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i PROPOSED TSHWANE OPEN SPACE FRAMEWORK VOLUME 1 STATUS QUO NOVEMBER 2005

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Page 1: PROPOSED TSHWANE OPEN SPACE FRAMEWORK...TSHWANE OPEN SPACE FRAMEWORK VOLUME 1 ii ABBREVIATIONS BID Business Improvement District CBO Community-Based Organisation CMOSS Cape Town Metropolitan

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PROPOSED TSHWANE OPEN SPACE FRAMEWORK

VOLUME 1 STATUS QUO

NOVEMBER 2005

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Consultants: Holm Jordaan Group

Strategic Environmental Focus

Internal CTMM Departments: Housing, City Planning and Environmental Management Department Service Delivery Department Legal and Secretarial Services Division Office of Chief Financial Officer Economic Development Department Provincial Departments: Gauteng Department of Agriculture Conservation and Environment

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ABBREVIATIONS

BID Business Improvement District CBO Community-Based Organisation CMOSS Cape Town Metropolitan Open Space System C-Plan Conservation Plan CTMM City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality DEAT Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism DMOSS Durban Metropolitan Open Space System ECA Environmental Conservation Act, 1989 (Act 73 of 1989) EIA Environmental Impact Assessment ERP Environmental Resources Plan GIS Geographical Information System GPMC Greater Pretoria Metropolitan Municipality Ha Hectare I&AP Interested and Affected Party ICLEI International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives IDP Integrated Development Plan JMOSS Johannesburg Metropolitan Open Space System MAR Mean Annual Run-off MEC Member of Executive Committee MFMA Municipal Finance Management Act MSDF Metropolitan Spatial Development Framework NWA National Water Act, 1998 (Act 36 of 1998) NEMA National Environmental Management Act, 1998 (Act 107 of 1998) NEMPA National Environmental Management Protected Areas Act, 2003 (Act 57 of 2003) NGO Non-Governmental Organisation PED Park Enhancement District PDR Purchase of Development Rights PNE Protected Natural Environment RSDF Regional Spatial Development Framework SADC Southern African Development Community SPD Special Park District TDR Transfer of Development Rights TOSF Tshwane Open Space Framework MIG Municipal Infrastructure Grant

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GLOSSARY OF TERMS Biodiversity The variability among living organisms from all sources including,

terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part and also includes diversity within species, between species, and of ecosystems.

Biome A major biotic community characterised by the dominant forms of plant life and the prevailing climate e.g. grassland, savanna, forest. (Little Red Data Book of the Mammals of South Africa)

City Development Strategy A bold initiative of the City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality (CTMM) to influence the development path of the City over the next 20 years, highlighting seven critical focus areas.

City Vision “An internationally acclaimed African capital city that empowers the community to prosper in a safe and healthy environment”.

Conservancy A contractually legitimated co-management entity which involves two or more recognised land and resource authorities formed for the use and conservation of natural resources on land under their jurisdiction.

C-Plan The Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Environment’s C-Plan focuses on the mapping and management of biodiversity priority areas within Gauteng. The C-Plan includes protected areas, irreplaceable and important sites due to the presence of Red Data species, endemic species and potential habitat for these species to occur.

Cultivated An area which is still perceived as predominantly “green” but that is no longer in its natural state and has been developed by human intervention and care for human use.

Development A process for improving human well-being through a reallocation of resources that involves some modification of the environment. It addresses basic needs, equity and the redistribution of wealth. Its focus is on the quality of life rather than the quantity of economic activity.

Ecological cycles A variety of processes, driven ultimately by solar energy that maintain ecosystems by sustaining life and replenishing renewable resources. They include Nutrient, Carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and water cycles.

Ecological corridors Roadways of natural habitat providing connectivity of various patches of native habitats along or through which faunal species may travel without any obstructions.

Ecological integrity Based on the concept of biological integrity described as “the ability to support and maintain a balanced, integrated, adaptive community of organisms having a species composition, diversity and functional organisation comparable to that of natural habitat of the region” (Karr and Dudley, 1981).

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Ecological sensitivity Sensitivity of vegetation habitat types mapped digitally onscreen from 1m resolution orthophotos, assessed using a pair-wise comparison matrix based on the following criteria: Red Data species habitat· Percentage Disturbance Species Diversity Percentage Alien infestation Local Importance Regional Importance

Ecological footprint The bio-productive space used for producing the environmental resources

consumed in the city and for absorbing the waste produced.

Ecological integrity The sum of the biological, physical and chemical components of an ecosystem, and their interactions which maintain the ecosystem and its products, functions and attributes.

Ecosystem A dynamic complex of animal, plant and micro-organism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit.

Environment The surroundings within which humans exist and that are made up of- (i) the land, water and atmosphere of the earth; (ii) micro-organisms, plant and animal life; (iii) any part or combination of (i) and (ii) and the interrelationships

among and between them; and (iv) the physical, chemical, aesthetic and cultural properties and

conditions of the foregoing that influence human health and well-being.

Environmental goods and services

Such goods and services includes- benefits obtained from ecosystems such as food, fuel and fibre and

genetic resources; benefits from the regulation of ecosystem processes such as climate

regulation, disease and flood control and detoxification; and cultural non-material benefits obtained from ecosystems such as

benefits of a spiritual, recreational, aesthetic, inspirational, educational, community and symbolic nature.

Externalities Economic activities that cause uncompensated environmental loss or

damage to others.

Globalisation The drive to create a single world market, mainly by large corporations with global interests, mostly situated in the developed world. It encourages conformity to global standards and economic approached by governments and promotes a single global lifestyle

Habitat In relation to a specific species, a place or type of site where such species naturally occurs.

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Indigenous specie In relation to a specific area, a species that occurs, or has historically occurred, naturally in a free state in nature within that specific area, but excludes a species introduced in that area as a result of human activity.

Internalisation The incorporation of externalities into market prices.

Management Open Space Management which include aspects and activities in relation to planning, development implementation and operational maintenance.

Natural An area existing in or produced by nature, not artificial or imitated, where vegetation is usually dominant, where little human intervention has taken place and which is not intensively utilised by humans.

Nature Conservation Area As defined by the City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality’s By-Laws on Public Amenities: any area classified as such according to the method used by the Nature Conservation and Resorts Section of the Municipality to classify nature conservation areas .

Nature Reserve An area, declared, or regarded as having been declared, in terms of section 23 of the National Environmental Management Protected Areas Act, 2003 (Act 57 of 2003) as a nature reserve; or an area which before or after the commencement of this Act was or is declared or designated in terms of provincial legislation for a purpose for which that area could in terms of section 23(2) be declared as a nature reserve, and includes an area declared in terms of section 23 (1) as part of an area referred to in the above.

Open Space Areas predominantly free of building that provide ecological, socio-economic and place-making functions at all scales of the metropolitan area.

Open Space, developed Open Space that is actively maintained and depending on its function has been formalised. Formalisation can in relation to ecological Open Space imply fencing, walkways, site utilities and can in relation to socio-economic and placemaking Open Space, imply soil preparation, formalised watering systems, kikuyu grass covering (where relevant), hard surface covering, fencing, tree planting, play equipment and site furniture.

Open Space, semi-developed Open Space that is maintained and depending on its function has been semi-formalised. Semi-formalisation can in relation to ecological Open Space imply fencing, and limited site utilities and can in relation to socio-economic and placemaking Open Space, imply semi-formalised watering systems, existing grass covering, fencing, limited tree planting, play equipment, limited site furniture.

Open Space, undeveloped Open Space that is maintained and depending on its function has not been developed at all. Undeveloped can in relation to ecological Open Space imply fencing and can in relation to socio-economic and placemaking Open Space, imply rudimentary fencing and the necessary site furniture.

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Open Space Network A conceptualisation of interconnected Open Space that accommodates human and natural ecologies, systems and processes developed to spatially manifest the Open Space vision. The conceptualisation is realised through Open Space types as the structuring elements of the network depicted on Metropolitan, Regional and Local Open Space Plans.

Open Space System Natural and ecological systems where the emphasis is on the physical linkages between natural elements as being critical for the system to function and survive.

Open Space typologies The abstract overlaying of Open Space categories to define specific Open Space types based on function, form, scale.

Peat lands Any wetland characterized by the accumulation of partially decomposed plant matter.

Park, Local A well developed, mono-functional, Open Space, typically within a residential context, that has a neighbourhood or local influence sphere and provides the surrounding residents free access to and opportunity for: community and social interaction; children recreational play areas(play equipment, informal play); and passive recreational opportunities (benches, lawn areas).

Park, Regional A well developed, multifunctional Open Space, typically situated along an

activity spine, that has a regional influence sphere and provides the broader community free/ managed access to and opportunity for: community and social interaction; children recreational play areas (play equipment, informal play); passive recreational opportunities (benches, lawn areas); formalised sporting facilities; and community centres.

Park, Metropolitan A well developed, Open Space, well located that has a metropolitan,

national and possibly international influence sphere and provides the metropole, visitors and tourists free/ managed access to and opportunity for: nature and horticultural appreciation; community and social interaction; limited children recreational play areas (play equipment, informal play); passive recreational opportunities (benches, lawn areas); and places of refreshment.

Protected Environment An area declared, or regarded as having been declared, in terms of section 28 of the National Environmental Management Protected Areas Act, Act 57 of 2003, as a protected environment or an area which before or after the commencement of this Act was or is declared or designated in terms of provincial legislation for a purpose for which that area could in terms of section 28(2) be declared as a protected environment, and includes an area declared in terms of section 28 (1) as part of an area referred to in the above.

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Protected Areas As provided for within the National Environmental Management Protected Areas Act, Act 57 of 2003, four (4) kinds of protected areas are recognised: (a) special nature reserves, nature reserves (including wilderness

areas) and protected environments; (b) world heritage sites (c) specially protected forest areas, forest nature reserves and forest

wilderness areas (d) mountain catchment areas .

Red Data A list of species, fauna and flora that require environmental protection, based on IUCN definitions for endangered, threatened or vulnerable.

Resort , Metropolitan A well developed, multifunctional Open Space venue that has a metropolitan, national and possibly international influence sphere and provides the metropole, visitors and tourists controlled access to: children recreational play opportunities (play equipment, informal play

space, swimming pool/s, water slides); passive leisure opportunities (benches, braai facilities, swimming

pool/s, water slides); overnight accommodation (chalets, camping, caravanning); large scale cultural, music and other associated event/festival areas; large scale restaurants and refreshment facilities; and conservation areas.

Resort, Regional A well developed, multifunctional Open Space venue that has a regional

influence sphere and provides regional communities controlled access to and opportunity for: community and social interaction; children recreational play opportunities (play equipment, informal play

space, swimming pool/s, water slides); passive leisure opportunities (benches, braai facilities); small scale group function areas; small scale refreshment facilities; and conservation components.

Resource, Environmental In relation to the definition for environment, sources of help or supply, the

various means within a nation’s possession for meeting the needs of its people. For the purpose of the Tshwane OSF: all natural, manmade, cultural and social resources.

Resource, Cultural A broad, generic term covering any physical, natural and spiritual properties and features adapted, used and created by humans in the past and present. Cultural resources are the result of continuing human cultural activity and embody a range of community values and meanings. These resources are non-renewable and finite. Cultural resources include traditional systems of cultural practice, belief or social interaction.

Resource, Natural Any resource provided for by the bio-physical environment, such as soils, geology, air, water, fauna, flora.

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Resource, Non-Renewable A resource that has a finite stock and either cannot be reproduced once it is used or lost, or cannot be reproduced within a time span relevant to present or future generations.

Resource, Renewable A resource produced as part of the functioning of natural or managed systems at rates comparable with its rate of consumption. Such resources can provide a sustained yield.

Resource, Social People, their knowledge, skills, capacities, cultures and technologies, organisational and institutional structures, political and economic systems.

Ridges Any topographic feature with slopes of a 5 gradient or more.

Ridges Policy Gauteng Ridges Departmental Policy (2004). In recognition of the value of the quartzite ridges of Gauteng, a GDACE compiled policy to protect these ridges from further development. Ridges are classified into classes according to current transformed status: Class 1: Ridges 0-5 % transformed Class 2: Ridges 5-35 % transformed Class 3: Ridges 35-65 % transformed Class 4: Ridges 65-100 % transformed Within the policy, Class 1 and Class 2 ridges are highly sensitive due to limited disturbance and therefore are considered ‘no go’ areas in terms of future development.

Riparian zone The transition zone between the aquatic and terrestrial environments. The characteristics and type of vegetation associated with this zone is dependent on the geomorphology and the mean annual runoff (MAR) of the river channel. Geomorphology is the study of geological formations in relation to river flow and how river channels will form and evolve (i.e. the riverbank topography), while climate and the duration of the rainfall period will determine the mean annual runoff, i.e. the amount of water flowing within the river (Rowntree et al. 2000).

Site, Irreplaceable A site designated as essential in meeting targets set for the conservation of biodiversity in Gauteng. Options for achieving these targets will be reduced should the site not be protected.

Site, Important A site designated as important for the conservation of biodiversity in Gauteng, the significance of which is subject to ground truthing. The site is important to protect in some way, but not essential and can be replaced by a similar site, but a trade-off in the efficiency of the conservation plan may be the result.

Special Nature Reserve An area, declared by the Minister in terms of section 38 of the National Environmental Management Protected Areas Act, 2003 (Act 57 of 2003) and by notice in the Government Gazette, to protect highly sensitive, outstanding ecosystems, species, geological or physical features; and to make the area primarily available for scientific research or environmental monitoring.

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Strategic Environmental Assessment

A participatory process to integrate economic, sectoral, spatial, social, institutional, fiscal and environmental strategies in order to support the optimal allocation of scarce resources between sectors and geographic areas, and across the population, in a manner that promotes sustainable development.

Sustainable Development Development that has integrated social, economic and environmental factors into planning, implementation and decision-making, so as to ensure that it serves present and future generations.

Triple bottom line accountability As highlighted in the King 2 Report on Corporate governance, an integrated approach taking into account economic, social and environmental aspects. This means that short-term economic benefits, long-term environmental and social costs, and indirect economic costs must be integrated in the evaluation of public and private initiatives.

Urban/Built up An area that has been completely transformed by human intervention that is predominantly hard and accommodates intense use.

Watercourses As defined by the National Water Act, 1998 (Act 36 of 1998): “A river or spring; A natural channel in which water flows regularly or intermittently; A wetland, lake or dam into which, or from which, water flows; and Any collection of water which the Minister may by notice in the Government Gazette, declare to be a watercourse, and a reference to a watercourse includes, where relevant, its bed and banks.”

Wetland As defined by the National Water Act, 1998 (Act No. 36 of 1998) : “Land which is transitional between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems where the water table is usually at or near the surface, or the land is periodically covered by shallow water, that naturally supports vegetation typically adapted to life in saturated soil.”

World Heritage Site A world heritage site in terms of the World Heritage Convention Act, 1999 (Act 49 of 1999).

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TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................................1 1.1 BACKGROUND ....................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES........................................................................................................................... 2 1.3 FOCUS AREA.......................................................................................................................................... 2 1.4 STRUCTURE OF TSHWANE OPEN SPACE FRAMEWORK ................................................................. 3 1.5 STRUCTURE OF VOLUME 1 .................................................................................................................. 3 2 OPEN SPACES: A CONCEPTUALISATION ...............................................................................4 2.1 WHAT IS OPEN SPACE?........................................................................................................................ 4 2.2 THE NEED FOR OPEN SPACE .............................................................................................................. 6 3 GUIDING DOCUMENTATION .....................................................................................................7 3.1 LEGAL OBLIGATIONS ............................................................................................................................ 7 3.2 CITY VISION............................................................................................................................................ 9 3.3 CITY DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY......................................................................................................... 9 3.4 METROPOLITAN SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK .............................................................. 10 3.5 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT DIVISION WITHIN THE CTMM ................................................... 13 3.6 TSHWANE INTEGRATED ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY (TIEP)............................................................ 13 4 OPEN SPACE ISSUES ..............................................................................................................14 4.1 OPEN SPACE AND THE CITY.............................................................................................................. 14

4.1.1 THE THREAT OF URBAN GROWTH TO OPEN SPACES IN THE CITY .......................................... 14 4.1.2 THE GROWTH PATTERNS OF THE CITY OF TSHWANE ............................................................... 18

4.2 OPEN SPACE AND ECOLOGICAL FUNCTION.................................................................................... 27 4.2.1 THE ECOLOGICAL BENEFITS OF OPEN SPACE............................................................................ 27 4.2.2 ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS IN THE CTMM .......................................................................................... 30 4.2.3 THREATS TO THE ECOLOGICAL FUNCTION OF OPEN SPACES................................................. 53

4.3 OPEN SPACES AND INTERNATIONALLY COMPETITIVE CITIES ..................................................... 59 4.3.1 THE ROLE OF OPEN SPACE IN CREATING INTERNATIONALLY COMPETITIVE CITIES............ 59 4.3.2 DESIGN OF HIGH QUALITY OPEN SPACES.................................................................................... 60 4.3.3 QUALITY OF OPEN SPACES IN TSHWANE..................................................................................... 64 4.3.4 QUANTITY OF OPEN SPACES ......................................................................................................... 65 4.3.5 QUANTITY OF OPEN SPACES IN TSHWANE.................................................................................. 69 4.3.6 BUDGETING FOR OPEN SPACES.................................................................................................... 73

4.4 OPEN SPACES IN CAPITAL CITIES .................................................................................................... 75 4.4.1 CLEAR OPEN SPACE STRUCTURE AS A SOLID FOUNDATION ................................................... 75 4.4.2 TSHWANE AS CAPITAL CITY............................................................................................................ 77

4.5 OPEN SPACES AND ECONOMICS...................................................................................................... 84 4.5.1 THE ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF OPEN SPACES ............................................................................. 84 4.5.2 TOURISM IN TSHWANE .................................................................................................................... 85 4.5.3 URBAN AGRICULTURE ..................................................................................................................... 90 4.5.4 THE VALUATION OF OPEN SPACES ............................................................................................... 95

4.6 OPEN SPACES AND SAFETY.............................................................................................................. 96 4.6.1 OPEN SPACES AS PLACES OF CRIME ........................................................................................... 96 4.6.2 OPEN SPACES AS COMMUNITY BUILDERS................................................................................... 97 4.6.3 DESIGNING FOR SAFETY................................................................................................................. 97

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4.7 OPEN SPACES AND HEALTH.............................................................................................................. 99 4.7.1 THE SOCIAL AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF OPEN SPACES............................................................ 99 4.7.2 THE MEDICAL HEALTH BENEFITS OF OPEN SPACES................................................................ 100 4.7.3 SPORTS AND RECREATION FACILITIES WITHIN TSHWANE...................................................... 100

5 CONCLUSION..........................................................................................................................104

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Locality Plan ............................................................................................................................3 Figure 2: Continuum of soft to hard spaces ...........................................................................................5 Figure 3: Different international elements/examples of Open Space ....................................................6 Figure 4: City Development Strategy Concept.....................................................................................10 Figure 5: MSDF Spatial Development Concept ...................................................................................12 Figure 6: The 15 largest cities of the world, 2000-2015.......................................................................15 Figure 7: Cities with more than a million inhabitants, 1950-2015 ........................................................15 Figure 8: Growth of Pretoria 1900-1939...............................................................................................19 Figure 9: Growth of Pretoria 1900-1959...............................................................................................19 Figure 10:Growth of Pretoria 1900-1979..............................................................................................20 Figure 11: Growth of Pretoria 1900-1999.............................................................................................20 Figure 12: Development of Tshwane in relation to the Inner City........................................................22 Figure 13: Population Density measured in persons per Hectare .......................................................23 Figure 14: Increase in Population Density, 1996-2001 ........................................................................24 Figure 15: Loss of valuable Open Space to urban development.........................................................26 Figure 16: Environmental services provided by Open Space resources.............................................30 Figure 17: Example of Savanna Biome................................................................................................31 Figure 18: Example of Grassland Biome..............................................................................................31 Figure 19: Biomes in Tshwane.............................................................................................................31 Figure 20: Acocks vegetation types .....................................................................................................32 Figure 21: Low & Rebelo vegetation types...........................................................................................32 Figure 22: Gauteng Conservation Plan for Tshwane...........................................................................35 Figure 23: Ratio of Class 1, 2, 3 and 4 Ridges ....................................................................................36 Figure 24: Ridges within Tshwane .......................................................................................................38 Figure 25: Typical River Bank Typology...............................................................................................41 Figure 26: Watercourse Systems within Tshwane ...............................................................................43 Figure 27: Protected Areas within Tshwane.........................................................................................49 Figure 28: Geology in the CTMM. ........................................................................................................50 Figure 29: Composite Ecological Sensitivity Plan for the CTMM.........................................................51 Figure 30: Composite Open Spaces in Tshwane.................................................................................52 Figure 31: Examples of water pollution ................................................................................................55 Figure 32: Examples of Illegal Dumping...............................................................................................57 Figure 33: Environmental Management Division maintained Open Space .........................................69 Figure 34: Ratio of Developed Socio-Economic Open Space per City Planning Region....................70 Figure 35: NEW DELHI, INDIA.............................................................................................................75 Figure 36: WASHINGTON DC .............................................................................................................76 Figure 37: CANBERRA, AUSTRALIA ..................................................................................................76

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Figure 38: PARIS, FRANCE.................................................................................................................77 Figure 39: Developed, Semi-Developed, Undeveloped Significant Open Spaces within Tshwane....80 Figure 40: Culture-historical Open Spaces in Tshwane......................................................................83 Figure 41: GAPA information................................................................................................................94 Figure 42: Developed, semi-developed & undeveloped Sports Facilities..........................................101

LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Informal Dwelling Counts, 1999-2003 ....................................................................................25 Table 2: Existing vs estimated dwelling unit counts .............................................................................25 Table 3: Ridge classes, extent protected within the CTMM.................................................................37 Table 4: Watercourse ecosystems pertinent to Tshwane ....................................................................41 Table 5: GDACE recognised Protected Areas within CTMM...............................................................45 Table 6: GDACE recognised Conservancies within CTMM.................................................................45 Table 7: Working for Water Programme...............................................................................................56 Table 8: Working for Wetlands Programme .........................................................................................57 Table 9: Cost of Illegal Dumping ..........................................................................................................57 Table 10: Open Space ratios for Johannesburg suburbs, 2003 ..........................................................65 Table 11: Environmental Management Division’s budget as a percentage of the total council budget..............................................................................................................................................................73 Table 12: Environmental Management Division Operational Maintenance Budget ...........................74 Table 13: Environmental Management Division IDP Capital Budget...................................................74

ANNEXURES ANNEXURE A: LEGISLATION...........................................................................................................106 ANNEXURE B: RED DATA ................................................................................................................117 ANNEXURE C: METHODOLOGY......................................................................................................126 ANNEXURE D: SWOT ANALYSIS OUTCOMES ..............................................................................129 ANNEXURE E: BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................132

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1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

The awareness that our resources are finite and that our current way of building cities is destroying our environmental resources, has been growing since the second half of the twentieth century, with sustainable development today internationally accepted as the only alternative to ensure our future existence. Sustainable development was brought to international attention in 1987 with the Brundtland report ‘Our common Future’ which wove together social, economic, cultural and environmental issues, and in 1992 when the United Nation’s Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro established agreements such as Agenda 21, the Convention on Biodiversity, Framework Convention on Climate Change and Rio-Declaration.

At the same time as this developing awareness, the populations of cities (especially cities in the southern hemisphere) have grown at unprecedented rates, consuming ever more land, placing severe strain on the environment and also on resource constrained local governments. In light of these forces, many local governments have found it necessary to develop metropolitan-wide plans to protect and nurture environmental resources within their jurisdiction. The City of Tshwane faces additional challenges: in December 2000, 13 municipalities within the functional area of Pretoria were amalgamated to form the City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality (CTMM). This has enlarged the local government’s jurisdiction to one of the largest in the world covering 220 000ha, without a significant increase in the city’s tax base. Some of the poorest and least developed areas in Gauteng and North West have been incorporated into the city; guided by numerous town planning schemes, policies and plans. In relation to environmental resource management, the city is guided by a variety of policies such as the Centurion Open Space Network Policy and the Greater Pretoria Metropolitan Council (GPMC) Environmental Resource Plan, covering different geographical areas and following different approaches.

The CTMM is faced on a daily basis, with decision-making on environmental resource development, management and alienation. Environmental resources relate to the generally accepted definition of the environment and refers to sources of help or supply, the various means within a nation’s possession required to meet the needs of its people. Such resources include more specifically all natural, manmade, cultural and social resources. Open Space is regarded as the spatial manifestation, host and key contributing factor to the majority of environmental resources, especially natural resources such as soils, geology, air, water, fauna, flora. In light of the above, the CTMM is under pressure to develop an integrated Open Space policy framework that applies to its entire area of jurisdiction and that can address the sustainable utilisation and integration of Open Spaces within a context of rapid population growth, urban sprawl, poverty and dwindling financial resources.

