

in RPA, noted by Stratton and colleagues (2008) as missing

in the literature.

As might be expected, overweight/obese children took

fewer steps and spent less time being physically active

during recess compared with their healthy-weight counter-

parts. Although nonsignificant regression models emerged,

analyses suggested autonomy need satisfaction and

competence need satisfaction best accounted for any

variance in steps and time for healthy-weight and

overweight/obese children, respectively. This finding is

particularly worth mentioning, because although research

on gender differences in physical activity is growing, we

know very little about the role of weight status in increasing

children’s RPA.

Limitations

The present study was exploratory and included new

variables in association with children’s RPA in an initial

attempt to use SDT (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000) contentions

to explore the relationships among children’s self-regulation

for RPA, basic psychological need satisfaction, and actual

physical activity behavior. Despite the encouraging

findings, a few limitations of the present study should be

acknowledged. First, as with all field-based research,

especially that which is conducted with children, there is

considerable variability and unpredictability in instrumen-

tation. Pedometers and implementation of study protocols,

including having children complete a somewhat lengthy

questionnaire and subsequently wear pedometers daily,

might have contributed to some measurement error. Second,

assessment of psychological predictors of only steps and

activity time via pedometers provides a somewhat limited

lens on children’s RPA motivation and behavior. Examin-

ation of physical activity intensity and simultaneous

collection of data through video, self-report, and obser-

vation assessment tools would beneficially augment

pedometer data and would provide information about the

choices of what children are actually doing during recess to

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Page 10: Psychological Predictors of Children's Recess Physical Activity Motivation and Behavior

accumulate the amount of physical activity recorded.

Finally, the sample size of overweight/obese children was

limited, which suggests that caution should be heeded in

interpretations of the analyses that focused on exploration of

relationships between psychological and behavior variables

in the overweight/obese subsample due to low statistical

power.

IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSION

The present findings suggest that not all children are alike in

what psychologically predicts their RPAM behavior.

Results specifically support the idea that key psychological

factors contribute to children’s motivation to be physically

active and to their actual physical activity levels during

discretionary periods such as recess. As a result, the

following implications should be considered when creating

recess, or discretionary-time, physical activity opportunities

for children. Physical activity opportunities that satisfy

girls’ need for competence, such as availability of

equipment and space during recess that build upon skills

learned in physical education, would increase their

internally based reasons for actual physical activity.

Regardless of whether the outcome of increased RPAM or

RPA is the focus, satisfaction with the activity choices

available is imperative for boys. Healthy-weight children

need to feel capable and be challenged by available RPA

opportunities to be more intrinsically motivated to be

physically active during discretionary times. However,

satisfaction with choices available during recess seems to

increase physical activity behavior. Although factors that

explain overweight children’s RPA remain somewhat

elusive, findings from this study call for further investi-

gation of their need for competence in physical activities

available at recess. The reoccurrence of competence need

satisfaction as a predictor of RPAM and RPA suggests that

even as early as late elementary school age, one’s

perception of physical competence seems to influence

motivation to be physically active as well as actual physical

activity during discretionary time. As a result, developing a

strong foundation of basic motor skills in physical education

as a means to feel competent is a critical first step toward

choosing to participate and ultimately enjoy the benefits of

lifelong physical activity. Findings support SDT (Deci &

Ryan, 1985, 2000) and provide some initial insight into how

to motivate children to actually be more physically active

during their school-based discretionary time with consider-

ation for demographic differences.

WHAT DOES THIS ARTICLE ADD?

This study provides evidence, grounded in the contentions

of SDT (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000), that prediction of

physical activity motivation and behavior is not explicable

by the exact same mechanisms for all children. Results

provide key insight into how variations in satisfaction of

autonomy, competence, and relatedness needs differentially

impact the motivation that boys versus girls and overweight

versus healthy-weight children maintain toward RPA.

Based on these findings, it is imperative to include key

psychological variables in the study of factors that

contribute to reaching and sustaining higher levels of

children’s physical activity. Interventions and programs

focused on children’s RPA promotion would benefit greatly

by incorporating the theoretically based perspective used in

the present study for aspects of design, implementation, and

evaluation.

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