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A framework within which administrative processes can be streamlined, effective environmental management can be ensured and the potential of Open Space can be maximised to the benefit of the city as a whole.

1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of the Tshwane Open Space Framework (TOSF) is to establish a thorough understanding on the intrinsic value of Open Space and to then develop a visionary roadmap towards the creation of an exceptional Open Space network for the city and its people.

The following objectives for the study have been identified: Create a detailed data and information base on all Open Spaces within the metropolitan

area, including conservation areas and strategically important Open Space resources as noted within the Gauteng Open Space Plan and the Gauteng Conservation Plan (C-Plan);

Establish the status of the CTMM’s Open Space resources as a vital and valuable physical and economic resource within the metropolitan area;

Develop an Open Space network based on a defined vision, goals, principles, typologies and categories on metropolitan and regional scale;

Develop Principles and Policy Statements as a basis for consistent and integrated decision making by the local authority regarding issues affecting Open Space resources;

Provide Principles and Policy Statements as a basis for informing all scales of land use and infrastructure planning and development;

Provide an Institutional and Management Framework to ensure the effective and collaborative planning, implementation and administration of the Open Space network;

Inform the acquisition and disposal of Open Space; and Provide a Framework within which development activities within the city comply with the

National Environmental Management Amendment Act, 2004 (Act 8 of 2004).

1.3 FOCUS AREA

The City of Tshwane is the capital city and the centre of government of South Africa. With a population of approximately 2.3 million people, it is a cross-border municipality located in both the Gauteng and North-West provinces. Gauteng is considered the wealthiest and fastest growing economic region in Africa. The city is especially known for its high concentration of educational, research and foreign institutions. It is said to boasts the highest per capita income per individual in South Africa. The municipal area is positioned within Gauteng, on a strategic junction that can be labelled as “the gateway to Africa”, where the N4 Platinum Highway and the N1 Highway intersects. This is seen as an advantage as the concentration of activities in the area relies on these spines to trade in the larger region.

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Figure 1: Locality Plan

The Tshwane OSF will cover the entire area of jurisdiction of the CTMM and will be broken down into a metropolitan, regional and local level.

1.4 STRUCTURE OF TSHWANE OPEN SPACE FRAMEWORK

The final TOSF will consist of three volumes: Volume 1: The analysis of the current Open Space situation within Tshwane Volume 2: Open Space Vision, Policy and Plans Volume 3: Implementation Strategies

Concurrent with the three (3) volumes will be a GIS Decision Support Tool.

1.5 STRUCTURE OF VOLUME 1

This document, Volume 1, will be structured as follows: Firstly the concept and importance of Open Space will be discussed; Secondly, the guiding principles for Open Space, as contained in relevant policies, will be

discussed; and Thirdly, the issues with regard to Open Space will be explored, including urbanisation,

ecological functioning, international competitiveness, image, economics, safety and health.

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2 OPEN SPACES: A CONCEPTUALISATION

2.1 WHAT IS OPEN SPACE?

There are a variety of definitions regarding Open Space, each focusing on an element of the Open Space system as can be seen in the box below:

OPEN SPACE DEFINITIONS

International Definitions

• Land laid out as a public garden, or used for the purposes of public recreation, or land, which is a disused burial ground (Town & Planning Act, 1972, Scotland).

• Open Space (OS) is any undeveloped or predominantly undeveloped land, including waterways, in and around an urban area. There are both public and private Open Spaces (http://www.ci.corvallis.or.us/pr/open.html).

• An area of natural landscape essentially undeveloped, such as ridges, streams, natural shorelines, scenic buffer areas, and agricultural lands. (Open Space Preservation Program Policy-Marin County, California).

• Open Space is land that has not been developed for intensive human uses; it has no (or very few) buildings, roads and other structures associated with human development (Natural Lands Trust, February 1995).

• Open Space is defined as land, which is not intensively developed for residential, commercial, industrial or institutional use. Open Space can be publicly or privately owned. It includes agricultural and forest land, undeveloped shorelines, undeveloped scenic lands, public parks and preserves. It also includes water bodies such as lakes and bays (Open Space Plan, New York State).

National Definitions

• Any vegetated area (green areas) within an urban environment, such as: nature reserves, private and public gardens, golf courses and other sports and recreational grounds, cultivated, derelict and undeveloped land and even roadside, rail verges and transmission line servitudes as well as any open hard surface area (brown areas) such as: shopping malls, plazas and other paved and concrete areas (DEAT, 1995).

• Open Space is principally the unbuilt component inside the urban edge that serves a variety of purposes and functions (CMOSS, Cape Town).

• Any undeveloped vegetated land within and beyond the urban edge, belonging to any of the following six Open Space categories: ecological, social, institutional, heritage, agricultural and prospective (degraded land) (JMOSS, Johannesburg).

• Urban Open Spaces are the human made or legally designated spaces and areas within the [Durban Metropolitan Area] that are developed for community use. They include parks, sports fields, agricultural fields, streets, town squares, road reserves, servitudes for services such as electricity transmission lines, dams, private gardens, etc. Natural Open Spaces are the remaining undisturbed natural and undeveloped areas within the [Durban Metropolitan Area]. They are the areas that contain the core terrestrial, freshwater, estuarine and marine ecosystems. These ecosystems include land cover types such as grassland, forests, beaches, estuaries, rivers, wetlands etc. (DMOSS, Durban)

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For the purpose of this document Open Space is defined in its broadest sense as spaces that are not predominantly built up:

‘Areas predominantly free of building

that provide ecological, socio-economic and place-making functions at all scales of the metropolitan area.’

The term 'Open Space' covers green space consisting of any vegetated land or landform, water or geological feature in an urban area as well as civic space (or brown space) consisting of squares, market places and other paved or hard landscaped areas with a civic function. Some spaces may combine green and civic space elements, but one type or other will usually predominate. As such, Open Spaces can be defined along a continuum with soft/green/natural space on the one end and hard/brown/urban on the other end.

Figure 2: Continuum of soft to hard spaces

Furthermore Open Spaces include both public and private spaces. All spaces, regardless of ownership and accessibility (i.e. public and private spaces) contribute to the amenity and character of an area and should be taken into account when assessing existing provision and determining future Open Space requirements. Although private spaces are not accessible to the general public, they are accessible to designated groups and do form part of the natural system as ecological processes are not confined to property boundaries. The TOSF will only deal with large privately owned Open Spaces, which have a significant impact on ecological processes within the city. Open Spaces thus include a variety of spaces from eco-based to activity-based; from personal to public; from those sustained by clear and substantial manipulation, design and intervention, to those that reflect little or none. Internationally, Open Space is understood to consist of elements/examples depicted in Figure 3: Different international elements/examples of Open Space. For purposes of this study however, ridges, watercourses, wetlands, dams, conservation areas, play parks, sport areas, city entrances, streets, traffic islands, squares, boulevards, parking areas, infrastructure servitudes, utility Open Space, cemeteries, school sport fields and vacant land, could be considered as examples of Open Space. Private residential and office gardens will not be dealt with as part of the Open Space subject matter

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Figure 3: Different international elements/examples of Open Space

2.2 THE NEED FOR OPEN SPACE

Open Space is an essential element within our cities, for ecological, socio-economic and place-making purposes. Firstly, Open Space allows ecological systems, without which human beings cannot survive, to function: it purifies water, harbours plant and animal life, cleans the air and regulates the urban climate. This life-giving function of Open Spaces is the most threatened by urban development and fragmentation. Furthermore human needs with regard to Open Spaces are fundamental. We need Open Spaces for our spiritual enhancement and for recreation. We need Open Space to conserve our natural environment so that we can enjoy clean streams, abundant wildlife, and to witness

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the unfolding spectacle of nature. We need Open Space to give coherent structure and beauty to our cities as well as to guide metropolitan growth. Open Spaces are important for our individual and collective well-being. Research has shown the importance of Open Spaces and greenery in the healing process of people and communities.

There is no doubt that Open Spaces play a critical role in our quality of life. Nature reserves, parks, sports fields, street trees, and even small spaces such as traffic circles define the areas in which we live. These resources, however, are not just “niceties” but play a central role in the health and economic viability of our community. Sufficient funding for park maintenance, effective zoning by-laws, and a commitment to the long-term protection of key properties are necessary investments if we are to develop and sustain a healthy community. Besides the multiple benefits of Open Spaces to human beings, the sustainable development and protection of Open Spaces is a legal requirement. There are various pieces of international, national and provincial commitments and legislation in this regard, as described in Annexure A. The CTMM has a significant responsibility to preserve the quality of life in Tshwane by protecting its environmental integrity, environmental goods and services, social and recreational opportunities and scenic qualities. It has a statutory duty to formulate and co-ordinate policies for managing land distribution and approving the consistent development of land.

3 GUIDING DOCUMENTATION

Although there is a wide array of documentation that guides Open Space planning and development, six sources of reference are of specific importance for the TOSF, viz: Legal Obligations The City Vision The City Development Strategy The Metropolitan Spatial Development Framework The vision of the Environmental Management Division tasked with the planning,

management, development and maintenance of public Open Space resources The Tshwane Integrated Environmental Policy.

3.1 LEGAL OBLIGATIONS

The vast array of legal obligations pertaining to environmental management and relevant to all spheres of government, is highlighted in Annexure A. In short however it is important to note that:

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The 7th United Nations Millennium Development Goal is to ‘ensure environmental sustainability’. This should be achieved by: integrating the principles of sustainable development into country-wide policies and

programmes; and reverse the loss of environmental resources; reducing by half the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water;

and

achieving significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers, by 2020.

Within South African legislation, the three main legislative directives and obligations that impact on the development of the Tshwane OSF relate to human rights contained within the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, (Act No. 200 of 1993), environmental rights contained within the Environment Conservation Act (Act No. 73 of 1989, ECA), and human use or interaction with the environment as contained within the National Environmental Management Act, (Act No. 107 of 1998, NEMA). Section 24 of the Bill of Rights in the Constitution states that, “Everyone has the right: to an environment that is not harmful to their health or well-being; and

to have the environment protected for the benefit of present and future generations,

through reasonable legislative and other measures that – (i) prevent pollution and ecological degradation; (ii) promote conservation; and (iii) secure ecologically sustainable development and use of natural resources while

promoting justifiable economic and social development.” The objectives of Section 21, 22 and 26 of the ECA include the following: to ensure that the environmental effects of activities are taken into consideration before

decisions in this regard are taken; and to promote sustainable development, thereby achieving and maintaining an environment

which is not harmful to people’s health or well-being. The NEMA sets out a clear set of principles in Chapter 1. Sustainability is stressed when the Act speaks of "... the integration of social, economic and environmental factors into planning, implementation and decision-making so as to ensure that development serves present and future generations". It is against this background, that environmental management “... must place people and their needs at the forefront of its concern, and serve their physical, psychological, developmental, cultural and social interests equitably (Section 2(2)), a central principle, determines that “development must be socially, environmentally and economically sustainable” (Section 2(3)).

The TOSF seeks to include all of the above directives and obligations into a local government decision support framework that facilitates the sustainable management and development of Open Space resources.

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3.2 CITY VISION

The City Vision for Tshwane is as follows: An internationally acclaimed African capital city that empowers the community to prosper in a

safe and healthy environment. This vision highlights the following aspects of importance for Open Spaces: It has to be of international standard and contribute to the competitivity of the city; It has to address the African context; It has to be suitable for a capital city and contribute to the image of the city; It has to contribute to the social and economic well-being of the residents; It has to create a safe environment; and It has to create a healthy environment.

3.3 CITY DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY

The City Development Strategy (CDS) focuses on two key questions: How best can the City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality approach creating a better life

for all? How should Tshwane establish itself as a successful urban economy that could improve

the quality of life and provide livelihoods and dignity for all?

It reflects the following significant policy shifts: Up to now the major emphasis has been placed on the provision of municipal services to

single residential units. The key shift reflected in this strategy is to direct discretionary municipal capital funds towards public places where community-based infrastructure is provided. Rather than accepting the current inefficient urban form, this approach seeks to encourage densification and create economic opportunities at important locations.

This strategy is based upon an incremental roll-out of basic municipal services, followed by

intermediary and finally full municipal service levels. Previously it was implicitly accepted that full municipal services would be provided in low-density semi-rural settlements. This strategy now suggests differentiated services levels and costs structures under different spatial circumstances.

An approach of focusing on nodal locations creates opportunities to introduce choice and

options to communities whereby more efficient service delivery arrangements can be achieved through higher density clustering of public facilities and housing options. Although there is an implicit acceptance of the de facto continuation of the current urban form, it is moderated through accepting the need to structure development initiatives better for local efficiency (MSDF).

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Figure 4: City Development Strategy Concept

Seven Critical Focus Areas are identified to guide and direct capital and operational resource focus and allocation. The implication of the CDS for the TOSF is: Using the Open Space network to celebrate the national capital: Throughout the city and

more specifically within the Capital core a greater emphasis on the quality of the public environment is needed. This includes the identification of sites for monuments and symbols as well as the construction of boulevards linking important places within a well conceived system. The provision of housing within the wider Capital Core area goes hand in hand with other facilities such as parks, schools, recreational and social amenities, to support viable residential areas (MSDF).

Using the Open Space network to integrate development in the north and to accommodate

communal facilities.

Using the Open Space to supplement and guide infill development in the existing urban areas and to strengthen economic clusters.

3.4 METROPOLITAN SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK

In terms of the Municipal Systems Act (Act 32 of 2000) all municipalities must prepare an Integrated Development Plan (IDP) as the primary management tool of the organisation. A Spatial Development Framework (SDF) has to be formulated as a core component of the IDP. This SDF must also comply with the requirements of the Local Government: Municipal Planning and Performance Management Regulations, 2001 and it must – Give effect to the Chapter 1 Principles of the Development Facilitation Act (Act 67 of

1995); Set out objectives that reflect the desired spatial form of the city;

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Contain strategies and policies regarding the manner in which the above objectives

(especially with regard to desirable land-use patterns, spatial reconstruction of the city and the location and nature of development within the municipality) will be achieved;

Set out basic guidelines for a land-use management system in the municipality;

Set out the Capital Investment Framework for the municipality’s development programs;

Contain a strategic assessment of the environmental impact of the SDF;

Identify programmes and projects for the development of land;

Provide visual representation of the desired spatial form of the city, indicating the following:

- where public and private development and infrastructure investment should take place, - desired or undesired utilisation of space in particular areas, - urban edge, - areas where strategic intervention is required, - areas where priority spending is required, and - be aligned with the spatial development framework of neighbouring municipalities.

The Spatial Development Concept of the MSDF is structured around five concepts which are interrelated; viz: Smart Growth Metropolitan Activity Areas Movement System Urban Lattice Environment Linkages

The proposed (re)development of the city is structured around an approach to direct growth to specific locations, to link these places of opportunities with each other with a metropolitan movement system and to other areas of opportunity within a wider geographical context through development corridors, to support denser areas with linkages to an Open Space network and to define a boundary for development as a management tool until urban infill has taken place. The Spatial Development Concept is illustrated in Figure 5:

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Figure 5: MSDF Spatial Development Concept

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3.5 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT DIVISION WITHIN THE CTMM

Within the CTMM, the following divisions are involved with the management of Open Spaces as highlighted within this document: Environmental Management Roads and Stormwater Sport and Recreation Electricity Water and Sanitation Streetscape Management City Planning

The Environmental Management Division is however regarded the primary agent in terms of integrated environmental management. It comprises the following sections:

Waste Management Nature Conservation and Resorts Cemetery Services Environmental Planning Parks and Horticultural Services Environmental Resource Management

The vision of the Division is:

To integrate social, economic and natural processes through appropriate planning and development programmes with the aim of creating a socially relevant and ecologically

sustainable environment; and to render effective, affordable and appropriate services and infrastructural programmes relating to Parks and Horticultural Services, Cemetery Services, Waste Management, Environmental Planning, Environmental Resource Management, and

Nature Resorts and Conservation.

3.6 TSHWANE INTEGRATED ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY (TIEP)

The TIEP describes the environmental vision of the CTMM as follows:

An internationally acclaimed African city of excellence caring for its environment, demonstrating commitment and responsibility through innovation and collaboration.

A summary of the TIEP’s principles is provided in Annexure A, but essentially the policy aims to make environmental issues and environmental sustainability an essential part of: all decision-making processes; the development of strategies and programmes for implementation in Tshwane;

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the development and planning of land use; and the management of resources and activities.

The TIEP aims to impact in a practical manner on various municipal operations and procedures. From the above, it is clear that the vision of the Environmental Management Division, supported by the Tshwane Integrated Environmental Policy (TIEP), adds an environmental concern to the City Vision and CDS.

4 OPEN SPACE ISSUES

Open Space issues are derived from and based on the components of the composite vision as discussed above, viz: Open Space in the city, focusing on the impact of urban growth on Open Space; The ecological role of Open Spaces; The role of Open Spaces in creating international competitiveness; Open Spaces in capital cities; Open Spaces and economics; and Open Spaces and health.

4.1 OPEN SPACE AND THE CITY

4.1.1 THE THREAT OF URBAN GROWTH TO OPEN SPACES IN THE CITY Urbanisation influences all cities and the problems of deteriorating environments have become a priority on the global planning agenda. Pollution of natural resources, global climate changes, species extinction, inappropriate development and community/ social degradation are just some of the challenges facing sustainable development.

In order to develop an understanding of the threats that Open Spaces are currently facing, the rapid urban growth of the last 50 years with the concomitant urban sprawl, densification and informal development has to be analysed.

4.1.1.1 Rapid urban growth

The growth of cities has accelerated dramatically since the 1950s. It is estimated that more people live in cities today than in rural areas, a shift that became more apparent more or less around the year 2000 and has led to concepts such as ‘an urbanising world’ and ‘cities as the engines of growth‘. There were 83 cities or city systems with populations of more than 1 million in 1950, 34 of them in developing countries. Today there are over 280 such cities and this number is expected to double by 2015. All the new millionaire cities and 12 of the world’s 15 largest cities are in developing countries. Tokyo, the largest, had 26.4 million inhabitants in 2000, but Bombay is expected to have a similar population by 2015.

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Figure 6: The 15 largest cities of the world, 2000-2015 (Source: UN, 2000)

Figure 7: Cities with more than a million inhabitants, 1950-2015 (Source: UN, 2000)

This dramatic urban growth places enormous pressure on the Open Space system. Urbanisation concentrates and thus compounds the environmental impact of human settlements. Increased water run-off leading to higher flood risks and pollution of groundwater, increased water consumption due to higher standards of services, increased concentrations of air and water pollutants, and the degradation or complete loss of arable land and biodiversity, are but a few of the environmental impacts of urbanisation. Urban growth is now on a collision course with natural resource systems, including wetlands systems, natural habitats and farmland.

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LOSS OF NATURAL/AGRICULTURAL LAND IN CANADA

Since European settlement, about 80% of Ontario's

wetlands have been lost to development. Between 1981 and 1986, prime agricultural land

accounted for 59% of all land in Canada converted to urban uses.

Approximately 4,700km2 of Canada's dependable agricultural land, or about 1km2 daily, was lost between 1981 and 1996. That rate increased to 1.3km2 a day in the five year period from 1991-96. (Statistics Canada, Human Activity and the Environment)

In many cities in North America more land has been urbanized in the past 30 years than in the

previous 300.

Tshwane is not excluded from the impacts of rapid urban growth. The population growth in Gauteng has been significant: 20% - 30% between October 1996 and October 2001 (based on the last two censuses). This growth is attributable mostly to net migration into the province, from rural areas, other cities and SADC countries. Predictions are that at current population growth trends, the Gauteng region will be the 12th largest mega city in the world by 2015, making it a "global mega-city" larger than Los Angeles. The growth of cities takes three forms: densification; urban sprawl, and development of informal settlements, which are henceforth discussed.

4.1.1.2 Densification

Densification involves the redevelopment or infill of existing urban areas at a higher density. As a city grows, certain areas become more intensely used through infill development and densification. This intensification often exceeds the initial design capacity of the area, leading amongst others to a need for the widening of roads and utilisation of Open Spaces for non-compatible urban landuses. Furthermore, because of their strategic location, certain land parcels increase in land value. The increase in land value, places additional pressure on the development of such Open Spaces. Paradoxically the pressure to use Open Space for non-compatible urban landuses coincides with the need for more Open Spaces to address the increased population and use in the area. The increased activity not only reduces the quality of the environment through increased congestion and pollution, but the reduction of Open Space also reduces the ability of the environment to respond to human needs.

4.1.1.3 Urban sprawl

Urban sprawl, the uncontrolled growth of the city through peripheral expansion, especially for low-density urban development beyond a city’s fringe, poses a serious threat to the natural environment and to human health and quality of life. Most new growth consists of low-density, "de-centred" development and leapfrogging on the edge of the city, which leaves large sections of undeveloped land. The peripheral growth of the city and expansive metropolitan areas lead to significant environmental impacts on surrounding areas, including the loss of productive farmland and ecological habitat, as well as increased air and water pollution.

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Most of these newly developed areas are accessible only by private car. Cars in turn release greenhouse gases and pollutants and require paving that contributes to air pollution, water pollution and the creation of heat islands. Continuation of these land consuming development trends threatens the survival of major natural resource systems and inevitably our livelihoods. It is not only population growth that leads to urban sprawl, however, but often lifestyle changes, where people demand large(r) erven in a natural setting. Many European cities are sprawling despite the fact that their population growth has declined. When developing in a conventional manner (suburban style) 1% population growth in a metropolitan area generally means at least 7% increase in land usage.

4.1.1.4 Informal settlements Rapid urbanisation places economic, social and environmental pressures on cities. These pressures are particularly felt in the under-developed countries of Latin America, Africa and Asia where poverty reduces the ability of city management to effectively deal with these problems. When there are more people demanding services than people paying for them, municipalities are unable to provide these services. Even where people can afford to pay for services and infrastructure such as housing, the growth in demand often exceeds the ability of local governments to respond to this demand timeously. Such situations force people to provide their own, often illegal solutions, often on sensitive areas such as riverbanks and steep hillsides, which in turn leads to various safety, social and ecological impacts. Illegal solutions are associated with inadequate or no service provisioning at all, further giving rise to health problems, caused by air pollution and inadequate access to sanitation and clean water, the spread of water-borne diseases and destruction of natural resources through the indiscriminate cutting down of trees for firewood. Densification, urban sprawl and informal settlements as elements of rapid urban growth, are not the only contributors to the unsustainability of urban areas, but consumerism also plays a major role.

4.1.1.5 Consumerism

It is often assumed that poverty is the cause of, or at least a major contributor to, environmental degradation. However, this is not generally the case, except in relation to the immediate living environments of the poor. On a city-wide scale, the environmental impact of the wealthy as a result of their consumption levels and patterns far exceeds that of the poor. Because of their low levels of resource consumption, and their tendency to re-use and recycle, poor communities also have a negligible environmental impact, compared to more affluent communities. As cities become more affluent, the environmental burdens tend to become more diffuse, delayed and indirect (climate change, ozone depletion, etc.) and the environmental footprint grows.

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4.1.1.6 Historical Planning Approach Sustainable development was only placed on the world agenda at the 1992 United Nation’s Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. In South Africa, prevailing planning practices and philosophies prior to the enactment of the Environmental Conservation Act, 1989(Act 73 of 1989) did not take into consideration and was not informed by environmental sensitivities or impact. Spurred on by developers’ ideological and short term financial concerns, large tracks of valuable Open Space have been lost, fragmented and sterilised. This is especially evident in inappropriate development interventions found within sensitive Open Spaces such as ridges and watercourses, the unresponsive nature of development towards such resources, the alienation of such resources to private parties, as well as the historical granting of inappropriate residential, commercial and industrial rights on such resources. Examples of this within Tshwane can be found on the La Montagne, Murruyfield, Silverton, Meintjieskop, Daspoort rand, ridges in Waterkloof Heights, to name but a few. Many of the rights granted within sensitive Open Space resource have to date not been exercised. In addition to this, the city is characterized by a vast number of recreational parks and Open Spaces, incorrectly zoned as “Residential”, “Industrial”, etc. and service infrastructure facilities located on zoned “Public Open Space”. The aforementioned historical events pose significant threats to all CTMM Open Space resources.

4.1.2 THE GROWTH PATTERNS OF THE CITY OF TSHWANE

4.1.2.1 Legacy of the past Since its establishment in 1855, until the discovery of gold on the Witwatersrand in the 1880s, Pretoria had a rural town character. It was laid out on a Voortrekker grid, with a central square (Church Square) and wide streets. Development was dictated by prominent natural features: the ridges and the rivers with large erven, ample Open Space and large tracts of farmland were included between residential developments. Until 1930 the majority of development took place within inner city areas, Pretoria West, Hatfield, Silverton and central parts of the Moot area, as well as Irene and Pretoria North. After 1930 the urban areas became more fragmented and ‘jumped’ over the ridges, with the development of new ‘white’ residential areas and the establishment of dormitory townships for black people. Black people living in areas earmarked for white people were resettled in townships such as Atteridgeville on the urban fringe. During the late 1940’s and in the 1950’s the dormitory townships of Saulsville, Mamelodi, Eersterust and Laudium were established on the urban fringe as non-white 'Group Areas'. These areas were provided with minimal Open Spaces, very few of which were ever developed.

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Figure 8: Growth of Pretoria 1900-1939

(Source: Schoonraad, 2004)

Figure 9: Growth of Pretoria 1900-1959 (Source: Schoonraad, 2004)

After 1960 urban growth accelerated, with large sprawling low-density residential areas for white people to the south-east of the city, and new urban growth centres in Centurion and Akasia. The grid pattern was rejected in favour of a curvilinear pattern, suitable for the use of private cars instead of pedestrians. Erven were generally smaller, but public parks and wide side-walks remained a feature of the city.

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Figure 10: Growth of Pretoria 1900-1979

(Source: Schoonraad, 2004)

The pattern of fragmented urbanisation and the placement of townships for black people on the urban fringe were reinforced during the late Apartheid era (1960 to 1990) with the development of Soshanguve and Mabopane in the north. These areas were characterised by small erven and underdeveloped Open Spaces. At the same time the growth of well-located townships were restricted which led to intense overcrowding, with up to 40 people recorded on one property of 350m2. The existing infrastructure could not cope with the increased demand, which created regular breakdowns in services.

Figure 11: Growth of Pretoria 1900-1999 (Source: Schoonraad, 2004)

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The most rapid urban growth took place after 1990, during which period the metropolitan population doubled from 890 000 to 1,76 million. Between 1991 and 1995 the metropolitan area's population grew at a staggering rate of 14,6% per annum. This high growth came in the wake of the abolition of apartheid legislation that previously restricted the migration of black people into the urban areas. Soshanguve in the north of the metropolitan area, grew from 200 000 people in 1991 to almost 490 000 in 1995, the majority of growth being attributed to people moving from the nearby homelands closer to their jobs in the urban areas. At the same time, rapid high and middle income suburban development took place, especially on the south-eastern periphery, disregarding the strong natural structure of the city by building on the ridges and canalising rivers and streams. These regions contained vast expanses of natural open grassland, which constitute significant portions of the Grassland Biome. The Grassland Biome is today widely regarded the most threatened Biome within Gauteng as well as within South Africa. The latter part of the 1990’s saw the inner city decay prompted by the flight of capital to new growth centres in the south-east. Large shopping malls and business centres developed further away from the inner city, giving the urban area a multi-nodal character.

New suburban development increasingly took the form of walled estates, privatising public space and streets. This phenomenon also took place in more centrally located areas, where residents, legally and illegally, erected booms to close off neighbourhood public roads, all in the name of growing crime. Increased ‘lifestyle’ development, such as golf estates, took root, cutting off public access to Open Space and creating fragmented, isolated ‘green pockets’. The increased development pressure in the south-east continued to impact on Open Spaces, regarded ‘inexpensive’ land for development. The early 2000s saw more people, moving into the inner city, occupying vacant office buildings and overcrowding existing apartment buildings. This phenomenon highlighted the lack of sufficient Open Spaces within the inner city.

Despite its apparent decline, the inner city is still of extreme importance to the city: it is visually prominent as the highest buildings and most intense developments are concentrated here, it contains the most important landmarks such as the Union Buildings, UNISA, Reserve Bank, Telkom Tower, Church Square, etc, and it houses most national governmental head quarters.

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Figure 12: Development of Tshwane in relation to the Inner City

(Source: MSDF, 2004)

4.1.2.2 Growth projections The Tshwane region will gain approximately 616 000 more people between 2000 and 2025, according to CTMM forecasts. The same forecasts indicate that the end of apartheid has led to "household decomposition", in other words, a splitting of households within the same city. About 8.9% of people surveyed in the 2001 census had been living elsewhere in the same city five years previously. Low-density development coupled with the urgent demand for low cost/institutional housing consumes large tracts of land. Should the current development densities persist, an additional 13 000ha of land will be needed to accommodate an additional 1 million people. Much productive agricultural land will be lost in this manner.

4.1.2.3 Sprawl

Most of the areas in Tshwane have a very low density as indicated in Figure 13, i.e. less than 20 persons per hectare (±4 dwelling units (du)/ha). The areas with highest density are found within the inner city areas of Sunnyside and Arcadia and on the outskirts of the city, in the Mamelodi, Atteridgeville and the Soshanguve area. In these areas most wards have a density of less than 55 persons per hectare (±11du/ha) and in the minority of cases

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the density increases to a maximum of 80 persons per hectare (±40du/ha). The highest density is recorded in informal areas to the east of Atteridgeville where the density increases to more than 160 persons per hectare (±55du/ha).

Figure 13: Population Density measured in persons per Hectare (Source: Schoonraad, 2004)

In Tshwane, there is no relation between density and distance from the inner city or access to public transport. There is furthermore no relation between urban form and density, as the inner city is characterised by high-rise buildings whereas the areas on the outskirts are dominated by single dwellings. The overall density in these areas is increased by the high rate of occupation density, i.e. persons per dwelling. In no instance does the density in Tshwane reach the recommended nodal density of 80-100 dwelling units per hectare and in most instances the density is lower than the recommended lowest density for suburban development. It is also low compared to other international cities for example Brazilia where the density is approximately 300p/ha and Curitiba where densities have been increased to 600p/ha in development corridors. This low density contributes to the unsustainability of the city as public transport is not viable except through high subsidies. It must be noted that there is a difference between net and gross densities. Net densities refer solely to the land used for residential purposes and gross densities to the total area including streets, schools etc. In Tshwane the problem does not necessarily lie with net

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density (erf size), but rather in gross density, because of the very generous engineering and space standards, typical of suburban development that is used, irrespective of the context. This creates a 40% difference between gross and net densities, under ‘normal’ conditions, i.e. where much residential land is not lost to natural Open Space such as rivers etc. or large non-residential developments. This means that for instance in an area with 250m2 erven the net density is around 40 dwelling units per hectare, whereas the gross density is normally lower at 24 dwelling units per hectare. It implies that the city will have to find ways to use space more efficiently and avoid historical wasteful spatial planning practices. Wasted or left over space resulting from such planning, lower the gross density but do not provide effective usage potential.

Figure 14: Increase in Population Density, 1996-2001 (Source: Schoonraad, 2004)

In terms of changes in density between 1996 and 2001 (see Figure 14), the following observations can be made: In most areas the population has increased. This has, however, not affected the

population density dramatically, corroborating the low existing density. The most dramatic increase in population has taken place within the periphery areas

designated for low income subsidised housing. Some of the centrally located areas have experienced population growth. In the inner

city area this is indicative of overcrowding and the fact that existing office buildings are being retrofitted into residential units, placing tremendous pressure on the Open Spaces available within these areas.

Population decrease has taken place in two localities: firstly with the overcrowded township areas, where people have moved from backyard shacks to new housing

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areas; and secondly, within the high-income areas that are well located with regards to private transport networks. The latter has happened due to the infiltration of non- residential uses in these areas, indicating the movement of business and offices out of the inner city.

4.1.2.4 Informal settlements

At present, the influx of people into the CTMM’s metropolitan area is faster than the rate at which land or housing can be made available. This problem causes the invasion of informal settlements into undeveloped areas, including sensitive Open Space resources. Current statistics indicate approximately 149 000 informal dwelling units in the CTMM. The average growth rate per annum, over the period 1999 – 2003 was 7,9% as highlighted in Tables 1 and 2.

Area 1999 2000 2001 2003

Increment 2001 to 2003

Soshanguve 12 411 14 478 13 097 16 255 3 158 Mamelodi 13 279 15 020 16 449 17 608 1 159 Atteridgeville 11 716 13 865 16 928 20 181 3 253 Olievenhoutbosch 3 284 4 910 5 464 8 708 3 244 Temba 25 215 27 884 2 669 Eersterus 17 128 21 593 4 465 Winterveld 24 964 26 159 1 195 Mabopane 6 389 7 090 701 Garankuwa 2 389 3 063 674 Total 128 023 148 541 20 518

Table 1: Informal Dwelling Counts, 1999-2003 (Source: Housing Division, CTMM)

The counts detailed in Table 2 clearly highlight the on-going problem with influx and land invasion into the CTMM and it is anticipated that illegal land invasions will continue to present a strain to the limited capacity of local authorities.

Area Informal Dwelling Units Count 2003

Annual Increase % Informal Dwelling Units Estimate 2004

Atteridgeville 20 181 9 186 22 035 Mamelodi 17 608 12 652 19 836 Olievenhoutbosch 8 708 26 242 10 993 Soshanguve 16 255 11 406 18 109 Garankuwa 3 063 13 231 3 468 Mabopane 7 090 5 343 7 469 Winterveld 26 159 2 365 26 778 Temba 27 884 5 159 29 323 Eersterus 21 593 12 280 24 245 Total 148 541 92 331 162 256

Table 2: Existing vs estimated dwelling unit counts (Source: Housing Division, CTMM)

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The CTMM’s State of the Environment Report (SoER) for 2003 identifies the growth rate of informal settlements and the continued development pressure on vacant land, Open Spaces, and particularly water sources, as an important issue to be addressed. Figure 15 highlight the extent of valuable Open Space that has, over the growth span of the city of Tshwane, been lost to development. The left hand plan highlights in grey and black ecologically sensitive areas which ideally should have been protected. However, the right hand plan highlights in white, how development, especially in the south-eastern area, has impacted on the sensitive areas.

Figure 15: Loss of valuable Open Space to urban development

(Source: SEFGIS)

4.1.2.5 Fragmentation and inequality The historic pattern of urban growth has created a highly fragmented metropolitan area, with peripheral areas separated from major urban centers by large tracts of land. This fragmentation, together with low-density residential sprawl and zoning practices that separated residential, shopping and work areas, has created an inefficient urban structure with long commuting distances and inefficient infrastructure provisioning. In addition to city’s physical fragmented structure, it is also characterised by tangible dualism in environmental quality. There is a marked difference in the environmental quality of the city’s diverse townships and neighbourhoods. Previously disadvantaged townships and neighbourhoods are characterised by overcrowding, substandard service infrastructure, a lack of community amenities and undeveloped land, with especially informal settlements bearing the brunt of environmental degradation. Incidences of water-borne diseases and chronic respiratory diseases on account of pollution, occur mostly in poor peripheral neighbourhoods, although the level of services is above that of the country as a whole. The dualism is especially visible in the large discrepancy between the quantity and quality of Open Spaces accessible and available within the different areas as highlighted in section 4.3.

Ideal Reality

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4.2 OPEN SPACE AND ECOLOGICAL FUNCTION

The primary function of Open Spaces is ecological, as this cannot be provided by any other element within the built-up area. In this section the ecological functioning of Open Space and how it is represented within Tshwane, are discussed, whereafter the focus shifts to the socio-economic and place-making functioning of Open Space. It needs to be noted that all Open Space resources, whether soft or hard, effectively fulfil an ecological function. Open Space is by default multi-functional and can collectively fulfil ecological, socio-economic and place-making functions. The constant and “guaranteed” however being that of ecological functioning, the effectiveness and efficiency of which, variable in relation to the character and transformation state of the Open Space resource.

4.2.1 THE ECOLOGICAL BENEFITS OF OPEN SPACE

Open Spaces with a primary ecological function are represented by functioning ecosystems such as ridges, rivers, wetlands, conservation areas, and vacant land. The environmental services and goods rendered by Open Space resources are numerous. With regard to the ecological benefits of such services and goods, ecological systems within Open Space provide for biodiversity conservation, for food, fuel, fibre and genetic resources and regulate processes such as climate, disease, flood control and detoxification. These ecological benefits can be grouped twofold: firstly Open Space, especially natural Open Space (ridges, rivers, conservation areas, wetlands and grasslands), increases the potential for biodiversity; and secondly Open Space ameliorates the impacts of development.

With regards to the first ecological benefit - the maintenance of biodiversity: The United Nation’s Earth Summit in 1992 concluded that at least 10% of each vegetation type must be conserved. In addition thereto, the resulting United Nation’s Convention on Biological Diversity provides a framework for the conservation of the biological diversity of the planet and the sustainable use of biological resources. It lists three objectives: the conservation of biodiversity; the sustainable use of biological resources; and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources.

South Africa is a signatory to both of these agreements, and is therefore committed to ensuring that these objectives are met. It has in this regard drafted its own White Paper on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of South Africa’s Biological Diversity (DEAT, 1991). This policy commits South Africa to conserving “the diversity of landscape, ecosystems, habitats, communities, populations, species and genes in South Africa”. The successful conservation of biodiversity requires the identification of species and habitat rich areas where development and habitat transformation and fragmentation need to be discouraged and conservation efforts focussed. Such species and habitat rich areas

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are typically found within pristine or natural Open Spaces where development intervention has been limited, ensuring that the “health” of all the species have been proportionally maintained. A variety of habitats such as ridges, wetlands and grasslands provides food, shelter, and space for many species to thrive. Of specific note are grasslands and ridges that support high percentages of rare species, especially plants, whilst water courses and wetlands support a variety of fish, water birds, and mammals. Due to their high spatial heterogeneity ridges provide vital habitat for many threatened species. Seventy four (74%) percent of the twenty-two (22) globally threatened plant species occur on the ridges and hills of Gauteng, while at least three (3) threatened mammal species, several bird species of conservation concern, three (3) rare reptile species and a Red Data Butterfly inhabit ridges. The survival and behaviour of invertebrates, many of which are important pollinators, are often dependent on the ridge environment. Ridges are particularly suitable as future refuges for biodiversity in an urbanized landscape as they function as islands even within a natural landscape. They also form natural wildlife corridors, which promote ecological processes and benefit regional and local biodiversity (Gauteng, SoE, 2004). Even subtle changes in these habitats (like a relatively small reduction in size) can cause a ripple effect through the food chain or in adjacent habitats, and can starkly illustrate the benefits of Open Space after it is gone. For example, a mere 12% loss of forest cover in a watershed will begin to show an impact on the invertebrate life of a stream, while a 33% loss of cover will exhibit major impacts.

With regards to the second ecological benefit - ameliorating the impact of development: Wetlands play a specifically important role. They occur where the water table is at or near the surface of the land, or where the land is covered by shallow water and perform the following functions: Specific plants and animals habitats maintenance; Water storage; Storm protection and flood mitigation; Shoreline stabilization and erosion control; Groundwater recharge (the movement of water from the wetland down into the

underground aquifer); Groundwater discharge (the movement of water upward to become surface water in a

wetland); Water purification through retention of nutrients, sediments, and pollutants; and Stabilization of local climate conditions, particularly rainfall and temperature.

Wetlands provide tremendous economic benefits as they: Supply water (quantity and quality); Maintain fisheries (over two thirds of the world’s fish harvest is linked to the health of

coastal and inland wetland areas); Support agriculture through floodplain water table maintenance and nutrient retention; Support timber production; Provide energy resources, such as peat and plant matter; Maintain wildlife resources;

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Enable transport; and Facilitate recreation and tourism opportunities.

Recent studies in the United States of America have indicated that ecosystems provide at least US$ 33 trillion worth of services annually, of which US$ 4.9 trillion are attributed to wetlands. In addition, wetlands have special attributes as part of the cultural heritage of humanity: they are related to religious and cosmological beliefs, constitute a source of aesthetic inspiration, provide wildlife sanctuaries, and form the basis of important local traditions.

These functions, values and attributes can only be maintained if the ecological processes of wetlands are allowed to continue functioning. Unfortunately, and in spite of important progress made in recent decades, wetlands continue to be among the world’s most threatened ecosystems, owing mainly to ongoing drainage, conversion, pollution, and over-exploitation of their resources.

Trees and other plants also play a critical role in improving air quality and ameliorating the increased heat created by urban development. They not only absorb ozone, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and other noxious air pollutants, but remove dust and particles from the air and release oxygen. The transpiration of water by plants helps control and regulate humidity and temperature. A single tree can remove as much heat from the air as five average-sized air conditioners. Trees and vegetation also break the wind, moderating temperature in winter. The result is a decrease in energy consumption, along with its costs and associated pollution.

Parks in stream valleys or urban wetlands absorb storm water much more cheaply than in artificial systems. Large Open Spaces allow rainwater to be absorbed slowly and to percolate into underground aquifers – reducing the danger of flash flooding or erosion due to rapid runoff. Ecological benefits of Open Space are inseparable from social and economic benefits. Healthy aquatic food chains are indispensable for economies such as the recreation, fishing and tourist industries. The ecological benefits of Open Space also are directly related to human health. It is estimated that 70% of South Africans regularly use traditional medicines derived from plant material indigenous to the country. About 25% of the compounds used in the pharmaceutical industry are found in nature. That number will rise as more research is done on the complex properties of plants and animals. At this point in human history, only 5% of known plants have been scientifically screened for medicinal value. Open Space is the repository of all these ecological benefits and environmental services as summarised in Figure 16, courtesy of the Durban Metropolitan Open Space System (DMOSS).

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GAS

REG

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C ULT UR A

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WA ST

ET RE

A TME

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NUTR IENTCYLING

SOIL FORMATION

EROSION C ONTROL

WATER SUPPLY

WATER REGULATIONDISTU

RBANCE

REG ULATIO

N

CLIM

ATIC

REG

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RECREATIONGENETIC RESOURCES

RAW MATE RIALS

FOOD PRODUCTION

REFUGIA

BIOL

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ENVIRONMENTALSERVICES

Control ofchemical

composition ofatmosphere e.g.

carbon questration,oxygen and ozone

production

Providingopportunities for

aesthetic, educational,spiritual and scientificuse e.g. scenic views

enviro - education,research & sense of

place

Providingopportunit ies for

recreat ion activitiese.g. eco tourism, sport

fishing and otheroutdoor recreational

activities

Control oftemperatures

e.g. urban heatamelioration, windreduction, noise

abatement Control oflarge environmental

fluctuations e.g. floodcontrol, drought

recovery, refuges fromsevere environmental

events

Control ofwater flow e.g.

capture and gradualrelease of water byvegetat ion for urban

use

Storage ofwater e.g. supply

and storage by rivers,watersheds andreservoirs for

agricultural, industrial& household

use

Storage ofsoil within an

ecosystem e.g.prevension of soil lossby vegetation coverand by capturing soil

in wetlands

Formation of soile.g. weathering of rockby water, accumulationof organic material in

woodlandsandwetlands

Capture, storageand processing of

nutrients e.g. nitrogenfixation, nitrogen

cycling through foodchains

Removal andbreakdown of excessnutrients e.g. breaking

down waste in wetlandsand detoxifying of air

pollution byvegetation

Movement of pollenbetween plantse.g.

pollination of flowers bybees to enable plant

reproduction

Control of animaland plant populationse.g. predatorycontrol

of prey species -rodents, insects,

etc.

Habitat for residentand migratory

populat ions e.g.nurseries for fish andhabitat for migratory

birds

Primary productionof food e.g. fish,

crops, fruit, etc. bynon commercial

farming

Production of rawmaterialse.g.

production of fuel,craftwork materials,

construction materials,sand, etc.

Unique biologicalmaterials and products

e.g. genes forresistance to plant

diseases, ornamentalspecies, plant

medicines

Figure 16: Environmental services provided by Open Space resources

(Adapted from Source: DMOSS)

4.2.2 ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS IN THE CTMM

The CTMM contains exceptional natural features within its boundaries, including ridges, wetlands and watercourse systems, a meteoritic crater and ecological areas. Only 27% of the municipal area is built-up, leaving 73% as some form of Open Space.

4.2.2.1 Biomes and Vegetation Types

The CTMM boasts two of the seven biomes found in South Africa, the Grassland and Savanna. These biomes are created on account of the differing climate regimes within the metropolitan region. The areas to the north of the Magaliesberg are warmer, both in winter and summer, and also drier, with an annual average rainfall between 549 mm and 663 mm. The northern region is therefore ideal for savanna bushveld vegetation. To the south

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of the Magaliesberg range temperatures are relatively lower than the north and summers are wetter. The annual average rainfall within this region is between 663 mm and 709 mm. Due to the lower temperatures within the winter months, tree species are restricted to kloofs and rocky areas, which are sheltered from the frost. These areas are therefore dominated by herbaceous species and grassland vegetation as the most important ecological drivers within both these biomes are fire, frost and grazing

Figure 17: Example of Savanna Biome

Figure 18: Example of Grassland Biome

Within the four northern provinces of South Africa, only three of the seven biomes are found. Two of these biomes are located within Gauteng and are represented in three municipalities: Tshwane, Mogale City and Nokeng tsa Taemane. However, Tshwane is the only municipality in Gauteng that adequately represents both biomes, as is illustrated in Figure 19.

Figure 19: Biomes in Tshwane (Source:SEFGIS)

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According to the Gauteng State of Environment Report, 2004, the Savanna biome supports more than 5 700 plant species, exceeded only by the Fynbos biome. With regard to animal biodiversity, the Savanna biome is richer than any other biome and is said to be the core of wildlife, eco-tourism and meat-production industries. The Grassland biome is one of the most threatened in South Africa, as a large percentage is irreversibly transformed with only 25% formally conserved (Less than 3% in Gauteng). Vegetation types within each biome have been identified by Low & Rebelo, 1996 and Acocks, 1988:

Figure 20: Acocks vegetation types (Source: Acocks, 1988)

Figure 21: Low & Rebelo vegetation types

(Source: Low & Rebelo, 1996)

The Acocks vegetation types is based on the agricultural potential of vegetation types, whilst the Low & Robelo vegetation types reflect updated information taking the conservation status and potential of the vegetation types, into consideration. For purposes of the Tshwane OSF, the Low and Robelo vegetation types present in Tshwane, can be summarised as follow:

Mixed Bushveld

This vegetation varies from a short dense bushveld to an open tree savanna. The structure of this vegetation type is primarily determined by fire and grazing. It is represented in a number of smaller provincial nature reserves some private game farms and conservation areas.

Clay Thorn Bushveld

This vegetation is dominated by various Acacia species (thorn trees) and includes dense swards of a variety of grass species. The distribution is determined by extremely clayey soils. This vegetation type is poorly conserved.

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Rocky Highveld Grassland The habitat of this vegetation is rocky mountains, hills and ridges especially along the crests of hills and ridges. This vegetation type is characterised by a large diversity of grass and forb species many of which also occur in the Drakensberg. Frost plays an important role in the distribution of woody vegetation, trees and shrubs. This vegetation type is highly threatened within Gauteng due to pressure of urban development, mining, industrialisation and to some degree agriculture. This vegetation type is poorly conserved in various nature reserves throughout the province and within smaller reserves managed by local authorities.

Moist Cool Highveld Grassveld This grassland is widespread and covers the central-eastern part of the highveld in the Free State. Only a small portion of this vegetation type occurs within the City of Tshwane on the southeastern boundary. In its pristine condition the red grass Themeda triandra dominates. Overgrazing converts this to Karoo type grassland. This vegetation type is poorly conserved and is greatly converted through cultivation with the remnant areas being intensively grazed.

4.2.2.2 Red Data Species

Tshwane is one of the few cities in the world where ample wildlife can still be found within the city limits. Within the CTMM’s nature conservation areas, a total of 23 of the larger mammal species are found. These include the white rhino, hippo, buffalo, giraffe and cheetah to name but a few. About 470 bird species can be found, including some of the rarer species such as the Crowned Crane (Mahem), the Blue Crane, the Fish Eagle and the Black Eagle. A crucial tool for the prioritisation of conservation efforts and for assessing the significance of environmental impacts in South Africa is the Red Data categorisation of species. Red Data lists give an indication of the conservation status of species and are used directly in conservation planning and implementation. These lists are usually categorised with taxa or groups, i.e. birds, reptiles and plants, within Red Data Books. Red Data species and areas of ecological importance have been captured within the Gauteng Open Space Plan, 2003, and more specifically within a component known as the “Conservation Plan” or C-Plan. C-Plan differentiates between: Protected Areas, Irreplaceable Sites and Important Sites. An Irreplaceable Site is essential in meeting targets set for the conservation of biodiversity in Gauteng, whilst an Important Site is designated as important for the conservation of biodiversity in Gauteng, its significance however being subject to ground truthing. Figure 22 highlights such Sites within Tshwane, whilst Annexure B highlights the Red Data species of importance to the province (attached as Annexure B). The Gauteng State of the Environment Report, 2004, notes that 7.8% of Tshwane is considered irreplaceable and 15% is considered important for conservation purposes.

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Within the CTMM, a number of Red Data Fauna and Flora are known to occur and thus require formalised protection measures. The dominant Red Data species in the CTMM region are predominantly associated with Ridges, Grasslands and Wetlands. The Juliana’s Golden Mole is one of the most important Red Data mammals within the CTMM and occur primarily around the Bronberg ridge in Faerie Glen and The Willows. This specie of golden mole is also found in the most eastern extent of the Bronberg within the Kungwini Municipality, the Nylsvley Nature Reserve and until recently was believed to occur in the Kruger National Park. However recent studies of the population in the Kruger Park suggest that the golden mole that occurs there is not the Juliana’s specie, highlighting the potential national significance of the specie’s rare presence within Tshwane. The Juliana’s Golden Mole rates amongst the 10 most critically endangered mammals in South Africa, with the highest risk of extinction. Significant recorded Red Data species within Tshwane include the: Specie Status Aloe peglerae Endangered Ceropegia deciduas subsp. pretoriensis Critically endangered Tyto capensis (Grass owl) Vulnerable Mirafra cheniana (Melodius Lark) Near threatened Anthropoides paradiseus (Blue Crane) Vulnerable Saggitarius serpentarius (Secretarybird) Near threatened Atlerix frontalis (South African Hedgehog) Near threatened Pyxicephalus adspersus (Giant Bullfrog) Near threatened Hadogenes sp. (Rock Scorpions) Threatened Neamlysomus julianae (Juliana’s Golden Mole) Critically endangered

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Figure 22: Gauteng Conservation Plan for Tshwane

(Source: GDACE, 2003)

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4.2.2.3 Ridge Systems The CTMM contains a number of mountain ranges and ridges generally positioned in an east-west direction, which have a profound impact on the city’s ecological functioning, its image and on urban development. The CTMM is linked to its neighbours through its unique natural elements, with the Magaliesberg and Witwatersberg/ Daspoort ranges stretching across the borders of not only the CTMM but also Gauteng, into the adjacent North West and Mpumalanga provinces. The Bronberg range stretches into the adjacent Kungwini Municipality.

The ridge systems in Tshwane include: Pyramid Koppies; Magaliesberg mountain range; Witwatersberg mountain range/Daspoort ridge/Meintjieskop ridge; Schurweberg mountain range/Kwaggasrant ridge/ Langeberg ridge; Bronberg ridge; Soshanguve Ridges; and Ga-Rankuwa Ridges

Of special note is the fact that at least 40% of Gauteng’s threatened plant species are confined solely to the Bronberg ridge and Magaliesberg mountain range. The GDACE Departmental Ridges Policy, 2004 have grouped ridges into different classes based on the degree to which they have been transformed. Class 1 ridges are the least transformed and Class 4 the most transformed. Tshwane is characterised by 91% Class 1 and 2 ridges, with Class 2 ridges the most prominent as indicated in Figure 23.

Figure 23: Ratio of Class 1, 2, 3 and 4 Ridges

Class 1 ridge systems within Tshwane are protected within the: Kareebosrand Conservancy; Onderstepoort Nature Reserve; Rhens Nature Reserve; Rietvlei Dam Municipal Nature Reserve; Tswaing Nature Reserve; and Wallmansthal SANDF Property.

Ratio of Class 1, 2, 3 and 4 Ridges

class 113%

class 278%

class 37%

class 42%

class 1class 2class 3class 4

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Class 2 ridge systems within Tshwane are protected within the: Bronberg Conservation Area; Cheetah Park Conservancy; Magaliesberg Protected Natural Environment; Rhens Nature Reserve; Rietvlei Dam Municipal Nature Reserve; Zwartkop Nature Reserve; Moreleta Kloof Municipal Nature Reserve; Voortrekker Monument Private Nature Reserve; Groenkloof Municipal Nature Reserve; and South African National Parks Board Nature Reserve.

Slightly less than 5 000 hectares of Class 2 ridges fall within protected areas. A significant amount of dispersed hills occur in Ga-Rankuwa, Soshanguve, Mabopane and Stinkwater which have not been included in the GDACE Departmental Ridges Policy, 2004, as they occur within the North-West province.

RIDGE/RANGE CLASS

MANAGEMENT AREA Ha PROTECTED - CTMM

Pyramid Koppies 1 Onderstepoort Nature Reserve 136,96 Not named (GDACE) 1 Onderstepoort Nature Reserve 231,48 Not named (GDACE) 1 Kareebosrand Conservancy 775,51 Not named (GDACE) 1 Rhens Nature Reserve 1 113,23 Not named (GDACE) 1 Rietvlei Dam Municipal Nature Reserve 50,22 (Crater) 1 Tswaing Nature Reserve 125,41 Not named (GDACE) 1 Wallmansthal SANDF property 33,56 SUB-TOTAL Ha 2 466,36 Bronberg 2 Bronberg Conservation Area 302,32 Kwaggasrant 2 Cheetah Park Conservancy 760,82 Kwaggasrant 2 Groenkloof Municipal Nature Reserve 405,44 Kwaggasrant 2 South African National Parks Nature Reserve 6,03 Kwaggasrant 2 Moreleta Kloof Municipal Nature Reserve 68,53 Kwaggasrant 2 Rhens Nature Reserve 0,01 Kwaggasrant 2 Voortrekker Monument Private Nature Reserve 270,69 Magaliesberg Range 2 Magaliesberg Protected Natural Environment 2 346,45 Magaliesberg Range 2 Wonderboom Nature Reserve 119,57 Not named (GDACE) 2 Rhens Nature Reserve 201,84 Not named (GDACE) 2 Rietvlei Dam Municipal Nature Reserve 185,82 Not named (GDACE) 2 Zwartkop Nature Reserve 227,09 SUB-TOTAL Ha 4 894,60 Daspoortrant 3 Colbyn Valley Wetland Nature Reserve 5,91 Daspoortrant 3 Meyerspark Bird Sanctuary 2,83 Daspoortrant 3 National Botanical Garden 35,74 Daspoortrant 3 Presidency Indigenous Garden 83,83 Not named (GDACE) 3 Rietvlei Dam Municipal Nature Reserve 117,82 SUB-TOTAL Ha 246,14 TOTAL Ha 7 607,10

Table 3: Ridge classes, extent protected within the CTMM (Source: GDACE, 2003)

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Figure 24: Ridges within Tshwane

(Source: GDACE, 2003)

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Tshwane has many valuable representative ridges. Development pressure is however increasing on ridges because of private ownership, densification and insufficient development guidance. The Tshwane OSF intends to provide the guidance in this regard.

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4.2.2.4 Watercourses (Riverine, Riparian and Wetland Systems) It has been estimated that the demand for water in South Africa is likely to meet the economically exploitable supply for the country as a whole by the year 2030. Our daily livelihoods and that of the mining, agricultural and tourism industries are dependent on the continual supply of water of sufficient quality and quantity. The CTMM falls into one of the largest catchments within South Africa, namely the Limpopo River Catchment, and shares 12 quaternary catchments with surrounding municipalities. The municipality is linked to its neighbours through its watercourse systems, with the Hennops River flowing westwards into the Crocodile River, linking up to Hartbeespoort Dam and the Moreleta Spruit discharging into the Pienaars River, which supplies drinking water to the Roodeplaat Dam in Nokeng tsa Taemane. Watercourse systems such as the Rietspruit and Sesmylspruit enter the CTMM in the south and join the Hennops River, which exits the CTMM in the west. The source of the Apies River lies in the centre of the CTMM eventually exiting the municipality in the north. The National Water Act, 1998 (Act 36 of 1998) defines: a watercourse as: “a river or spring; a natural channel in which water flows regularly or intermittently; a wetland, lake or dam into which, or from which, water flows; and any collection of water which the Minister may, by notice in the Gazette, declare to be a watercourse, and a reference to a watercourse included where relevant, its bed and banks.”

a wetland as: “Land which is transitional between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems where the water table is usually at or near the surface, or the land is periodically covered by shallow water, that naturally supports vegetation typically adapted to life in saturated soil.”

a riparian zone as: “a transition zone between the aquatic and terrestrial environments’.

Watercourse ecosystems all share a common primary driving force: water. Collectively they function to process water and regulate runoff with the aim of protecting and regulating the water resource. Wetlands within the systems act as giant sponges, to hold back water during floods and release it during dry periods. Wetlands furthermore regulate water flows during floods, reduce flood damage and help prevent soil erosion. Wetlands recharge ground water sources, and also remove pollutants from the water. Being natural filters, they help to purify water by trapping many pollutants, including sediment, heavy metals and disease causing organisms.

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Besides performing these vital functions at very little financial cost, watercourse ecosystems, in association with appropriate buffer strips, are also natural storehouses of biological diversity, providing life support for a wide variety of species, some of which are totally reliant on wetlands for their survival. Many of these species are used for food, craft manufacture, medicines, building material and fuel, both for subsistence and commercially.

Within watercourses, a river or stream typology consists of several distinct zones. These zones, Riverine, Riperian and Terrestrial, have specific individual characteristics and functions, but collectively function as an integrated system, where the slightest change in the environment, will fundamentally impact on the watercourse’s ability to perform its environmental goods and services. The appropriate management and conservation of these zones are therefore important.

Figure 25: Typical River Bank Typology (Source: DWAF, 2005)

According to the latest DWAF information, Tshwane is characterised by 1 487 kilometres of watercourses, that can be further distilled into:

INTERIOR WETLANDS Riverine Perennial 15 rivers and streams including waterfalls

Seasonal 17 seasonal rivers and streams 18 riverine floodplains

Palustrine Emergent 23 permanent freshwater marshes and swamps 24 permanent peat-forming freshwater swamps 25 seasonal fresh water marshes 26 peatlands and fens 28 springs and seeps

MAN-MADE WETLANDS Water storage

areas 39 reservoirs, dams and lakes

Table 4: Watercourse ecosystems pertinent to Tshwane (Source: Cowan and Van Riet (1998))

Terrestrial Riverine Riparian

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Together with the ridge ecosystems, the watercourse ecosystems in Tshwane are the two most important structural elements within the city. The watercourse systems, stretching over hundreds of kilometres, form important ecological linkages throughout the city. Most rivers flow in a south to north direction, forming a ‘green’ grid with the ridges which are orientated in an east-west direction. The Hennops River, the Swartspruit, Skinnerspruit and Modderspruit are exceptions as these rivers flow in an east to west or west to east direction. The main perennial rivers in Tshwane are the: Apies River (65km). Moreletaspruit (21km). Pienaars River (11km). Hartebeesspruit (9.2km). Soutpanspruit (20km). Sand River (13.5km). Rietspruit (13.6km). Swartspruit (6.3km). Sesmylspruit or Hennops River (23km). Skinnerspruit. Modderspruit.

Associated with these rivers are as yet an undetermined number of peat lands, twenty one(21) wetlands, nine (9) non-perennial pans, nine (9) perennial pans and 362 dams, with the largest being Roodeplaat, Rietvlei and Bon-Accord Dams. Significant peatlands and wetlands occur at the Rietvlei Dam Municipal Nature Reserve, Colbyn Valley Wetland Municipal Nature Reserve and north of the Tswaing Nature Reserve. Not all of these watercourse systems are pristine in terms of their vegetation and physical form. However, they still perform vital environmental goods and services in providing habitats, acting as filtering systems and improving water quality. Increased development pressure, especially on the terrestrial and riparian zones of rivers and streams, engineering focussed stormwater management, poor sewer management, and a general disregard for the ecological functioning of watercourses, have all led to the degradation of a significant amount of watercourse systems and their ability to perform ecological functions.

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Figure 26: Watercourse Systems within Tshwane

(Source: SEFGIS, 2004)

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4.2.2.5 Protected Areas, Conservancies and Nature Conservation Areas The National Environmental Management Protected Areas Act, 2003 (Act 57 of 2003) provides for the declaration of protected areas for the purposes of: protecting ecologically viable areas representative of South Africa’s biological diversity

and its natural landscape and seascapes in a system of protected areas; preserving the ecological integrity of those areas; conserving biodiversity in those areas; protecting areas representative of all ecosystems, habitats and species naturally

occurring in South Africa; protecting South Africa’s threatened or rare species; protecting an area which is vulnerable or ecologically sensitive; assisting in ensuring the sustained supply of environmental goods and services; providing for the sustainable use of natural and biological resources; creating or augmenting destinations for nature-based tourism; managing the interrelationship between natural environmental biodiversity, human

settlement and economic development. The Act in this regard provide for four (4) different types of Protected Areas: Special Nature Reserves, Nature Reserves (including wilderness areas) and Protected

Environments; World Heritage Sites; Specially Protected Forest Areas, Forest Nature Reserves and Forest Wilderness Areas; Mountain Catchment Areas.

The CTMM is fortunate to have a wide variety of formalised Nature Reserves (Municipal, Private), a Protected Environment and even a World Heritage Site (The Cradle of Humankind) within its boundaries. In addition to this, it boasts several Conservancies. A Nature Reserve is declared by the Minister or the MEC to protect an area if it has significant natural features or biodiversity; is of scientific, cultural, historical or archaeological inters; or is in need of long-term protection for the maintenance of its biodiversity of for the provision of environmental goods or services. Furthermore such declaration must be issued to provide for a sustainable flow of natural products and services to meet the needs of a local community; must enable the continuation of such traditional consumptive uses as are sustainable and to provide for nature-based recreation and tourism opportunities in South Africa. A Protected Environment is declared by the Minister or the MEC to regulate the area as a buffer zone for the protection of a special nature reserve, world heritage site or nature reserve; to enable owners of land to take collective action to conserve biodiversity on their land and to seek legal recognition therefore; to protect the area if the areas is sensitive to development due to its biological diversity, natural characteristics, scientific, cultural, historical, archaeological or geological value, scenic and landscape value or provisioning of environmental goods and services; to protect a specific ecosystem outside of a special nature reserve, world heritage site or nature reserve; to ensure that the use of a natural resources in the area is sustainable; or to control change in land use in the area if the area is earmarked for declaration as, or inclusion in, a nature reserve.

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The Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Environment (GDACE) recognises nineteen Protected Areas within the CTMM:

PROTECTED AREAS WITHIN CTMM NAME TYPE HECTARES Colbyn Valley Wetland Municipal Nature Reserve (CTMM) 54,929 Diepsloot Municipal Nature Reserve 2,810 Faerie Glen Municipal Nature Reserve (CTMM) 128,410 Groenkloof Municipal Nature Reserve (CTMM) 565,286 Moreleta Kloof Municipal Nature Reserve (CTMM) 94,343 Rietvlei Dam Municipal Nature Reserve (CTMM) 3 819,264 Wonderboom Municipal Nature Reserve (CTMM) 120,154 De Onderstepoort Private Nature Reserve 3 000,222 Voortrekker Monument Private Nature Reserve 273,230 Groenkloof Parks Board Private Nature Reserve 6,028 Tswaing Department of Works Property 1 984,609 Zwartkop SANDF/SANAF Property 690,531 Wallmansthal SANDF/SANAF Property 568,142 Austin Roberts Bird Sanctuary (CTMM) 12,187 Chamberlain Bird Sanctuary (CTMM) 2,150 Meyerspark Bird Sanctuary (CTMM) 8,091 Struben Dam Bird Sanctuary (CTMM) 1,390 Magaliesberg Protected Natural Environment (GDACE) 3 577,193 Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site 239,635

Total 15 148,604 Table 5: GDACE recognised Protected Areas within CTMM

A Conservancy or Bavaria is a group of properties in which neighbours have pooled their resources for the purpose of conserving fauna and flora, as well as the adoption of friendly land use practices and of conserving wildlife on their combined properties. A conservancy should be registered as such with the Provincial Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Environment. GDACE recognises five Conservancies within the CTMM:

CONSERVANCIES WITHIN CTMM NAME TYPE HECTARES Hennopsvallei Conservancy 10 687, 598 Rhenosterspruit Conservancy (Including Cheetah Park 9 397,867 Cullinan Conservancy 1 362,151 Buffelsdrift Conservancy 135,100 Smuts Farm Proposed Conservancy 108,494

Total 21691.210 Table 6: GDACE recognised Conservancies within CTMM

The CTMM’s Environmental Management Division: Nature Conservation and Resorts Section has historically managed areas deemed conservation worthy on local government level. The Section, due to its limited capacity, focuses on the maintenance of three types of nature conservation areas:

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1. Nature Reserves 2. Nature Areas 3. Open Space Areas/Possible Conservation Areas According to the Sections’ records, proclaimed Municipal owned Nature Reserves include: Groenkloof Nature Reserve (1 February 1895) Wonderboom Nature reserve (8 September 1959) Austin Roberts Nature Reserve (26 February 1958) Frank Struben Nature Reserve (11 February 1959) Rietvlei Dam Nature Reserve (1 September 1948)

Nature Areas refers to areas that are actively managed as Nature Reserves but which need urgent formal proclamation status: Chaimberlain Bird sanctuary Faerie Glen Nature Reserve Meyerpark Bird Sanctuary Moreletakloof Nature area Magaliesberg Nature area (eastern part, not formally declared a PNE) Moreletaspruit Colbyn valley Nature area Schurweberg Nature area

Open Space Areas/Possible Conservation Areas are recognized as important ecological Open Space resources worthy of formal protection status and include all: Mountains and Ridges River- and spruit areas Water catchment areas Natural Heritage sites

What is interesting to note from the above local and provincial based information, is that GDACE already recognises five of the CTMM’s Nature Areas as Protected Areas. The formal protection status of these Open Space resources therefore needs to be finalised as a matter of urgency. For purposes of referencing consistency and higher order alignment and correlation these Nature Areas will be refered to as Municipal Nature Reserves henceforth within the Tshwane OSF, obviously however taking note of the fact that such alignment needs to be formalised.

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DESCRIPTION OF NATURE RESERVES, PROTECTED NATURAL ENVIRONMENTS AND CONSERVANCIES

NORTHERN TSHWANE

Magaliesberg Protected Natural Environment

The Protected Natural Environment along the Magaliesberg mountain range that occurs within the City of Tshwane stretches from the N1 national highway in the east across the width of Tshwane to its western boundary and beyond, physically linking the CTMM to the North West Province. This portion within Tshwane is just over 5 000 hectares in extent. The Wonderboom Nature Reserve occurs within this protected area. The PNE is understood as the jurisdictional responsibility of GDACE, but is supported by the daily management actions of the CTMM.

Onderstepoort Nature Reserve

This reserve, located in the northern part of the City of Tshwane, covers an area of just over 2 870 hectares and includes a number of class 1 ridges commonly know as the Pyramid Koppies. It serves to protect the Turf Thornveld veld type. The Onderstepoort Nature Reserve is situated in the north central portion of the CTMM and is a privately owned and managed conservation entity.

Tswaing Crater Nature Reserve

The Tswaing Crater Nature Reserve is located to the north of Soshanguve and preserves the site of an ancient impact crater formed by a large meteor strike. It serves to also protect a well representative sample of the Mixed Bushveld veld type and is managed by the state’s Culture Historical Museums organisation.

Wallmansthal SANDF Property

This reserve is located east of the N1 national freeway in the northern part of the City of Tshwane on South African Defence Force property which straddles the boundary between the City of Tshwane and Nokeng Tsa Taemane Metropolitan Municipality.

Wonderboom Municipal Nature Reserve

Situated in the northern part of the city, and straddling the Magaliesberg mountain range, the Wonderboom Nature Reserve, is a 95 hectare reserve famous for its magnificent specimen of the Wonderboom. The Wonder tree is a wild fig (Ficus salicifolia, pretoriae) that grows at the foot of the northern slope of the Magaliesberg Mountain area. The tree is more than a 1 000 years old, and over the years the branches have grown longer, hanging lower and lower until they touched the ground, rooted and produced a circle of daughter trees. There are now three circles of daughter trees surrounding the original tree. The reserve is furthermore well known for its culture historical artefacts which include amongst others the Wonderboom Boer Fort. The reserve was proclaimed on 8 February 1959 and hosts amongst others the Grey Rhebok, Rock rabbit, Impala and the Black Eagle.

CENTRAL TSHWANE

Austin Roberts Bird Sanctuary

This sanctuary (11,5ha in extent) lies in close proximity to the Brooklyn Urban Core and is surrounded by primarily residential land uses. It was declared a National Monument in the 1970’s and is renowned for its water birds such as the Blue Crane and the Crowned Crane.The reserve was proclaimed on 26 February 1958

Chamberlain Bird Sanctuary

This bird sanctuary of just over two hectares is located in the residential suburb of Rietondale. and hosts amongst others various waterfowl.

Colbyn Valley Wetland Conservation Area

The 70 ha Colbyn Valley is known for its highly sensitive peatland situated within the floodplains of the Hartebeestspruit as well as two recorded Red Data species.

Groenkloof Municipal Nature Reserve

This reserve is situated south of the Tshwane city centre and collectively include the Klapperkop Ridge and Fountains Valley Recreation Resort. The spring in Fountains Valley, that once fed the Apies River, still flows through the city, was Pretoria’s first source of water and still provides a significant

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part of the city’s water needs. The 600ha reserve, proclaimed on 1 February 1895 represents unique Bankenveld (Rocky Highveld Grassland) and Middle bushveld on Dolomite, is one of the oldest reserves in the world and hosts amongst others Sable antelope, Giraffe, Duiker and Black backed Jackal.

Presidency Indigenous Gardens

Gardens at the Presidency.

Voortrekker Monument Private Nature Reserve

This reserve is located on a ridge to the south of the inner city of Tshwane and includes the monument erected to commemorate the Voortrekkers and the Afrikaans heritage.

SOUTHWEST TSHWANE

Rhenosterspruit and Hennopsvallei Conservancies

The two Conservancy areas recognised by GDACE, includes the whole of or significant portions of Rhen’s Nature Reserve, Kareebosrand Conservancy and Cheetah Park. The combined Conservancy area falls entirely within the CTMM boundaries.

Cheetah Park

Cheetah Park with an extent of almost 1 000 hectares is located in the northernmost part of the Rhenosterspruit Conservancy.

Cradle of Humankind

A small portion of the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site, recognised by GDACE as a Protected area, extends into the CTMM, half of which overlaps with Rhenosterspruit Conservancy and Rhen’s Nature Reserve.

Diepsloot Nature Reserve

Only a small fraction of the Diepsloot Nature Reserve is located within the southwestern boundaries of the CTMM.

Schurweberg Bavaria Rantesig/Schurweberg Recreational and Tourism Area

This privately owned recreational area is located within the Hennopsvallei Conservancy.

Zwartkops Nature Reserve

This state owned Nature Reserve is located to the west of Centurion and is slightly less than 230 hectares in extent.

SOUTHEAST TSHWANE

Faerie Glen Municipal Nature Reserve and Bronberg Conservation Area

The Faerie Glen Municipal Nature Reserve is positioned on the western side of the Bronberg ridge and is surrounded by the suburbs of Lynnwood Ridge, Lynnwood Glen, Lynnwood Park and Faerie Glen. This 120 hectare reserve includes Faerie Glen Hill, Renosterkop and south of this ridge, the Moreleta Spruit and its floodplains. The reserve has a variety of geological formations and soil types and this gives rise to a great diversity of plant communities.

Frank Struben Nature Reserve

The 3ha reserve, proclaimed on 11 February 1959 represents unique Bankenveld (rocky highveld grassland) and hosts various waterfowl.

Meyerspark Bird Sanctuary

This 8 ha site is located along the Moreletaspruit in Meyerspark.

Moreleta Kloof Nature Reserve

This 90 ha conservation area lies within a valley formed by the Rademeyer Spruit and accommodates the old Rademeyer Homestead.

Rietvlei Municipal Nature Reserve

The 4000ha reserve, proclaimed on 1 September 1948 represents unique Bankenveld (Rocky Highveld Grassland) and wetland vegetation and hosts amongst others the Springbuck, Cheetah, Blesbuck, Hippo and Black Wilde Beest. It is recognised as one of the world’s largest urban nature reserves, situated south of the capital core and in very close proximity to the R21 highway between Pretoria and Johannesburg International Airport. It occurs at a height of about 1 700 m above sea level GDCAE recognises most of the Rietvlei Nature Reserve as a Protected area. The protected areas extend beyond the boundary of the Rietvlei Nature Reserve to the east.

Struben Dam Municipal Nature Reserve

This 10,35 hectare nature area lies on the Waterkloof Spruit, a tributary of the Moreleta Spruit, in the suburb of Lynnwood Glen. The dam is an old farm dam that was modified to serve as a flood control facility.

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Figure 27: Protected Areas within Tshwane

(Source: GDACE C-Plan, 2003)

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4.2.2.6 Geology The geological patterns in the CTMM presents certain challenges for development especially in the south where large deposits of dolomite is found. Figure 28 highlights the geotechnical layering of the city. Of relevance to the Open Space resources within the city is the fact that dolomitic areas typically harbour sensitive environments and habitats such as the Rocky Highveld Grasslands vegetation type as well as significant underground aquifers. These areas are typical of the city’s south and south-western parts.

Figure 28: Geology in the CTMM.

(Source: GDACE C-Plan, 2003)

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4.2.2.7 Composite ecological sensitivity As part of the aim of the Tshwane OSF, Open Space data was digitally captured to scale 1:5 000 on an Arc-GIS platform. Annexure C highlights the specific methodology followed in this regard. In subjecting the captured data to the internationally recognised Pairwise Comparison Matrix, a composite ecological sensitivity rating was generated for the city’s Open Space resources. The sensitivity rating distinguishes between High, Medium and Low Ecological Sensitivity. As can be seen from the resulting information, highlighted in Figure 30, there is a consistent distribution of high ecological sensitivity throughout the municipal area, but particularly so around watercourses, ridges, protected areas and the southwestern parts of the city.

Figure 29: Composite Ecological Sensitivity Plan for the CTMM

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4.2.2.8 Summary of Open Space resources When combining all the natural elements as discussed, it is clear that ecological Open Space resources set a strong framework or structure for the city’s spatial form, with east-west ridges, and north-south watercourses especially prominent. The city also contains large amounts of sensitive and ecologically valuable Open Space that should be protected. More than any other element, the city’s Open Space features are the most important form-giving element in the city and its most precious, non-renewable asset in terms of environmental goods and services.

Figure 30: Composite Open Spaces in Tshwane

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4.2.3 THREATS TO THE ECOLOGICAL FUNCTION OF OPEN SPACES Rapid urbanisation is directly associated with increased volumes of waste, loss of valuable peripheral land, increased levels of air pollution due to longer travelling distances, increased infrastructure requirements, etc. In addition, ill- and un-informed municipal and private maintenance practices as well as illegal landuses significantly impact on the ecological functioning of Open Spaces.

4.2.3.1 Air pollution

Air pollution is caused by the emission of gas, vapour and particulate matter into the atmosphere as a result of human activity. Apart from its impact on the environment, air pollution can adversely affect human health and well-being. Naturally, cities are major consumers of fossil fuel based energy and thus major emitters of greenhouse gases. Uncontrolled urban sprawl and inattention to energy efficiency result in enormous amounts of energy being wasted. Typically, 60% to 90% of a city’s greenhouse gas emission comes from fossil fuel based energy.

An important source of air pollution in urban areas is the motor vehicle. Motor vehicles is a major source of carbon monoxide, fine particulates and certain toxic contaminants, which in turn is detrimental to human health and actively contributes to global warming. The only means of reducing pollution from vehicles are to improve fuel economy, reduce the number of vehicles on roads, or to change to alternative sources of fuel. None of which have enjoyed much support. To the extent that our land use increases, or decreases, car dependence, air quality and the world’s climate will be affected. Homes, job sites, schools, shops, and services are frequently scattered over great distances. They are often bordered by vast parking lots and wide, high-speed roadways that make public transportation, walking, and cycling between sites, impractical. New developments are often built at densities too low to support frequent, convenient public transport services. It is clear that the way we choose to accommodate population and economic growth will have a profound effect on future air quality.

The current national levels of air pollution in South Africa are well below the international World Health Organisation’s acceptable standards. However, with the newly approved Air Quality Act, 2004 (Act 39 of 2004), much higher standards and norms have been set and in this regard the CTMM’s Environmental Health Section is at present busy with an air quality plan to address the requirements. Pollutants such as NOX, O3, PM10, and SO2, resulting from vehicle emissions, household coal burning, and industrial uses, have been identified as critical for active and immediate intervention

Although air pollution in Tshwane has not reached critical dimensions such as in cities like Athens and Mexico City, air quality has worsened: The average SO2 concentration for the 1996/97 year was 17,3ug/m3 and increased by

21,6ug/m3 to a total of 38,9ug/m3 in the 2001/2 year. The average smoke concentration for the 1996/97 year was 9ug/m3, increasing by

1,3ug/m3 to a total of 10,3ug/m3 in the 2001/2 year. The complaints regarding air pollution issues make up less than 10% of the total

number of environmental health related complaints. However the increase in air

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pollution complaints between the year 2000 and 2001 was calculated at 11,2%, with the total number of complaints increasing at a rate of only 4,5%. Between the year 2001 and 2002, the growth rate for air pollution complaints was calculated at 22,3%, while the growth rate for total complaints rose by only 9,5%. The growth rate for air pollution complaints increased by 36,1% from the year 2000 to 2002, while the growth rate for all environmental health complaints rose by only 14,4% in that period.

A serious problem in the central areas of the city is low level inversion during the winter months. This causes air pollution to be trapped close to the surface in the mornings. The CTMM, through the ICLEI City for Climate Protection Campaign, has accepted the challenge to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and has entered into a working agreement with ICLEI. In addition to this the city is collaborating with the Sustainable Energy for Environment and Development Programme (SEED) and the Sustainable Energy Africa (SEA) Campaign. It has committed itself to:

Diversifying energy supply and increasing renewable, cleaner energy sources by 10%

by 2020; Reducing energy consumption in municipal operations by at least 20% by 2005; Implementing green procurement policies; Passing legislation requiring solar water heaters in new middle to high income housing

by 2006; Insulating ceilings in low-cost housing by 2005, retrofitting existing houses by 2007; Providing dedicated bus lanes and bicycle lanes on at least 20% of roads by 2010; Developing an integrated energy strategy by 2006; and Reducing Carbon rates with 5.2 % by 2015 (Kyoto Protocol reduction rate).

Open Space resources can significantly contribute to the above targets.

4.2.3.2 Water pollution

Rivers in both urban and rural areas regulate and supply water flow to floodplains and wetland areas, supply nutrients to off-shore areas, dilute pollutants and supply corridors for faunal migration and floral dispersal. Development degrades or destroys these natural areas, diminishing their ability to filter water and therefore the requirement of expensive water treatment facilities to fulfil their function.

Figure 31: Examples of water pollution (Source: SoER)

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River systems within the city are significantly threatened by urbanisation and uncontrolled development, with most rivers today unable to render efficient and effective environmental goods and services. High levels of pollution contribute to this. As an example, the average faecal coliform count within the Apies River during the year 2002/03, was confirmed as 6 000 at the Skinner Street bridge and as 32 141 at Onderstepoort bridge. Any count above 100 could lead to possible human infection should the water be used for bathing or laundry purposes. This clearly unacceptable situation indicates the impacts of current-day inadequate sewerage, stormwater and water quality management systems.

The following sources of water pollution have been identified by the SoER:

Increased development close to water resources; Increased development necessitating increased need for services, and increased

effluent discharge; Industrial effluent discharge; Pollution entering the Tshwane water resources from outside the municipal area(i.e.

from bordering municipalities); and Solid waste pollutants entering water resources.

The CTMM is involved in a number of projects aimed at conserving water resources and catchment areas within the municipal boundaries. One such project, the national government funded Working for Water Programme, aims to control alien tree species, enhance water security, improve ecological integrity, restore land back into production and promote the sustainable use of natural resources, whilst creating job opportunities. Site specific Working for Water Projects undertaken thus far, are highlighted in Table 8.

Working for Water Programme

Area/project Workers Budget Work/Activity Completion Hennops river 60 R1 050 458 Initial clearing of alien plants March 2004 Centurion 75 R718 000 Initial clearing of alien plants March 2004 Soshanguve 105 R627 000 Initial clearing of alien plants March 2004 Rietvlei Nature Reserve

30 R350 000 Follow-up clearing of alien plants March 2004

Apies River (Klapperkop)

150 R1 298 000 Initial clearing of alien plants March 2004

Table 7: Working for Water Programme (Source: CTMM, Environmental Management)

In further collaboration with national government, the city has taken up the challenge of water quality and sanitation management by creating small wetlands within all existing river and stream systems throughout the city. Wetlands act as natural filtering systems and play an active role in mitigating the impacts of development. The site specific Working for Wetland Projects undertaken thus far, are highlighted in Table 9.

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Working for Wetlands Programme Area/Project Workers Budget Work/Activity Completion Rietvlei 35 R1 000 000 Wetland rehabilitation March 2004 Soshanguve 35 R1 000 000 Wetland rehabilitation March 2004 Austin Roberts 11 R1 000 000 Wetland rehabilitation March 2004 Colbyn 11 R50 000 Maintenance of structures March 2004

Table 8: Working for Wetlands Programme (Source: CTMM, Environmental Management)

4.2.3.3 Solid waste

At present the CTMM manages 11 landfill sites and 6 garden refuse sites, with industrial waste constituting 8% of the CTMM’s waste per annum. Solid waste is specifically detrimental for water quality. Solid waste pollutants entering surface water resources through stormwater systems cause significant impacts on the environment. Apart from smothering river systems and depriving water organisms of light and oxygen, pollutants can dissolve and thus detrimentally affect the chemical quality of water. Solid waste pollution is a common problem in the northern areas of the city in particular. Illegal dumping of solid waste is another serious and costly problem within the city that typically manifests itself on privately/municipal owned vacant land. The costs incurred by the CTMM in cleaning-up amonst others illegal dumping during the period 2002, is highlighted in Table 9:

Type of rehabilitation (2002)

Quantity/Area Cost

Illegal dumping 177 408m3 R1 953 779 Clean-up Figure not available R25 063 535 Rodents Figure not available Figure not available Long grass (cutting) 16 676 841 m2 R2 001 220 Total rehabilitation budget R27 017 314

Table 9: Cost of Illegal Dumping (Source: CTMM, Environmental Management)

Figure 32: Examples of Illegal Dumping (Source: SoER)

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4.2.3.4 Cultivated Landscapes Within an urbanized environment, trees play a vital role in maintaining urban health and in moderating microclimates. However, within these very same environments, trees are typically dealt with as individual horticultural specimens, not as mutually dependent communities such as one finds in natural forests and are subject to extreme conditions. The cultivated urban landscape that has been created by design, is dependent on man to sustain it and consequently lacks natural complexity and sustainability. Studies on the impact of urbanizing regions on indigenous birds and animals have shown how the indigenous fauna declines as urbanization increases. The disappearance of diverse indigenous species favors aggressive, introduced/exotic species. These adapt readily to urban habitats since the ornamental plants and conditions of the city offer little in the way of food, shelter, or breeding places. So, inevitably, natural complexity gives way to environments that lack sensory richness and diversity - a central issue of sustainability.

4.2.3.5 Conclusion

Although the general quality of Tshwane’s living environment compares very well to international best practice, increased urbanization, uncontrolled, inappropriate development and inadequate management systems are impacting on this deteriorating quality. The ecological functioning of Open Spaces in Tshwane continues to be threatened by a culture of waste and consumption, development greed and short term solutions for pressing socio-economic problems.

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4.3 OPEN SPACES AND INTERNATIONALLY COMPETITIVE CITIES

Whereas the previous section focused on the ecological function/role of Open Space, Section 4.3 and 4.4 focus on the socio-economic and place-making role of Open Space. In the vision of the city, the importance of Tshwane becoming an internationally acclaimed city is stressed. The rationale for obtaining internationally acclaim, is to attract foreign investment, expand the tax base and create increased job opportunities. Open Spaces play an integral part in realising this vision.

4.3.1 THE ROLE OF OPEN SPACE IN CREATING INTERNATIONALLY COMPETITIVE CITIES A high quality environment is an essential ingredient to a city that is internationally competitive; this includes a healthy environment, good quality public realm and well developed Open Spaces. Research indicates that improving the quality of life of a community is becoming a primary reason for attracting and retaining businesses.

The inextricable link between environmental quality, quality of life and economic success was underscored by Fortune Magazine, which, in preparing its annual Best Cities for Business list (November 13, 1995) concluded that "... no matter which operations a company is moving to a city, it had better be a nice place to live. Top quality workers demand a top quality living environment. That means affordable housing, good infrastructure, and plenty of opportunities for recreation and culture. Lifestyle matters to talented people who have a choice of locations --as nearly all do."

Quality of life improvements, through the development of parks, recreation facilities and Open Space systems, are critical components of any strategy to attract new economic development, as well as to assist business retention and expansion efforts. Increased spending on parks and recreation-related activities can become a major economic driver and thus assist in attracting new businesses. There are many examples of cities that have increased their international acclaim by improving public Open Spaces, especially in the inner city and in derelict harbour or industrial areas. Manchester was able to turn around its image as a declining industrial city by developing the Open Spaces in its inner city and Rotterdam did the same by developing its old harbour area, the so-called Kop van Zuid. Barcelona prepared for the Olympic Games by focusing on its public space network and creating a system of squares and boulevards. Other cases in point are Paris and London.

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One of the most important factors influencing a business location decision is quality of life. Recreational opportunities are an important part of the quality of life that firms and workers seek. “In America’s new service and technological economy, quality of life for our workforce has become a competitive imperative. Liveability is at the top of the list when businesses look at where to invest and locate.”

Will Rodgers President, Trust for Public Land before the national Town Meeting for a Sustainable America, May 2, 1999.

Portland, Oregon, which has implemented the strictest anti-sprawl regulations in the country and invested in an extensive park system, has attracted many new companies, including Hewlett-Packard, Intel and Hyundai, which picked the city because its quality of life appealed to their educated workforce. According to Bill Calder, a spokesman for Intel, the computer chip manufacturer that has nearly 9,000 employees in Oregon, "Companies that can locate anywhere they want to will go to places that attract good people."

Within a proposed Open Space network, the following three aspects are thus important in the creation of an internationally competitive city: A healthy environment; High quality: well-designed, -developed and –maintained Open Spaces; and Ample recreational facilities.

The health of the environment of Tshwane was discussed in Section 4.2.3 where it was concluded that the quality of the environment is still relatively high, but deteriorating. Recreational facilities will be discussed under Section 4.7.3 and the quality of Open Spaces will be discussed in the following section.

4.3.2 DESIGN OF HIGH QUALITY OPEN SPACES

According to the internationally recognized group called ‘Project for Public Spaces’: ‘a good place provides a range of things to do (“uses and activities”); is easy to get to and connected to the surrounding community (“access”); is safe, clean, and attractive (“comfort and image”); and, is a place to meet other people (“sociability”)’. Detailed aspects highlighted by the group include:

Uses and Activities A beautifully designed space is not worth anything if people don't use it. There should be a multitude of activities for different age groups and types of people to use. A community-based planning process lets all the stakeholders - including residents, city agencies, local leaders and merchants - define what goes on in a place. When ideas come from the ground up, not the top down, the events, programs, recreation, and play areas in a public space are truly connected to the communities that use them. In addition, partnerships among local organizations, businesses, associations, and government agencies act as new sources of ideas for activities and help a public space become a true "community place." Planning for uses and activities in this way promotes sustainability and use, and therefore activity.

Access and Linkage A good place is easy to see and easy to get to - people want to see that there is something to do, that others have been successfully enticed to enter. On the other hand, if a park is not visible from the street or the street is too dangerous for older people and children to cross, the park won't be used. The more successful a place is, the more the success will feed upon itself. Sometimes, if a place is really good, people will walk through it even if they were headed somewhere else. It should also be connected to the surrounding community. Communities are built on streets too wide to cross comfortably, traffic that moves too quickly, and an absence or lack of sidewalks, and bicycle lanes. Access means a truly public space: one that is available and easy to reach for people of all incomes and backgrounds - who do not have to pay to use it. It is a critical factor, since public spaces are one of our most democratic institutions.

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Comfort and Image It should be safe, clean and attractive and there should be places to sit. Good details can tantalize - they signal that someone took the time and energy to design amenities that welcome, intrigue, or help. Places that are designed to be appealing, enjoyable, and convenient provide an incentive to getting people out and about - they become attractions, like a shady shopping street with benches and good sidewalks, or a park that supports a range of active and passive uses. Shade trees, comfortable places to sit, water fountains, litterbins, good views, adequate (but not overbearing) lighting: all of these amenities make people feel good about being in a public space. Unfortunately, in unattractive neighborhoods where vehicles dominate, there is a stigma to simply walking down the street.

Sociability A sociable place is one where people want to go to observe the passing scene, meet friends, and celebrate interaction with a wide range of people that are different from themselves. It can draw people out of the house and into community life - and it is the critical identifier of every great public space. Sociability is measured by public displays of affection, diversity, volunteerism, even people taking pictures and pointing out neighbourhood monuments and special features.

The “Project for Public Space” further highlights examples of good and bad design:

EXAMPLES OF GOOD AND BAD OPEN SPACE DESIGN (taken from the website of Project for Public Spaces)

LACK OF PLACES TO SIT

Many public spaces do not provide a place to sit. A lack of good places to sit is an equally important issue. For example, a choice of seats in sun or shade can make difference in a place’s success, depending on its climate and location. Allowing people to sit near a playground or within view of other activities is also crucial.

LACK OF GATHERING POINTS This includes features people want or need, such as playgrounds, or places where varying elements such as a bus stop, play equipment, outdoor seating, combine to create a gathering point. Food is often a critical component of a successful gathering point.

BAD EXAMPLE Paris' Parc de la Villette has seats that force people to sit in unsociable ways, and signs that ask them not to climb on the sculpture.

GOOD EXAMPLE Though located along a stretch of the Pacific Coast Highway, this park at Laguna Beach has activities, food, and places to sit, making it a busy, healthy gathering place.

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POOR ENTRANCES AND VISUALLY INACCESSIBLE SPACES If a space is to be used, people need to see it and they need to be able to get to it.

BAD EXAMPLE A dark or narrow entrance previously found at New York City's Bryant Park keeps people out instead of inviting them in.

GOOD EXAMPLE The same park’s entrance, redesigned to be more open and inviting, with kiosks that sell coffee and sandwiches, and the park’s interior visible from the street.

DISFUNCTIONAL FEATURES Often features are designed simply to punctuate the space, serving a use more visual than functional, instead of encouraging activity to occur around them.

BAD EXAMPLE Waterfront park in Barcelona.

GOOD EXAMPLE Good features, such as the friendly gorilla at the Berlin Zoo, encourage activity to occur around them.

PATHS THAT DON'T GO WHERE PEOPLE WANT TO GO Paths that lead to nowhere and do not respond to circulation patterns are useless

BAD EXAMPLE The Arizona park in Phoenix, illustrates a path that does not respond to logical people movement and strolling.

GOOD EXAMPLE The Luxembourg Gardens in Paris, with paths that pull people along and allows for them to stop and relax.

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DOMINATION OF A SPACE BY VEHICLES There may be a lack of crosswalks, or streets that are too wide, or lacking sidewalks.

BAD EXAMPLE A main street is not a highway. One should not fear crossing the street so much that the activity needs to occur in groups, as on George Street in Sydney, Australia

GOOD EXAMPLE Crossing the street should be an easy, comfortable activity. Even if you have to wait (Paris, France)

BLANK WALLS OR DEAD ZONES AROUND THE EDGES OF A PLACE The area around a space is as important to its success as the design and management of the space itself.

BAD EXAMPLE The blank wall contributes nothing to the activity of the street. In fact, it doesn't even seem real.

GOOD EXAMPLE

INCONVENIENTLY LOCATED TRANSPORTATION STOPS Bus or train stops located in places where no one wants to use them are a good recipe for failure.

BAD EXAMPLE GOOD EXAMPLE

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4.3.3 QUALITY OF OPEN SPACES IN TSHWANE

Tshwane has a large variety of Open Space resources from protected areas, ecological and conservation areas to recreational parks, resorts, sporting facilities, as well as cultural historical Open Spaces, which creates the opportunity and the potential for developing a high quality environment. Its large amount of Open Space was noted as one of the reasons why the city was voted as the most liveable city in the country in 2003. However, the majority of Open Spaces in Tshwane lag far behind international cities in terms of quality. The spaces are especially lacking in the following regards: Open Spaces predominantly do not conform to the standards of development and

comfort, do not offer any protection against the elements (sun, wind, rain) and do not offer opportunities for relaxation or recreation;

Open Spaces are not integrated within a network, to facilitate movement ; There is no triangulation of Open Space as in the case of Paris. Triangulation requires

that a variety of facilities and activities overlap to create interest, choice and variety. Tshwane’s Open Spaces are generally mono-functional, thus only attracting a section of the community at certain times;

Hard Open Spaces, such as streets and activity spines are mostly dominated by cars; Civic spaces are non-existent; and The majority of Open Spaces are perceived as, and in many cases are, harbouring

criminal activity, vagrancy, etc.

Many Open Spaces are under-funded, neglected, inaccessible, and without the necessary infrastructure and amenities. Annexure D: highlights Ward Councillor perceptions on Open Space resources within the city. The only worthwhile, well developed public spaces are located within the inner city and old established areas of Pretoria and Centurion. Outside of this zone, public Open Space is overgrown, undeveloped or privatised in shopping malls and private residential estates.

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4.3.4 QUANTITY OF OPEN SPACES 4.3.4.1 The nature of quantitative standards

The purpose of Open Space standards is to ensure generally acceptable, minimum standard for the provisioning of Open Space in relation to the prevailing population, thus setting targets against which informed decisionmaking takes place, the performance of the CTMM is evaluated and equality between regions is assured.

There has been a tendency in recent years to move away from quantitative standards towards qualitative standards, due to a perception that quantitative standards do not take account of changing demographics. The practice of sole reliance on quantifiable numbers could furthermore result in large, misplaced open areas that are underutilized by the community or disparate, poorly located and poorly suited spaces that fail to meet the needs of the community or unique needs of individual neighbourhoods. Quantitative standards are however essential in providing a yardstick for Open Space provisioning. Quantitative Open Space standards generally include the following measures: Area per population, measured in ha/1000 population or m2/person; Accessibility and distribution, measured in service radius (distance or time - normally

based on walking). This could also linked to population and measured by the number of people within a certain radius;

Size, measured in m2 or ha, normally as a minimum size.

Quantitative standards can be deceptive and care must be taken that measurements are comparable. For example, 18,8% of the Soweto region can be classified as Open Space as opposed to only 3,8% of Sandton. This gives the impression of an ample supply of Open Space in Soweto. However, when related to population, Soweto has a ratio 1,7 ha of Open Space to 1 000 population whereas Sandton has 3,3 ha to 1 000 population. This ratio is even more dramatic when developed Open Space is taken into account: Soweto has 0,26 ha to 1 000 population and Sandton 2,10 ha to 1 000 population. Table 10 highlights prevailing Open Space ratios within Johannesburg suburbs:

Region Total Open Space as % of land area

Ratio of total Open Space to 1000 Population

Ratio of developed Open Space to 1000 Population

Alexandra 7,1 0,17 0,00

Diepmeadow 11,8 0,6 0,02

Dobsonville 6,9 0,6 0,09

Johannesburg 5,2 2,9 1,90

Randburg 3,6 2,42 0,96/1,49

Roodepoort 7,4 7,7 4,90

Sandton 3,8 3,3 2,10

Soweto 18,8 1,7 0,26

Table 10: Open Space ratios for Johannesburg suburbs, 2003 (Source: JMOSS)

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When using quantitative standards, it must be kept in mind that none of these standards or measures are universally applicable but vary according to socio-economic factors i.e.:

Age: Generally an older population will demand different types of recreation than a

younger population. The focus is more on passive forms of recreation as apposed to active recreation. Furthermore, a middle-aged population will generally demand less recreation than a younger population, or an older population that is in retirement.

Income: Generally income indicates the ability of a population to engage in various

forms of recreation as well as the use of Open Space. Higher income populations can more easily afford more expensive forms of recreation and can also more easily afford to travel to reach their recreational pursuits. Their participation is therefore generally higher. Within lower income areas Open Space has to fulfill a variety of functions, accommodating economic and social activities. Easily accessible public Open Space is thus more critical in areas with lower income.

Mode of transport (linked to income): If most users of Open Space are pedestrians,

smaller widely distributed Open Spaces are advisable. Reliance on public transport would necessitate a grouping of Open Space and facilities at public transport stops.

Erf size and occupation density: Small erf sizes combined with high occupation density

necessitate higher Open Space standards and vice versa. The following aspects are also of importance:

Quantitative standards are generally applicable to specific classes or typologies of

Open Space e.g. sports field or neighbourhood parks and not to total Open Space. Over time population size tends to increase through densification, infill development,

township establishment, erf subdivision etc. Provisioning of Open Space should thus not be based on the existing population but rather on the potential population for an area. It is furthermore better to use the upper end of the standards so as to err on the high side.

Quantitative standards must be used in conjunction with qualitative standards and

guidelines. 4.3.4.2 Proposed quantitative standards

i.Total Open Space Total Open Space is not a good measure of accessible and usable Open Space, but rather reflects the natural context or development pattern of a settlement and thus varies dramatically between different countries, different cities and even different parts of a city as is reflected in the example of Sandton vs Soweto discussed above, or the difference between Los Angeles (3,4ha/1 000 people), San Francisco (4,1ha/1 000 people) and San Diego (12,5/1 000 people) in the United States of America.

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Despite these differences, the current international standards for total amount of Open Space range from 6-8ha/1 000 population. The only national Open Space ratio information currently available, relates to that of the apartheid South African provinces where standards ranged from 1,2ha/1000 (Transvaal); 2,4ha/1000 (Cape); 3ha/1000 (Natal) to 4ha/1000 (Free State). Within post apartheid, South Africa, the Gauteng province has no prescribed ratios, other than that which is provided for within the Town Planning and Townships Ordinance of 1986. In order to effectively determine Open Space a ratio, total Open Space is divided into Socio-economic Open Space and Ecological Open Space. Placemaking Open Space is generally derived as a consequence of good urban design and planning of projects and therefore not as a rule considered part of the Open Space ratio for total Open Space ii.Socio-economic Open Space These Open Spaces include developed parks such as local, neighbourhood and regional recreational parks and sport facilities as well as formalised squares and agricultural lots. They can be ranked according to size and catchment and linked to area and accessibility standards. The most accepted international standard for Socio-economic Open Space provisioning is approximately 2.4ha/1 000 people (varying between 1 and 2.5ha).

Socio-economic Open Spaces are developed and usable and can be defined as: relatively level and open, easily accessible, primarily cultivated formalised natural Open Space available for daily use. This encompasses various types of Open Space for passive enjoyment as well as activity.

Local and Neighbourhood Parks typically cater to the recreational needs and interests of the residents living within the immediate vicinity and generally comprise of municipal or privately maintained parks and small scale formalized (lit) sport facilities. Municipal parks typically contain a mixture of passive areas, unlit, informal sports facilities, formalized play-equipment areas and may include natural areas.

The following standards are applicable:

SIZE Between 0.25 – 1 ha SERVICE RADIUS 400-800m

5-15 minutes walking distance POPULATION SERVED Approximately 5000 but could range from 2000-10000,

depending on population density RATIO: Ha TO 1000 PEOPLE 0.75-1

The most important standards relevant to Local and Neighborhood parks, are service radius and ratio.

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Regional Parks serve more than one neighbourhood, but are not intended to serve the city as a whole. They include a wide variety of formalised passive and active recreation facilities such as sports fields, facilities for community groups, children’s play areas, walking trails, picnic areas, braai areas and quiet areas for sitting. Regional parks are ideally located on the edges of neighbourhoods at exposed or public locations close to public transport. The following standards are applicable:

SIZE Minimum 4ha Between 4 and 40ha

SERVICE RADIUS 800m-1.5km –15-30 minutes walking distance Up to 4.8km – accessible via public transport or bicycle

POPULATION SERVED Approximately 20000 but could range from 10000-50000, depending on population density

RATIO: Ha TO 1000 PEOPLE 1-2.4 Additional size may be considered if areas of Open Space preservation are included with developed facilities.

With regard to pure sport facilities, 1.6-1.8 ha would be required for outdoor youth and adult sport (in combination with regional parks) and 0.8 ha for children's playing space (in combination with local and neighbourhood parks). With regard to paved surfaced Open Space, such as urban squares a standard of 0.1ha per 1,000 people is recommended. With regard to urban agriculture lots, subsistence farming lots or agricultural gardens, such Open Space can also be considered part of Socio-economic Open Space. In this regard a ratio of 1.2ha/ 1000 population and service radius of 1km is advisable. iii.Ecological Open Space Ecological Open Space consists primarily of ecologically productive and sensitive land such as ridges, wetlands, conservation worthy areas and protected areas. They are thus not necessarily linked to space standards but rather to the value and distribution of natural resources. A minimum may be included such as in the Seattle's Parks and Recreation Plan 2000 under the category breathing room Open Space (ecological).

Ecological Open Spaces are based on a specific resource, such as a river system or a sensitive habitat area, or on the need to complete the Open Space network, and is thus independent of population size although some suggestions have been made of a minimum of 4ha/1 000 population and an ideal of at least 8ha/1 000 population of which 18% can be developed as socio-economic Open Spaces. In terms of size, a minimum of 40ha has been suggested, although the size will primarily be guided by the extent of the ecological sensitivities identified through specialist studies.

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Such Open Space should ideally be within a 30 minute drive or within 1km where the Open Space is linear and contains walking or cycling routes that connects different Open Spaces.

4.3.5 QUANTITY OF OPEN SPACES IN TSHWANE

In obtaining an understanding of the quantity of publicly owned and managed Open Space resources within the CTMM, the records of the Parks and Horticulture Section, Nature Conservation and Resorts Section, Waste Management Section, Cemetery Section and Sport and Recreation Section were sourced. Such records however highlighted several disparities in approach: no distinction is made in terms of horticultural maintenance standards and requirements

when maintaining either traffic islands, watercourses, recreational parks, cemeteries or sport facilities;

the majority ecologically sensitive Open Space resources are maintained by Parks and Horticultural Services;

Nature Conservation and Resorts maintained Open Space resources are localised to the established areas of Tshwane, i.e. the central, eastern and southern parts;

Accurate records are generally not available, especially with regard to ecologically sensitive areas and cemeteries.

The above highlights amongst others, a management approach guided by eurocentric, colonial horticultural influences, especially the English Country Garden approach. Based on the sourced information, which needs urgent updating, there are approximately 612 open spaces maintained by the city’s CTMM’s Environmental Management Division. These open spaces consist of the following functional areas:

Water Courses 555.338 Ridges 396.681 Conservation Entities 5634.34

Recreational Parks 1078.93 Sport Facilities 762.318 Resorts & Swimming Pools 118.68

Cemeteries 681.199 Servitudes 71.504 Landfills 398.54 Traffic Islands 111.054 Entrances 43.234 Squares 5.396 Road Reserves 115.327 Water Courses 555.338

O p e n S p a c e

W a t e r C o u r s e s R id g e s C o n s e r v a t io n E n t it ie s R e c r e a t io n a l P a r k sS p o r t F a c ilit ie s R e s o r t s & S w im m in g P o o ls C e m e t e r ie s S e r v it u d e s L a n d f ills T r a f f ic Is la n d s E n t r a n c e s S q u a r e s R o a d R e s e r v e s

Figure 33: Environmental Management Division maintained Open Space

(Source: CTMM, Environmental Management)

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The ratios of developed socio-economic open space per City Planning Region, is highlighted in Figure 35. It is clear from these figures that the city does not comply with the international standard of 2.4ha developed Open Space per 1000 population.

Region 1 0.302 Region 2 0.105 Region 3 0.271 Region 4 0.481 Region 5 1.336 Region 6 0.183 Region 7 0.626 Region 8 0.37

T o t a l D e v e l o p e d S o c i o - E c o n o m i c O p e n S p a c e p e r R e g i o n

R e g io n 1 R e g io n 2 R e g io n 3

R e g io n 4 R e g io n 5 R e g io n 6

R e g io n 7 R e g io n 8

Figure 34: Ratio of Developed Socio-Economic Open Space per City Planning Region

(Source: CTMM, Environmental Management)

The shortages in townships are especially acute. Because there are not nearly enough developed facilities in most of the historically disadvantaged areas, existing parks are currently totally over-utilised. Newly established lawns soon become non-existent as a result of consistent and intensive utilisation and informal soccer games. Playground equipment with a proven operational design life of 15 - 20 years, need replacement or repair within 3 months of installation.

4.3.5.1 Open Space standards applicable to development The following Open Space standards and ratios are relevant to development processes within the CTMM:

Township Establishment The current standard for Open Space provisioning within township establishment developments used by the CTMM, is contained in Regulation 43(1) of the Town Planning and Townships Ordinance, 1986 (15 of 1986). This regulation stipulates that with the establishment of a residential township: 24m2 Open Space must be provided per residential unit within a low-density development (land zoned

Residential 1 and 2); and 18m2Open Space must be provided per residential unit within high-density residential development

(land zoned Residential 3, 4 and 5).

Rezoning, Subdivision and Consolidation Although not consistently applied within the erstwhile 13 local authorities and not applied at present by the CTMM, Regulations 43, 44, 63 and 932 of the Town Planning and Townships Ordinance, 1986 (15 of 1986) provides for Open Space provisioning during Rezoning, subdivision and consolidation developments. The regulations stipulate that with such development processes: 24m2 Open Space must be provided per residential unit within a low-density development (land zoned

Residential 1 and 2); and 18m2Open Space must be provided per residential unit within high-density residential development

(land zoned Residential 3, 4 and 5).

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Subdivision of farm/agricultural land Although not consistently applied within the erstwhile 13 local authorities and not applied at present by the CTMM, Regulations 11 and 16 of the Town Planning and Townships Ordinance, 1986 (20 of 1986) provides for Open Space provisioning during the subdivision of farm or agricultural land. The regulations stipulate that with such development process: 24m2 Open Space must be provided per residential unit within a low-density development (land zoned

Residential 1 and 2); and 18m2Open Space must be provided per residential unit within high-density residential development

(land zoned Residential 3, 4 and 5).

All of the above standards: are only applicable during residential development and are not applied to commercial

or business type developments, nor to retrofit existing areas; allow for the payment of a cash contributions in lieu of Open Space instead of

physically providing land; do not distinguish between socio-economic developed (or usable) Open Space and

ecological Open Space, which means by implication that the standards can be achieved through the contribution of areas within a floodline or a park.

The standards roughly translate into the following Open Space ratio: Low density areas: (assuming a household size of 4-5 people) 0.48-0.6ha/1 000

population or less than 4.8% of total area; and High density areas: (assuming a household size of 2-3 people) 0.6-0.9ha/1 000

population or more than 7.2% of total area. The erstwhile Pretoria Structure Plan, 1993, proposed the following standards:

Type Provision by City Council (Ha/1 000 Population)

Local Open Space (playgrounds and local parks) 0.6 City-wide Open Space (general recreation) 0.6 Sport 0.6 Total intra-urban (all the above) 1.8 Golf 1 course per 90 000 people

The 1986 Ordinance Open Space standards and the 1993 Pretoria Structure Plan Open Space standards fall well below the highlighted international standard of 2.4ha/1 000 population and should be understood in the context in which it was drawn up. Both documents date from an era where low density suburban development was the norm and in fact the ideal, and applied only to previously white privileged areas where residents had the advantage of large erven and private car transport.

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Looking further back into the past, the erstwhile Pretoria Structure Plan of 1982 highlighted the following Open Space standards:

Type Provision by City Council (Ha/1 000 Population)

Local Open Space (playgrounds and local parks) 0.8 City-wide Open Space (general recreation) 1.63 Sport 1.4 Total intra-urban (all the above) 3.83 Golf 1.00

The 1982 Pretoria Structure Plan Open Space standards were lowered in the 1993 Structure Plan on account of the: limited financial means of the then City Council; Town Planning and Townships Ordinance of 1986 that reduced the required Open

Space contributions from 52m2 to 24m2 for Residential 1 and 2 and from 39m2 to 18m2 for Residential 3 and 4.

The 1982 Structure Plan and international Open Space standards are more in line with denser residential development where most recreation takes place in Open Spaces and should thus be seen as a more appropriate standard. In post apartheid South Africa and in an increasingly globalised environment, the context has changed dramatically with the focus now on poverty alleviation, equity and sustainable development. Sustainable development implies amongst others, triple bottom line accountability, minimum ecological footprint, densification, public transportation. The 1986 Town Planning and Townships Ordinance’s, rationale on Open Space provisioning is therefore considered completely inappropriate for the current and projected future conditions of Tshwane. In addition to the above, Open Space provisioning standards, face the following challenges: Open Space provisioning is not required in non-residential developments; Non-residential development turn their “backs” onto Open Space resources; Increased densification in established townships through subdivision, second dwelling

units, rezonings, is placing increased pressure on already limited Open Space resources;

Open Space resources are being privatised and fragmented through the development of security, gentlemen’s or lifestyle residential estates;

Ecologically sensitive Open Space resources are excluded from development boundaries resulting in the neglect of the resource;

Developers by default pay the cash endowment in lieu of Open Space provisioning as the generally low valuation of quantified land for purposes of Open Space, makes the payment of the cash endowment a much more profitable business decision.

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4.3.6 BUDGETING FOR OPEN SPACES

Apart from technical and legal restrictions on sufficient provisioning and development of Open Space, the most important threat facing the CTMM’s Environmental Management Division (and to a smaller extent the Educational Services Division: Sport and Recreation Section, as well as the City Planning Division: Streetscape Management Section) is financial. Financial limitations are preventing the development and maintenance of Open Spaces to international standard. Typically within local government budget allocation, Open Space development and maintenance receive a very small portion of that budget. The political, monetary and fiscal perception exist that Open Space is not a direct income-generating service, nor a basic service delivery imperative. Proof lies therein that: over the past 10 years the Environmental Management Division has developed 70 new

parks without receiving any additional human resource or increased maintenance budget to maintain these parks;

the Division has to maintain parks and nature conservation areas within 13 previous local authorities’ jurisdictional areas with a budget and human resource base tailor-made for only 3 previous local authorities; and

the Division has a staff shortage within the Parks and Horticultural Services Section and Nature Conservation and Resorts Section amounting to 29%.

The Environmental Management Division only received 3,9% of the total council capital budget during the period 2002 - 2005 and was only allocated 7,1% of the council’s total operating budget during the same period. The operational budget decreased from 8% in 2001/2 to 7% in 2004/5 and the capital budget from 4,3% in 2002/3 to 3.1% 2004/5, as highlighted in Table 11.

YEAR EM BUDGET AS % OF TOTAL BUDGET

Operational budget of EM

IDP Capital budget of EM

TOTAL COUNCIL BUDGET

Operational and Capital

2000/01 6,7% - not available 2001/02 8% - R735 731 000 2002/03 7,3% 4,3% R755 586 000 2003/04 7,1% 4,4% R1 005 000 000 2004/05 7% 3,1% R1 224 000 000

Table 11: Environmental Management Division’s budget as a percentage of the total council budget (Source: CTMM, Environmental Management)

Table 12 highlights the largest percentage allocation of the Operational and Capital budget to the Waste Management and Cemeteries Sections within the Division.

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% ALLOCATION AND ACTUAL BUDGET TO SECTIONS Year Waste Environmental

Planning Environmental

Resource Management

Parks and Horticultural

Services

Nature Conservation and Resorts

Cemeteries

2000/2001

50% R111 770 000

2% R799 672

0% R0

33% R73 304 000

10% R22 790 000

5% R11 659 000

2001/2002

52% R193 572 000

1% R705 127

5% R18 539 000

30% R112 878 000

8% R29 649 000

4% R16 008 000

2002/2003

53% R201 509 000

1% R542 939

5% R18 558 000

29% R110 786 000

8% R32 418 000

4% R15 886 000

2003/2004

53% R230 538 000

1% R847 000

1% R2 754 000

32% R141 013 000

9% R40 199 000

4% R21 521 000

2004/2005

52% R244 768 000

1% R2 945 000

1% R5 354 000

31% R148 469 000

10% R45 456 000

5% R24 979 000

Table 12: Environmental Management Division Operational Maintenance Budget (Source: CTMM, Environmental Management)

% ALLOCATION AND ACTUAL BUDGET TO SECTIONS

Year Waste Environmental Planning

Environmental Resource

Management

Parks and Horticultural

Services

Nature Conservation and Resorts

Cemeteries

2000/2001

78% R 7 450 000

% R -

% R -

12% R1 158 000

7% R 648 000

3% R 255 000

2001/2002

% R 7 000 000

% R -

% R -

% R -

% R -

% R -

2002/2003

52% R17 300 000

% R -

% R -

14% R4 473 459

24% R8 020 000

10% R 3 360 000

2003/2004

47% R20 000 000

% R -

% R -

7% R3 000 000

17% R7 248 000

29% R12 548 000

2004/2005

27% R10 470 500

% R -

% R -

22% R8 556 000

16% R5 850 000

35% R13 463 000

Table 13: Environmental Management Division IDP Capital Budget (Source: CTMM, Environmental Management)

The budget for Open Space provisioning and development is shrinking, whilst the need is increasing. Initially funding for park and traffic island development was limited to approximately R200 000 per annum. This escalated over time to R750 000 in the 1996/97 financial year. After the amalgamation of Pretoria, Mamelodi and Atteridgeville the amount was adjusted to R1 500 000 in the 1997/98 financial year with the hope of addressing the critical shortage of parks in Mamelodi and Atteridgeville. However in the following years the funds were cut back to R300 000 per annum. With the advent of the CTMM, the Parks and Horticultural Services Section within the Environmental Management Division, has been receiving on average, R3 500 000 per annum for the committed development of 9 new parks per annum. The funds are mainly allocated to development of local parks. This is undertaken without any prospect of additional operational funding or human resource allocation. Further constraining the income and ability of the Environmental Management Division’s to provide well developed Open Space resources, is the fact that funds generated through Open Space alienation and contributions, are not re-directed to the Division for investment and re-investment in existing and new Open Space resources.

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4.4 OPEN SPACES IN CAPITAL CITIES An important part of the city, especially a capital city, is its image or sense of place. It not only makes the city unique and recognisable but also fosters a sense of belonging amongst its inhabitants. Open Spaces play an important role in the creation of a sense of place. Many capital cities are special because of the attention that is given to their Open Spaces. This section focuses specifically on the hard Open Spaces that characterise capital cities.

4.4.1 CLEAR OPEN SPACE STRUCTURE AS A SOLID FOUNDATION

Some of the most impressive capital cities in the world have a strong layout pattern consisting of a combination of soft (natural landscaped) and hard (boulevards and squares) Open Spaces. There is a strong tradition in urban planning originating during the Renaissance, that has influenced the character of capital cities. Cities such as Washington, Paris, Canberra and New Delhi have all been laid out according to these principles. A clear urban structure is created through the layout and this is strengthened by the design of important buildings and tree planting. Most of these cities also have impressively large soft Open Spaces that create a dramatic contrast to the geometric pattern of streets and squares. The Open Spaces and buildings are fiercely protected in these cities and new development is carefully controlled so as to not negatively impact on the character of the city. Good examples of such capital cities can be summarised as follow:

The layout of New Delhi was based on Baroque principles. It contains several radials and axes forming dramatic vistas. The topography played an important role in the placing of prominent buildings.

Figure 35: NEW DELHI, INDIA

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The L'Enfant Plan -- a baroque city set in a bowl. Courtesy of the National Capital

The layout of Washington DC consists of a gird superimposed on a radial pattern, creating dramatic vistas and intersections. The centrepiece of the layout is the mall, a wide open strip accommodating various monuments. The layout was carefully placed between the mountains and rivers which create a unique combination of green and hard Open Spaces.

Figure 36: WASHINGTON DC

Planned as a new town, Canberra encompasses several hills and lakes between which a formal geometric layout was carefully placed. This city successfully combines both natural landscape and formal pattern

Figure 37: CANBERRA, AUSTRALIA

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Paris resembled an informal settlement by the late 1800s, the only Open Space feature being the Seine River. A plan by Baron Haussman involving wide diagonal boulevards and monuments changed the city into one of the most memorable cities in the world.

Figure 38: PARIS, FRANCE

4.4.2 TSHWANE AS CAPITAL CITY

Tshwane, having been the capital of various governments, has several natural and man-made elements that contribute to its capital image. The MSDF highlights the following aspects: ‘The Inner City of Tshwane with its concentration of national and local government functions, as well as its strong historical structure, is identified as the Capital Core in the MSDF. To create a Capital City, significant and strategic interventions are required to create an environment of excellence. The strong symbolism created by the concept of confluence of natural systems, access routes and government buildings should be used to inform the design concept for the Capital Core and the Inner City. The harmonious contrast between nature and built form should also be incorporated strongly in the design concept. Special sites and structures, such as memorials, gardens of remembrance, walls of remembrance, markers, triumphal arches, water features, monuments, statues, museums, forts, battlefields, cemeteries, mausoleums, cenotaphs, etc. that symbolise people’s values, beliefs, aspirations, important personalities and important historical events are needed. It is particularly important for Tshwane, which houses the Capital of South Africa, to project the image of the entire nation and to reflect, therefore, the values, beliefs, history, achievements and aspirations of all South African racial, ethnic, religious, gender and other cultural groups.’ The MSDF highlights the fact that Tshwane has many features which supports its image and role as capital city:

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Well developed boulevards and civic spaces which include: o Nelson Mandela Drive o Church Street Boulevard o Museum Mall o Church Square o Paul Kruger Street

Locations that can potentially accommodate new symbolic elements which include:

o Salvokop (Freedom Park is currently being planned) o Daspoort Rand, opposite the National Zoological Gardens, on the Paul Kruger Street

axis o Fountains Circle (within the traffic circle) o Magaliesberg, at the crossing of the PWV9 o The Hardy Muller traffic circle, Waverley o The “koppies” around the Inner City

Landmarks are conspicuous natural features and man-made structures. They mark

place and thereby reinforce the spatial structure of the city and its legibility. Gateways are features of the natural topography which, in combination with major entrance/exit routes, announce arrival into the city or its distinct parts. The existing man-made landmarks include: o Telkom tower (Lukas Rand) o Union Buildings o UNISA complex o Voortrekker Monument o CSIR complex o Hospital precinct o Old Power Station (Pretoria West) o Power Station (Rooiwal) o the most intensely built-up central area (CBD).

Major natural landmarks include the entire: o Magaliesberg o Meintjieskop o Daspoortrand o Schurweberg/Kwaggasrand/Langeberge o Bronberg o Strubenkop o Pyramid Koppies (Onderstepoort).

Major gateway elements of Tshwane include: o The particularly scenic and dramatic entrance at the Fountains Circle o The N1 in the vicinity of the CSIR and UP Experimental Farm o The ‘poort’ at the National Zoological Gardens o The ‘poort’ at the water purification works adjacent to DF Malan Drive o The ‘poort’ through the Magaliesberg adjacent to Wonderboom Nature Reserve

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Sites suitable for future landmarks features include the following: o sites at all major entrances into the city e.g. southern entrance into Nelson Mandela

Drive (inner city); eastern end of Church Street/Pretorius Street (Hatfield); Western end of Church Street (Pretoria West); northern end of Paul Kruger Street / Mansfield Avenue (Mayville); northern end of Voortrekker Road / HF Verwoerd Drive (Wonderboom South)

o Hospital Hill, Riviera o Magaliesberg, at the crossing of Voortrekker Road

A number of important routes in the metropolitan area contribute significantly to legibility

and also to a unique sense of place due to the trees that line them. These rows of trees are not significant due to the importance of the route they line, but rather due to the environmental quality or ambience they create. Throughout the metropolitan area the existing rows of trees must be augmented with matching new trees wherever gaps have occurred. New rows of trees (at least a single row of trees on each side) have to be planted along a number of main routes. This should be addressed by an extensive tree planting programme and should also be linked to the Metropolitan Open Space framework.

In addition to the above features, Tshwane also contains highly ornamental and developed municipal parks that attract thousands of local and international visitors each year for their horticultural appreciation, heritage and sought-after recreational value. These parks include: o Burgers Park

This 4 hectare park, located in the CBD, was developed in 1872 as Pretoria`s first botanic garden. Burgers Park is one of the finest examples of a late Victorian park in South Africa and was proclaimed a National Monument in the 1970s.

o Jan Cilliers Park This park is also referred to as Protea Park, and situated in the suburb of Groenkloof on the northern slopes of Klapperkop Hill. The park focuses on South African indigenous plants and is especially known for its Aloe and Erica plant collections.

o Magnolia Dell Located in a valley of the Walker Spruit close to Sunnyside and developed from an the remains of an old quarry, Magnolia Dell is well known for its monthly art and candle light markets as well as the popular restaurant Huckleberry`s.

o Springbok Park This 3 hectare indigenous wooded park situated in Hatfield next to two major roads, Pretorius Street and Schoeman Street, was declared a National Monument in the 1970s. Infrastructure such as a restaurant and parking facilities are available within the park.

o Venning Park Venning Park also 3 ha in extent, is located centrally in Arcadia, next to the American Embassy and the Indian High Commission. It is a formal rose and landscaped park and contains a small Café.

o Francina Park An ornamental park situated in Les Marais.

o Flower Street Park An ornamental park situated within the art village of Capital Park.

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Figure 39: Developed, Semi-Developed, Undeveloped Significant Open Spaces within Tshwane (Source: SEFGIS)

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Well developed Resorts include Fountains, Derdepoort, Rooihuiskraal, Zwarkop and Wonderboom

Well developed Sport Stadia include Rietondale Sport Park, Adelaars Sport Park, Harlequins

Club, Lyttleton Sport Park, Pilditch Sport Stadium, the privately managed Supersport Park, the privately managed Securicor Loftus Stadium, the Tshwane University of Technology Sport Grounds and the University of Pretoria Sport Grounds.

However, significant publicly Open Spaces of cultural and social importance remain semi or

undeveloped and include: o Hammanskraal Community Centre

Location of the very first commissioned statue of Nelson Mandela.

o Solomon Mahlangu Freedom Square The place known as Solomon Mahlangu Freedom Square is located about 20 kilometres far from the centre of Pretoria in a north-easterly direction, at the western edge of Mamelodi. This square marks the place of the “Mamelodi Massacre” that took place on 21 November 1985. On that day about 80 000 people marched to the offices of the Mamelodi Town Council as part of a rent protest action. Security forces opened fire in which 13 residents were killed and many more wounded. The square also marks the old Mamelodi entrance.

o Moretele Regional Recreation Resort Located where the Moretele (Pienaars) River flows through the Magaliesberg Mountain range in Mamelodi, this park contains several recreation and entertainment facilities and is the venue for various events, including internationally renowned Jazz Festivals.

o Ga-Motakga Local Recreation Resort Recreational resort located in Atteridgeville.

o Joos Becker Caravan Park Recreational resort located at the foot of the Magaliesberg mountain range along the Apies River in Mayville.

o ODI Stadium Sport Stadium located in Mabopane.

o Giant Stadium Sport Stadium located in Soshanguve.

o Super Stadium and Makaza Sport Complex Sport Stadia located in Atteridgeville.

o H.M Pitse Stadium Sport Stadium located in Mamelodi.

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One of the most spectacular features of Tshwane is the vantage points created by the ridges and Koppies which create memorable vistas of the city. These include:

Aalwyn Kop Hall's Hill Meintjeskop Swawelpoortrant Bay's Hill Hoekplaaskop Murrayfield Wapadrand Bourke's Hill Hospital Hill Outlook Hill Waterkloof Ridge Cable Hill Klapperkop Pretoriusrant Weskop. Cameron Hill Smuts Koppie Renosterkop Pyramid Hills Cornwall Hill Kwaggaskop Salvokop Soshanguve Hills Dumb Bell Hill La Montagne Skanskop Ga-Rankuwa Hills Elliot Ridge Lukasrand Strubenkop Fairy Glen Hill Lynnwood Ridge Sutherland Hill Gunner's Hill Magazine Hill Swartkop

Culture Historical Monuments that occur within Open Space resources can be summarised as:

Apies River Canal Pretoria Station Bronkhorts Ruins Rademeyers Homestead Burgers Park Rebecca Street Cemetary Church Square Rietvlei Homestead City Hall Skanskop Fort Cornwall Hill Monument Springbok Park Daspoortrand Blockhouses Transvaal Museum Eerste Fabrieke Union Buildings Heroes Acre Cemetery Voortrekker Monument Irene Kampkerkhof Wonderboom Fort Irene Oval Wonderboom Iron Ages sites at Hatherley Cemetery West Fort Klapperkop Fort West Fort Hospital Precinct National Biodiversity Institute Fountains Pump House Timber Mills Groenkloof Pioniers Museum Presidency Gardens

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Figure 40: Culture-historical Open Spaces in Tshwane (Source: SEFGIS)

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4.5 OPEN SPACES AND ECONOMICS

4.5.1 THE ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF OPEN SPACES Many studies conclude that Open Space systems provide positive economic benefits for nearby property values and local economies. The benefits can be measured in terms of assessed valuations, business impacts, social and environmental impacts. When certain accepted principles are addressed there is a high likelihood of realizing positive benefits. In general, Open Space areas should be compatible with surrounding development in terms of the scale of development and the expectation of neighbours and vice versa. Such amenities are shown to increase nearby property values and this can ultimately lead to an increase in local tax revenues. The following are some of the economic benefits of Open Spaces: Real property values: Open Space and specifically developed recreational parks are

desirable amenities that contribute to increased re-sale values and increased property values, especially where such properties are located in close proximity to the amenity.

Tax benefits: Increased property values result in increased sales values, increased assessments and increased property tax revenue. Studies indicate increased tax revenues can offset initial park development costs. Assessed values may lag behind market values but will eventually show results.

Multiplier effect: Economic models indicate recreational expenditures generate 1,5 to 3 times more to the local economy than the actual amount of direct expenses. There are direct and indirect benefits of spending on recreation uses which contribute in a chain reaction to the local economy. Management and maintenance expenditures contribute to salaries, equipment costs and material expenses.

Resident expenditures: National studies indicate that local residents typically spend from one to a few extra Rands per day in relation to use of local parks, trails and recreation facilities, which adds up to measurable benefits.

Tourism revenues: Parks, conservation and recreation area can attract visitors who spend on food, lodging, fuel and various hard goods. Tourists may be encouraged to spend extra days in the area. These sites also allow for tourist related infrastructure investment such as the development of hotels, lodges, game related activities, trails, etc.

Sporting events: Certain organized sporting events, such as rugby, football, running and cycling races, triathlons and similar sanctioned events can generate hundreds of thousands to millions of Rands to a local economy from a single organized sporting event.

Corporate relocation: Quality of life considerations are increasingly important in competitive relocation and retention of attractive businesses. Parks and recreation facilities are considered among the most important amenities in surveys concerning quality of life indicators.

Job creation/poverty alleviation: Urban agriculture in the form of either subsistence farming or large scale production farming can contribute significantly to job creation, productive land use and poverty alleviation.

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Utility services, stormwater functioning: Open Spaces in general accommodate sewer lines, stormwater systems, reservoirs, telecommunication structures, landfill sites, etc.

Other Benefits: Open Space and park development addresses clean air, clean water and public health benefits. Healthy residents contribute to a range of intangible personal and community benefits, including lower medical expenses and higher worker productivity. Such facilities provide outstanding opportunities for healthy, family-oriented activities, which ultimately contributes to a range of positive social benefits, such as decreased juvenile crime and lower school drop-out rates.

Attracts investment Parks and Open Space enhance the quality of

life that attracts tax-paying businesses and residents to communities

Small company owners say recreation, parks and Open Space are the highest priority in choosing a new location for their businesses (Trust for public land, economic benefits report, 2002)

Enhances property values

Proximate principle states that people are frequently willing to pay more for a home near a maintained park or Open Space area

Parks and Open Space can increase the property values of land around them o A typical neighbourhood park has a positive

impact on surrounding properties located up to 150m from a park

o Larger regional parks can increase values of surrounding properties up to 600m away.

(John Crompton, Parks and economic development, 2001

Attracts tourists Open Spaces boost local economies by attracting tourists and supporting outdoor recreation.

4.5.2 TOURISM IN TSHWANE Tourism is an important yet undeveloped resource in the City. The Tourism Division of the City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality has recently embarked on a process to develop an integrated tourism master plan for the city in order for tourism to fulfill its rightful place as a generator of economic benefits to all the areas of the city. The process started at the beginning of February, and a draft plan should be available for discussion by the middle of July.

Tshwane is best known as the Jacaranda City for all the purple blossom-bedecked trees which line its streets, its colourful gardens, shrubs and trees, its abundance of Open Spaces as well as the air of history that pervades much of central Pretoria, especially Church Square.

5,78 million tourists came to South Africa in 2001. 50% visit Gauteng for an average period of 3 days. The average foreign (all inbound arrivals) tourist

spending within SA in 2001 was R3 170. The average international (overseas arriving by air) tourist spending was R7 647. The total average spending has increased more than R1 300 between 1994 and 2000.

Domestic tourism contributes some 67% of the total SA industry, with annual spending of R17billion.

Gauteng’s major international sources of foreign visitors are Africa (25%); UK (15%); Germany (6%); rest of Europe (22%); North America (14%); Far East (9%); Australasia (4%), South America (3%); Middle East (2%).

The majority of the province’s domestic market originates from Johannesburg and the greater Gauteng province (41%), Northern Province and North-West (23%), Western Cape, Mpumalanga and Kwa-Zulu Natal (8% each), the Northern Cape and Free State (7%) and Eastern Cape (5%).

International visitors to Gauteng are expected to increase 11%, year on year, by 2005, and domestic visitors by 3%, year on year, by 2005.

During 2000, tourism contributed about 4.8% to the national GDP, making it the highest contributing economic sector during 2000. It has been identified by government as having the potential to become one of SA’s top five economic sectors.

National investment in the tourism sector is estimated at R12.8 billion or 11.4% of total investment.

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The following are the most important tourism destinations within Tshwane:

IMPORTANT TOURISM DESTINATIONS UNION BUILDINGS

Designed by British Architect Sir Herbert Baker to accommodate the offices of the Prime Minister in 1913 and still the seat of the government and the presidency. Considered by many to be the architect's greatest achievement and South Africa's architectural masterpiece. The Union Buildings is set in terraced gardens modelled on the famous Villa d’Este at Tivoli near Rome, Italy, with magnificent views of the city. The gardens of the Union Buildings are home to the Delville Wood memorial which commemorates the South African soldiers who died in the Battle of Delville Wood in France (World War I). This was the setting for President Nelson Mandela's historic inauguration in 1994.

VOORTREKKER MONUMENT HERITAGE SITE

This "place of pilgrimage" of the Afrikaans population. The monument was built in 1949 in remembrance of the Great Trek and Bloedriver Battle.

MUSEUM HEARTLAND

Pretoria offers a number of museums, grouped together as Museum Park. Transvaal Museum of Natural History houses a selection of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, insects, fossils and archaeological material. The Geological Museum has a display of precious and semi-precious stones. The Austin Roberts Bird Hall contains a comprehensive collection of South African birds. The museums lie in Paul Kruger Street near Church Square, within the central business district.

EKSTEEN TRANSPORT TECHNOLOGY MUSEUM

Displays on meteorology, antarctic expeditions, civil aviation, water transport and various forms of road transport are featured in the museum.

MELROSE HOUSE

This building dates back to the year 1884 is one of the most beautiful example of Victorian houses in South Africa. In 1902 the Peace Treaty of Vereeniging, which ended the Anglo-Boer War, was signed here. Today the museum displays original English furniture from the 19th century as well as porcelaine and other accessories of that time. It is located in Jacob Mare street, across Burgers Park, in the central business district.

NATIONAL BIO-DIVERSITY INSTITUTE

The gardens contain indigenous plants from all over South Africa grouped according to their climatic region. The garden was started in 1946 and is 76 hectares in size, with 50 hectares under intensive cultivation using exclusively South African plants. The cultivated area includes a cycad garden, succulent garden, aloe plantings and other striking collections. Ridge, grassland and savanna vegetation with dense bush are represented. Over 600 species of flowering plants including half the country's tree species occur here naturally.

PRETORIA NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS

Tshwane boasts the biggest zoo in South Africa and one of the biggest in the world. It is located in Boom Street in the central business district, houses more than 700 species on 300 hectares and features an aquarium,snake and reptile park.

SOUTH AFRICAN RESERVE BANK

Standing at 150 metres, the building is a combination of reflecting glass and black Rustenburg granite, comprising of 37 floors. Outside the building there is a stainless-steel, non-representational sculpture by Johan van Heerden, specially commissioned to complement the building.

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AUSTIN ROBERTS BIRD SANCTUARY

More than 100 indigenous bird species can be seen at the sanctuary, all in their natural environment. The reserve is one of the oldest and most famous bird sanctuaries in Pretoria, with eagles, vultures, owls, and storks to be viewed. It is a declared National Monument.

WONDERBOOM NATURE RESERVE

The word Wonderboom is an Afrikaans word meaning 'The wonder tree'. It refers to a fig tree in the reserve which is believed to be 1000 years old. The reserve also offers culture historical artefacts such as the Wonderboom Fort, recreational facilities, walking rails, a man-made waterfall and abundant bird life.

KRUGER HOUSE

President Paul Kruger lived in this house near Church Square from 1884 to 1901. It was the first Pretorian residence with electricity and telephone facilities. It is furnished in the original style and shows many exhibits from the life of this Boer president, for example his State coach and his private railway carrier. A few hundred metres to the west, is Pretoria’s Oldest Cemetery, Helde Akker (Heroes’ Acre) where President Kruger lies buried.

PRETORIA ART MUSEUM

The Pretoria Art Museum is located in the central suburb of Arcadia in Schoeman Street. The museum was established in 1964 and nowadays displays more than 6000 objects - paintings, sculptures, drawings, photographs, mostly by South African artists.

MUSEUM OF CULTURAL HISTORY

South Africa's most important museum for cultural history is situated in Visagie Street in Sunnyside. It features an ethnological department and fine collection of prehistoric rockpaintings.

RIETVLEI NATURE RESERVE

There are quite a number of Nature Reserves near the city. One of the largest, is the 4000 hectares Rietvlei Dam Municipal Nature Reserve located 15 kilometres south of Pretoria. Rietvlei is home to a variety of African game, rhino and cheetah and serves a primary purpose in conserving a significant water catchment area of the city..

ATTERIDGEVILLE TOURISM PROJECT

Tour routes include visits to community centres, a traditional healer, African beer brewing house and a shebeen.

TSWAING METEORITE CRATER

Gauteng’s history dates back to 218 000 BC, when a meteorite created the Tswaing crater north of Tshwane. Situated 40 km to the northwest of Pretoria, the Tswaing Meteorite Crater is known as the Pretoria Saltpan. One of the best-preserved meteorite craters in the world, this crater is home to a few stone artifacts of the Late Stone Age as well as an impressive wetland.

DINOKENG “All of Africa in One Day”. The 2 800km² area offers a range of attractions including the legendary “Big Five” and cultural and historical sites found within the richly diverse natural habitats of the bushveld and grassland terrain of the Dinokeng area.

THE CRADLE OF HUMANKIND

The Cradle of Humankind, at Sterkfontein, is Gauteng’s famous World Heritage Site. Here, caves have produced nearly half of the world’s hominid fossil discoveries. Close to the Cradle is the Kromdraai Wonder Cave, as well as the Rhino and Lion Nature Reserve.

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TOURISM TRAILS Knowledge &

Industry Route – academic

powerhouse

The route goes past universities, technikons, government research institutes, museums and industrial estates where some of the country's largest factories are situated. The City of Tshwane is one of science and technology, knowledge and industry. As the academic, scientific and technological capital of South Africa, the city has the most highly developed technology and research sector in Africa.

Conservation City Route – protected

nature

Day-routes going to different parts of Tshwane, enabling the visitor to experience between three and four conservation areas per route. All the routes begin and end at the Austin Roberts Bird Sanctuary, an educational and recreational focus point. The ridges, mountains, valleys and plains of Tshwane are a mosaic of natural and cultural features, ranging from 2 000 million year old granite rocks to a 220 000 year old meteorite crater, from grassy highveld plains and slopes to the woodlands and shrub lands of the African savannah, from Early Stone Age remains to skyscrapers and construction sites. Many of these elements of natural and cultural heritage are protected through a system of conservation areas.

Garden City – cultivated nature

This route goes from panoramic heights where you can view the cityscape from various aspects, to parks in the suburbs, townships and in the heart of the city.

Park Route – Culture on foot

Designed as an urban stroll, the Park Heritage Route allows visitors an introduction to the City of Tshwane's rich and diverse cultural and natural heritage in a unique and alternative way. This route goes past a selection of important buildings and sites, which have remained, giving the city its distinct sense of place.

Setso Route – City with a soul

The Setso route has been designed to encapsulate the unique feel of Tshwane. The route goes from the grandeur of the Union Buildings, through Church Square, to Atteridgeville (the Jazz City), Marabastad, the National Zoological Gardens, Pretoria Station, Oeverzicht Village and Hatfield.

Struggle and Freedom Route – War and peace

The tour goes to sites and monuments rousing the emotions of war and peace over nearly two centuries. As capital of the old Transvaal Boer Republic and later the country, Pretoria stood in the centre of war and peace. Wars in the area range from the Difaqane War (which was the upheavals amongst tribes during the 1830s), to the two Anglo-Boer Wars (The Transvaal War of Independence, 1880-1881 and the Anglo-Boer South African War (1899-1902) and the Freedom Struggle during the 1950s to the 1980s.

Kgaka Trail

Kgaka is the Helmeted Guineafowl, known as Kgaka amongst the Tshwane speaking community. This trail encompasses a number of interesting and historical sites, starting with the Rietvlei Nature Reserve. Also included is Cornwall Hill, which is the highest point between Pretoria and Johannesburg. The Smuts House has a 2,4 km circular trail called the Oubaas Trial. Guided walks are conducted and some 169 bird species is found on this property. General Jan Christiaan Smuts, soldier and statesman built his home on Doornkloof farm, a farm known for its seclusion and serenity. Bakwena Cave also called the Big Tree Hole was a natural sinkhole with underground cavities and was used by the Bakwena Tribe during the upheavals of Difiqane. The Agricultural Research Council is an animal and dairy institute which was opened in 1962. It also hosts the Porcinarium or pig museum which is worth a visit. The Irene Estate and Irene Dairy was developed by Alois Hugo Nellmapius in 1890. Today it is still operated as a dairy farm and fresh products are sold daily to visitors. The City of Tshwane is fortunate to have the South African Mint within its boundaries. In 1892 Paul Kruger, the then president ordered the mint press from Germany. This press, still in working order can be seen in the museum at the SA Mint.

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The Mohube Trail or The Red Bishop

Trail

This route leads to The Rooihuiskraal Site and Indigenous Farm project, the Air Force Museum, the Air Force memorial and the Zwartkops Airforce Base. The Air Force Museum is appropriately housed on the first airfield of the South African Air Force. The Air Force was founded in 1920 which was equipped gifts from the British Government. The Air Force Memorial stands on Bays Hill overlooking the Zwartkop airfield which had been the cradle of the South African Air Force. The memorial commemorates those air force members who lost their lives in service of the country. The Zwartkop Air Force Base was the first air force base in South Africa. The museum houses 167 aircraft, 40 can still be flown and 12 are still used in regular flights. The largest collection of historical aircraft is kept here.

The Mororwane Trail also The

Crowned Plover Trail

This route includes a variety of sites from an art gallery, the Irene Railway Station, a concentration camp cemetery, the Supersport Centurion Cricket Stadium, the Hennops River trail, the Prayer Garden, Leriba Lodge and the miniature railway. The Irene Railway Station building dates back to 1900 and the British Royal Family disembarked during their visit in 1947. The Irene Concentration Camp Cemetery is a national monument. The camp closed on the 7th of February 1903 with more than 2000 people buried, although the name list only shows 1 149 names. Supersport Centurion Cricket Stadium is home to the Northern Titans Cricket Union and seats 20 000 people and hosted many international cricket matches. The Hennops River Trail is 13 kilometres long and about a 5 hours walk. The trail starts in South Street by the cricket stadium and ends at the Zwartkop Nature Reserve. Ossewa-Brandwag garden of remembrance was launched in Bloemfontein in 1939 after the Great Trek Centenary in 1938. Opposite this site, across the cemetery roadway is a semi-circular pond with columns and small fountains, the Prayer Garden. Leriba Lodge is a luxury bush lodge nested on 8 hectares of indigenous forest, gracing the banks of the Hennops River.

The Legodi Trail or The Glossy Starling

Trail

The trail goes across the border of Tshwane South and includes the Zwartkop Nature Reserve, a dolomite quarry, aloes, proteas and cabbage trees, hospital cave and suspension bridge and finally the old farm shop. The Zwartkop Nature Reserve is on the banks of the Hennops River. The dolomite quarry dates back from about 1953 and the dolomite were used in the smelting of iron and for burning lime. Vlakplaas is the infamous site used by the Security Police during its "Total Onslaught" operations of the 1980s. The Old Farm Shop was built in 1939 by Suliman Mohaned and is one of the very few farm shops still operating in the greater Tshwane area.

The Indian Myna Trail

In the 1950's, informal settlements existed in the area of Laudium, part of Mooiplaats, through to Zwartkops Raceway and old drive-in theatre and down to Sunderland Ridge off Mimosa Road, east of Mooiplaats Road. The Sunderland Ridge settlement was known as "Spruit" and had a Songoma, which is a traditional healer who was used by all sections of the community. This trail includes a number of sites celebrating Laudium, Laudium Plaza, Jummaj Mosque, Sivan Alayam, Carrim Islamic Institute, Dural Salaam Centre and Musjied (mosque) Al'Salaam. Laudium was proclaimed in 1962 and due to the Group Areas Act of 1960, a small tickle of people started to move from the Asiatic Bazaar, also known as Marabastad to Laudium. The Jummah Mosque is where Friday prayers are conducted. The Sivan Alayam temple holds services on Sundays for the Tamil speaking community. The Darul Salaam Centre and Musjied or Mosque Al'Salaam is an impressive building with the minaret raising to a height of 35m and is clearly visible on the skyline of Laudium and was established for Islamic research and education.

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4.5.3 URBAN AGRICULTURE 4.5.3.1 International experience

In a broad sense, urban agriculture can be defined as the production of food and non-food through cultivation of plant, tree crops, aquaculture, and animal husbandry, within urban and peri-urban areas. It is a dynamic concept that comprises a variety of farming systems, ranging from subsistence production and processing at household level to fully commercialised agriculture. Urban agriculture is typically practiced over smaller and more dispersed areas than rural agriculture, uses land and water more sparingly and efficiently, integrates systems more effectively, and

Kenya and Tanzania: two out of three urban households are engaged in food production activities.

Big cities in China produce 90% of their vegetable consumption.

Kampala devotes 50% of its land for urban food production.

Addis Ababa, Harare, Dar es Salaam are among the many southern cities where urban agriculture comprises a large portion of the urban economy.

East Jakarta: 18% of total food consumption in low-income households was produced within the city proper. This was even found to be 60% in Kampala, and 50% in Nairobi.

produces much higher yields and more specialty crops and livestock It takes place on diverse urban sites: back gardens, rights of way, road and stream edges, land reserves, flood plains and hillsides, water bodies, and wetlands, which are all used in both the short and the longer terms. Urban agriculture encompasses a broad range of activities and dimensions and can include waste management, urban gardening, community gardening, organic farming, permaculture, greenhouses, rooftop gardening, and urban forestry. In developed countries it is motivated by recreational and environmental values, whereas the growing of crops and other food stuffs in developing-country cities is usually linked to peoples' survival strategies. In terms of its contributions to development, urban agriculture: enhances food security; provides additional income and employment for

poor and middle-income urban dwellers, as well as savings for other basic needs;

produces foodstuff otherwise unavailable or unaffordable; and

contributes to an ecologically sound urban environment by contributing to urban greening and microclimate development or to the re-use of urban organic wastes.

800 million people are now engaged in urban agriculture worldwide; of these, 200 million would be producing for the market and 150 million would be employed full time. In several cities, urban food production is already a major employer, land user, and supplier of food; and specific crops and livestock are estimated to reach multimillion-dollar market values.

Urban agriculturalists face many obstacles such as access to land and water resources, security of user rights and the level of the land rent. Furthermore land allocation for urban food producers is often excluded from land use plans. Urban agricultural practices occurring on public Open Space are frequently an issue, especially in terms of

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environmental impact. Concentrated animal husbandry especially raises more concern than plant cultivation does.

Urban agriculture has become more important internationally over the last couple of decades as poverty and unemployment grows and public interventions for effective promotion and management of low-income urban food production have been growing. Some examples are: New cities have been designed to accommodate urban food production. Master plans

of existing cities have been revised to set the framework for practical initiatives i.e, in Tanzania and Zaire.

Cities are reviewing and adapting technical planning norms to facilitate urban food production. This includes the revision of exiting urban zoning bylaws and the integration of urban agriculture in zoning plans. Such plans aim to highlight zones for permissible urban agriculture and restricted zones where certain types of farming will be prohibited due to special conditions, i.e. Kampala, Kinshasa, Dar es Salaam, Dakar, Bissau, Maputo and Shanghai.

Cities are creating permanent institutional programs and agencies to exploit flexible zoning modalities, allocate Open Spaces to communal agriculture through purpose-specific leaseholds, and legalize organized activities, entitling farmers to credit and technical assistance, i.e. Argentina, Costa Rica, Cuba, Guinea Bissau and Peru.

Public utilities have leased land, entered into partnerships with producers, or become producers themselves, i.e. Mexico, Senegal, South Africa, Tunisia.

Urban agriculture is promoted as a temporal use of vacant public and private land. Examples of tenure agreements between urban producers and owners of private or semi-public estates with idle areas can be found in Lima (hospital grounds), Harare (golf club), Santiago de Chile (school yards), Dar es Salaam (university campus), and Port-au-Prince (church grounds).

Multifunctional land uses are promoted and community participation in the management of urban Open Spaces is encouraged. Under certain conditions food production is combined with other urban functions such as recreation, water storage, nature conservation, firebreak zones and zones with high earthquake or flooding risk. Farmers are encouraged (economic incentives, education) to participate in the management of such areas, which reduce the public costs of managing these areas and protect it against unofficial uses and informal re-zoning.

Space is provided for individual or community gardens in new public housing projects and private building schemes. New housing development plan for communal space for agricultural activities. In the case of the planned conversion of agricultural areas for other land uses, the urban farmers are supplied with alternative lands (land swaps), i.e. Dar es Salaam has included urban agriculture as interim or permanent land use in public housing schemes.

The first step to ensuring successful urban agriculture is to accept urban agriculture as a legitimate form of land use. A review of existing policies and bylaws is necessary as a precondition for the removal of unsubstantiated legal restrictions on urban agriculture. Such a review should go hand in hand with the development of a number of measures to prevent encroachment on ecologically sensitive areas, the use of drinking water for irrigation, or contamination of groundwater by high-external-input agriculture.

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4.5.3.2 Agriculture in Tshwane The geographical boundaries of Tshwane include significant tracts of land with an impoverished population, thus creating an opportunity for job creation and food security through urban agriculture. Although conventional commercial urban agriculture has a high social and economic value (i.e. capacity building, environmental education and economic upliftment), it does not necessarily have a high ecological value. In many cases, especially where the proposed agricultural activity is not planned and managed correctly, the agricultural activity could have a significant detrimental effect on the qualitative, physical and biophysical environments (for example over-irrigation or water pollution by fertilisers). The State of the Environment Report (SoER) indicates that: ‘Because conventional urban agricultural activities are not regarded as ecologically sensitive, they should be regarded as a proposed land use that can also take place on existing isolated Open Spaces of the CTMM area. Bio-agriculture or permaculture has a beneficial environmental impact and should be given preference over conventional agriculture in the allotment of sites. Although urban agriculture is an important concept in sustainable development, no areas were indicated on previous Open Space plans for such activities. The main reason for this is that these areas and the types of urban agriculture need to be determined with the assistance of the planners and the communities involved (e.g. for eco-village concepts to be introduced). Only once the planners and the community have determined the type of urban agriculture that is required and the area (m²) needed for it, will it be possible to allocate existing Open Space for the purposes of urban agriculture’.

According to the SoER, the issues with regards to Urban Agriculture are: The habitat and biodiversity of the terrestrial ecosystem Development pressure on agricultural land The economic growth of urban agriculture The discharge of chemicals and fertilisers into surface and subsurface water

Agriculture is currently a zoning category within the different town planning schemes:

Town planning Scheme

Use zone Primary land use

Consent use

Pretoria Town Planning Scheme, 1974

Agriculture Agriculture, one dwelling house, farm stalls, home undertakings

Institutions; place of instruction; place of public worship, place of refreshment; social hall, special buildings; sports grounds; dwelling houses; one additional dwelling house.

Centurion Town Planning Scheme, 1992 (revised 1999)

Agriculture Agriculture, dwelling houses

Place of instruction; institution, place of public worship, community hall, sport and recreation clubs; parking areas; agricultural industry; caravan park; picnic place; nursery; camping site; animal boarding facilities; guest house; special uses.

Akasia - Soshanguve Town Planning Scheme, 1996

Agriculture Agricultural buildings, agricultural land, nursery,

Shop (limited to sale of goods produced on the property); home office.Tea garden; institution, social place, kennels, place of refreshment; place of amusement; guest house.

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There is however no breakdown of the different types of agriculture in the private sector, and no data structures are currently available on the extent, types and economic significance relating to urban agriculture.

4.5.3.3 Agricultural potential within the CTMM

Although prime/high potential agricultural land may rest on a range of economic criteria, this land can also be graded in terms of the physical characteristics of soils and climate, as obtained by detailed climatic and soil surveys. Prime soils should contain the following: Adequate moisture supply (natural rainfall or irrigation practices). A long enough growing season, which may be based on climate. Must not be too wet and subject to frequent flooding. Must be permeable to water and air. Must not be too alkaline or too acidic. Rockiness must be limited. Cannot be associated with steep slopes. Must not be highly erodible.

One of the pressing issues within Gauteng is that prime agricultural land may also be prime land for other development, including urban and industrial development. Therefore, it is assumed that agriculture will continuously be competing for land within an urban-industrialized economy. To address this issue, the Gauteng Agriculture Potential Atalas (GAPA) has graded land according to its agricultural potential, taking into account the following aspects: Covariant properties of soil forms resulting in soil-slope units Soil depth Mechanical limitations Soil drainage (water logging) Erosion susceptibility Soil texture Soil structure Contour mapping (according to land type survey methodology)

o 0 – 5% slope o 5 – 15 % slope o 5 – 45% slope

The results for the CTMM are depicted in Figure 43. Agricultural Potential however does not take into account the availability of water, which is regarded as a shortcoming to the data.

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Figure 41: GAPA information

(Source: GDACE, 2003)

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4.5.4 THE VALUATION OF OPEN SPACES Despite its economic value, Open Spaces often become soft targets for development and are often sold at low prices because its full value is not understood. Open Spaces are mostly valued according to their level of development. As such it is the cheapest land in the city. The Tshwane OSF argues that Open Space value should rather be based on the cost of restoring such space back to its natural state once it has been developed and/or based on cost-benefit analysis studies that considers and quantifies not only Open Space’s development value, but also its social and ecological (environmental goods and services) functioning value.

It should be remembered that recreational parks and Open Spaces are often just as valuable as developed land and the myth that ‘growth pays for growth’ is often not true when development occurs in sprawling greenfields as the cost of utilities, increased fire and police protection, schools, and other municipal services are often more than the revenue created from the development.

Tshwane is not the only city experiencing pressure for the development of Open Space. Another example is the greenbelt surrounding London:

In England, Thomas More proposed in his famous book Utopia that a town wall should be erected around the town itself to prevent the town from sprawling and that forests should be created outside the town wall as an intermediate area which separated the town and the countryside. This idea was later taken up in the creation of the London greenbelt which is now more than 30km in width, covering a total of 5 000km2. This greenbelt has the functions of separating urban and farming areas, restricting new building and providing amenities. The green belt is now 50 years old year just as debate gathers pace about their future as the wedges which restrain the growth of towns and cities and despite its success in curbing urban sprawl, government is reviewing its policy on greenbelts in order to accommodate pressure for development. But Ron Tate, vice-president of the Royal Town Planning Institute, said there were signs the policy could change. The institute says it does not want to abolish green belts but believes they are currently too restrictive and wants more of them reviewed at the same time as local and regional strategic plans. Mr Tate complained green belts could cause environmentally damaging "leap frogging", where people live in one place but have to commute to work elsewhere. He went on: "There are areas that have small settlements where green belts wash over the whole lot. These villages are stagnating in the middle of it. If areas do not grow, they do not prosper." Mr Tate suggested people often thought green belt was "all lovely like chocolate box covers" when a lot of it was "awful land" containing quarries or landfill sites.

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4.6 OPEN SPACES AND SAFETY

4.6.1 OPEN SPACES AS PLACES OF CRIME Cities are increasingly linked to safety and security concerns for a number of reasons. Some argue that the breakdown of traditional values and systems lead to a lack of control over individuals and thus to more crime. Others point to the visible disparity between rich and poor in the city as a reason behind increased crime, especially when linked to high unemployment and poverty rates. Open Spaces play an important role not only in safety and security but also the perceptions of safety. Vacant land, especially in the poor areas, presents a serious safety risk. Apart from buffer strips, vacant land is often the result of poor planning: plots reserved for servitudes or for schools, business or residential housing, never developed. Most people living in these areas have to travel long distances on foot and have to traverse these tracts of vacant land, often after dark creating the ideal opportunity for crimes such as rape, assault, and robbery. Undeveloped Open Spaces in Tshwane are generally seen as unsafe and as contributing to the safety risk of surrounding Open Spaces. Many Open Spaces in Tshwane are sold, based on their perceived contribution to crime in an area. A study conducted by Marketing Surveys and Statistical Analysis (MSSA) on request of the erstwhile City Council of Pretoria in the late 1990s investigated the leisure time needs and usage of parks in Pretoria.The MSSA Reports indicated several problems exist in parks and Open Spaces: (not in order of importance or severity): Littering Loafing/ idling Squatting Misuse of alcohol/ drugs Theft on adjacent properties Public indecency Yard sneaking Theft from motor vehicles Illegal trade (alcohol / drugs) Murder Rowdiness/ loud music Robbery Rape Prostitution Satanic operations Urinating in Open Spaces Fighting Assault Vandalism

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Further findings of the study indicated that Police and Security Services did not have enough manpower to effectively address the problems and that the possible implementation of a Park Ranger Units should be considered. In recent times it has become more evident that safety concerns within Open Spaces directly and indirectly relate to the: Developed status of the Open Space resource; Manner in which the Open Space resource has been developed (sight lines, vegetation

cover, accessibility, etc); Presence of people, eyes, ears; Development status of the surrounding neighbourhoods (building activity, migrant labour

without accommodation, etc.); Community involvement and ownership.

4.6.2 OPEN SPACES AS COMMUNITY BUILDERS

Open Space do not necessarily contribute to crime. Within the prevailing socio-economic climate, a common concern of property owners is that the provisioning of parks, trails and Open Space systems will increase crime and vandalism and decrease property values. There is however ample evidence to show that in general such facilities provide positive or neutral impacts on surrounding properties. Impacts are relative to the expectations of individual residents. In more developed neighbourhoods residents may expect a certain amount of activity or noise while in remote areas residents expect more solitude. Open Spaces can also foster community renewal by building neighbourhood spirit. Well-managed and maintained spaces can create opportunities for all sections of the community to interact. They can promote a sense of place, be a source of community pride and also offer opportunities for people to play an active part in caring for the local environment. A study by the University of Illinois found that residents living near Open Spaces enjoy more social activities, have more visits with their neighbourhoods and have a stronger feeling of belonging to their community. At the same time, a study published in 1997 by the Harvard School of Public Health, showed that lower rates of violence occur in neighbourhoods where people feel a greater sense of belonging. This is known as “collective efficacy” which is a mutual trust among residents and a willingness to intervene in the supervision of children and the maintenance of public order.

4.6.3 DESIGNING FOR SAFETY

Well-designed spaces can reduce opportunities for crime and the fear of crime. It is possible to successfully address the issues of safety in Open Spaces through design and surveillance. As important to address, however, is the perception of safety. Perceptions are just as important to evaluate, as is measurable statistics and residents concerns should be included in any proposals for development of public Open Space and facilities.

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In many instances where crime is experienced in Open Spaces this can be remedied by the principles of Crime Prevention through Environmental Design. Environmental Design principles promote aspects such as: increasing both formal and informal surveillance; controlling access and escape routes; improving the image of the area; diversifying the activities in the Open Space; and designing in order to foster territoriality.

The recently drafted Tshwane Safer City Policy also deals with safety within public spaces and concurs with the above design principles.

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4.7 OPEN SPACES AND HEALTH

4.7.1 THE SOCIAL AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF OPEN SPACES The social benefits of Open Spaces range from enjoyment to psychological benefits.

4.7.1.1 Physical health

Open Space provides opportunities for sport and recreation, helping to promote active and healthy lifestyles, and stimulate opportunities for environmental education amongst local groups, schools and individuals. Well developed Open Space has the opportunity to become a significant factor in the wellness revolution. It is a well known saying that: “People often say that they like nature; yet they often fail to recognize that they need it...Nature is not merely 'nice.' It is not just a matter of improving one's mood, rather it is a vital ingredient in healthy human functioning".

4.7.1.2 Enjoyment

The preservation of ecological and conservation areas with natural plant and wildlife within the city provides areas for enjoyment by residents and visitors.

4.7.1.3 Psychological Benefits

There is an extensive body of self-report data linking the natural environment or Open Space to everything from increased self-esteem to stress reduction. Nature as contemplation, solitude, privacy and intimacy

Perhaps the dominant expressed rationale for using Open Space is the need for a place of contemplation and solitude. People are drawn to gardens, urban and suburban parks, and bucolic natural landscapes to sit passively or to engage more actively in exploratory behaviour. Many say they seek places set apart physically, or separated from other people, while others seek to simply remove themselves from their daily rituals and need no physical or social separation. We consider Open Spaces to be places that enable a "psychological escape" or an opportunity to think in a less pressured way, about the circumstances of daily life, whether or not we do so in a solitary or companioned way. Natural environments are unique in their ability to provide solitude and privacy, no matter how we use them, or even whether we use them. The very idea that we can get away, whether or not we do so, provides a psychological "time-out." The solitude of natural environments also enables us to discover and explore our social and personal identities. Urban public spaces provide us the opportunity to explore the range of permissible behaviours, and they act as a "school for social learning."

Nature as restorative and therapeutic The idea that calmness or balance is crucial to a restorative experience is an echo of

the oft-stated desire for solitude or peace. We need places which combine an enclosed small-scale place and an open large-scale space to support the complementary feelings of security and freedom. Distraction or escape does not equal restoration, and there must be some further benefit of vegetated landscapes if we are

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to do more than take a "time out" from our problems. This is accomplished through the ability of the natural environment to provide "fascination," which is described as delight in sensory inputs that leaves no time for deep thoughts.

Nature as a stress reducer Nature is seen as an effective stress reducer because it provides a kind of "cognitive

quiet," necessitating fewer decisions based on external demands. Nature and self-concept

Inspired by their efforts to teach social responsibility and self-esteem, hundreds of other programs have been established to provide "personal growth, therapy, education, and leadership development" to "youth-at-risk," disadvantaged urban teens, the developmentally disabled, prisoners and others.

It is clear that we are in a symbiotic relationship with the environment we live in-- that in altering nature and Open Space, we alter the patterns of our lives. It is also clear that we carry within us the images of the places we value, not only functional aspects of its use, but in its concern for the symbolic. "Viewed as an amenity, nature may be readily replaced by some greater technological achievement. Viewed as an essential bond between human and other living things, the natural environment has no substitutes."

4.7.2 THE MEDICAL HEALTH BENEFITS OF OPEN SPACES Already dealt with under the ecological functioning of Open Spaces, environmental goods and services include: Purification of drinking water Prevention of water borne deceases Air pollution management Noise pollution management Climate control management

4.7.3 SPORTS AND RECREATION FACILITIES WITHIN TSHWANE The following well developed Recreation Resorts are available to the city: Fountains Valley Metropolitan Recreation Resort Derdepoort Metropolitan Recreation Resort Rooihuiskraal Regional Recreation Resort Zwartkop Regional Recreation Resort Wonderboom Regional Recreation Resort Kwaggaspruit Regional Recreation Resort The city’s 24 local recreational Swimming pools.

The city’s main sporting venues include: Securicor Loftus Super Sport Park Pilditch Gauteng North Tennis Head Quarters Rietondale Sport Park

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Caledonian Sport Stadium Hillcrest Swimming Pool De Jong Diving Centre The University of Pretoria Sport Complex The Tshwane University of Technology Sport Complex and Lyttleton Sport Park.

3 D S p o r t F a c i l i t i e s

T o t a l D e v e lo p e d

T o t a l S e m i- d e v e lo p e d

T o t a l U n - d e v e lo p e d

Figure 42: Developed, semi-developed & undeveloped Sports Facilities

(Source: CTMM, Sport and Recreation)

There are however a variety of challenges facing the CTMM with regards to the provisioning and maintenance of sports facilities: Need and utilisation patterns

Despite Tshwane being reasonably well provided with sport facilities as a whole, there are areas within the city which are lagging behind noticeably in the number and quality of facilities available. This has led to potential sport facility users resorting to the use of informal facilities and facilities not entirely suited to sports being practiced. Examples of this are the use of Open Spaces designated and zoned for purposes such as cemeteries or schools, being used for informal soccer fields. Proclaimed, existing recreational parks are also utilized for formalised sporting games, often resulting in user conflict. The main reasons for this can be attributed to population density increases and demographic changes within specific neighbourhoods.

Changing needs The sporting participation patterns of the community are subject to change over time, resulting in facilities becoming redundant. A clear example of this is the current “surplus” of tennis clubs in certain parts of the city. In the 1950,s, 1960,s and 1970’s tennis was an extremely popular sport, primarily among the white population. Substantial tennis facilities were built over these periods. While tennis today remains reasonably popular, facilities are not optimally utilised, resulting in the closing down and merging of tennis clubs, leaving facilities vacant.

School sport A comparison of the quality and quantity of sport facilities at schools shows a glaring disparity between the previously white and previously disadvantaged schools. Sport facilities at schools in the township and rural areas are few, and at present the CTMM is intervening where possible, to assist in the scraping of informal soccer fields on vacant

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school sites. This lack of school infrastructure places increased pressure on recreational parks developed in such areas.

Club Sport Amateur sport has felt the impact of general maintenance cost increases and decreases in the subsidisation of their sports by National Government and relevant federations. This has led to clubs exploring alternative methods of augmenting their income to remain viable entities. The identified methods of additional income generation are often not in support or related to the landuse zoning of their facilities. Income generation by means of outdoor advertising, the erection of cell phone towers, the establishment of office parks and operation of restaurants/pubs on the club grounds, are some examples of alternative sources of income.

Maintenance The maintenance of sport and recreation facilities in the city is still largely the responsibility of CTMM. The cost of such maintenance has exponentially increased against a background of dwindling operational budget allocation, placing severe limitation on maintaining acceptable maintenance standards.

Zoning Due to the various Town Planning Schemes guiding development within the city, sport facilities are informed by various zonings, allowing for different uses and related facilities to be developed. The majority of sport facilities have been established on land zoned for “Public Open Space”. Any upgrading of facilities on such land requires formalised land use change processes, as well as authorisation in terms of the legislated Environmental Impact Assessment Process.

Participation in city planning and development On account of transformation changes, Open Space provisioning for Sport & Recreation purposes resort with the CTMM’s Educational Services Division. The Division does not actively participate in commenting on development application and especially in new township developments where Open Space provisioning is critical to the process. Without the active participation of the Division, or alternatively an arrangement for the Environmental Management to provide such input, the provisioning of suitably sized and located Open Space for sport purposes, will remain largely unattended to.

Estate developments and commercial recreation The growing trend since the early 2000s towards security and lifestyle estates as well as commercial recreation (member’s only gymnasiums, squash courts, golf courses, etc.) has lightened the demand for municipal sport facility provisioning to the higher income sectors of the community. This is especially evident in the south eastern parts of the city, the so called “new east” where no sport facilities have been developed since the late 1990s.

Travelling Due to the high costs of sport equipment, and increased pressure on all sporting codes to involve the previously disadvantaged sectors of the community in sports, a trend has developed where participants are transported to centralised facilities where such equipment is shared amongst various communities. As an example, gymnastics equipment is prohibitively expensive, resulting in local federations only being able to afford equipment for one or two facilities. These facilities are in established areas, and the burden then lies with the federation to finance the transport of participants from outlying areas to practice the sport.

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Consolidation of facilities Factors and indicators such as limited financial and human resources, limited land availability, security, management of facilities, travelling distances, economy of scales, etc, have brought to the fore the need to centralise sport facilities. Accommodating sport facilities and community facilities into regional Open Space centres would not only facilitate optimum utilisation, but also optimise resources and deliver efficient and effective recreational and social services to the community.

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5 CONCLUSION

Open Space can be defined as ‘Areas predominantly free of building that provide ecological, socio-economic and place-making functions at all scales of the metropolitan area.’ Open Spaces include a variety of spaces from eco-based to activity-based; from personal to public; from those sustained by clear and substantial manipulation, design and intervention, to those that reflect little or none.

A sustainable approach to the management of Open Space is necessitated by international

commitments, national legislation and provincial policies and initiatives. Together with the city’s vision, the CDS, the MSDF and TIEP, it forms the institutional framework in which the Tshwane OSF is developed. The Tshwane OSF needs to be positioned within a local institutional framework to ensure that it will be an effective decision-making and management tool.

Urban growth places enormous pressure on and poses significant threats to Open Space

systems. Urbanisation concentrates and thus compounds the environmental impact of human settlements. Pressure generated by both high and low income development, sprawl and infill as well as existing inappropriate development rights threatens both the quantity and quality of Open Space.

Past development patterns have been guided primarily by ideological and short term

financial concerns, while externalising environmental costs. Political will should take social and environmental concerns into consideration to ensure sustainable development.

The environmental goods and services rendered by Open Spaces are vital to ensuring

current social and ecological well-being, future sustainable development and long term survival. Tshwane possesses exceptional Open Spaces with regards to biodiversity and representivity. The ecological integrity of Open Spaces is however compromised by ad hoc, non-responsive development.

Open Spaces and their ecological and productive functions are undervalued and not

fully understood.

Conflicting values, aims and service delivery requirements with regards to Open Space functions exist between different council departments and negatively impact on the integrated management and integrity of Open Spaces.

Well designed and maintained Open Spaces combined with high environmental quality,

play an important role in ensuring an internationally competitive city and establishing a sought-after address for responsible investment. Tshwane’s Open Spaces do no not comply with international standards in terms of both quality and quantity. In addition to this, there is a large discrepancy in quality and quantity of Open Spaces amongst the different regions of the city.

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Open Spaces within the city are generally maintained to horticultural standards and which do not distinguish between Open Space’s primary ecological, socio-economic and placemaking functioning requirements.

Existing Planning Ordinances which to this day, still direct Open Space provisioning, were

developed in the 1980s. They were developed mainly for low density, affluent communities and without any consideration of the internationally accepted concept of “sustainable development”. Their directives fail to address the disparities, complexities and challenges of the current realities facing cities and especially Tshwane’s dual city.

Limited finances and resources are available to develop and maintain Open Spaces, yet

the pressure on Open Spaces is constantly increasing.

Funds generated through Open Space alienation and contributions are not ploughed back into the development of existing or new Open Spaces.

The large variety and visibility of Open Spaces within the city are critical to the image of

Tshwane reflecting “nature within a city” and “city within nature”. To fulfil the capital city vision, Open Spaces have to be better structured, sufficiently

funded and properly managed to ensure a high quality public environment. There is potential to expand the capital city image outside of the capital core through the creation of placemaking elements such as gateways, boulevards and civic squares.

Open Spaces play an important role in the economic well-being of the city through activities

such as tourism and urban agriculture. Tshwane’s Open Spaces are the main tourism attraction in the city. This potential could be further enhanced. The role of urban agriculture should be actively explored.

The valuation of Open Space resources do not take into consideration the social and

ecological (environmental good and services) value of the resources. Safety and security concerns as well as negative perceptions towards Open Spaces lead

to pressure for their alienation and closure. However international examples show through careful design and management, safety concerns within Open Spaces can be effectively addressed.

Accessible, sufficient and well-designed Open Spaces are critical to the health and well-

being of our residents. The recreational and socialisation needs of the residents of Tshwane are however insufficiently provided for, because of lack of funding and over-utilisation.

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ANNEXURE A: LEGISLATION

INTERNATIONAL COMMITMENTS RELATING TO OPEN SPACES International commitments, which may direct Open Space planning in the CTMM, include, inter alia:

As far as “protected areas” are concerned the IUCN published Guidelines for Protected Area Management

Categories (1994). Protected areas in terms of this document are divided into a number of categories of areas “especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other effective means”. Open Spaces could normally include certain of these “protected areas”

The 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity has as its objective the conservation of biological diversity, the

sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilisation of genetic resources.

The UNESCO Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972) places a

duty on parties to ensure that the identification, protection, conservation, presentation and transmission to future generations of both cultural heritage and natural heritage.

An agreement was established at the World Summit on Sustainable Development, 2002, committing all

municipalities around the world to a 12-year sustainable development plan. This development plan declares: "We are deeply concerned about the impact of globalisation at local level, especially within the developing world and countries with economies in transition. We have witnessed first-hand the devastating effects of aspects of our international system on local communities and our local spaces. We therefore call for a fundamental restructuring of international relations in order to realise a just and more humane world order. We believe that the current structure of the world economy limits local government's ability to fulfil our developmental mandate….” Municipal leaders committed themselves to the following achievements by 2015 in line with the millennium development goals:

o Halving the number of people without access to safe water and sanitation. o Active steps to address public health problems. o Improved access to affordable modern energy services. o Increased market access to goods from the developing world. o Technology and knowledge partnerships in the context of a fair and accessible intellectual property regime. o Equitable access to quality education at all levels for all. o Local government leaders further insist on national governments, representative international bodies and the

United Nations enhancing their capacity to launch frontline attacks on poverty and underdevelopment.

The Ramsar Convention (1971) was established in recognition of the importance of wetlands as regulators of water regimes and as habitats supporting significant species of plants and animals, especially water birds (a reliable environmental indicator of wetlands). The convention recognizes the economic, cultural, scientific and recreational values of wetlands and aims to curtail the progressive encroachment on, and resultant loss of wetland habitats. South Africa, as a Contracting Party to the Convention, is obliged to include the conservation of wetlands into their strategies and land use planning tools.

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NATIONAL LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK RELATING OPEN SPACS

Legislation Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (1996) As adopted on 8 May 1996 and amended on 11 October 1996 by the Constitutional Assembly

Objective/Purpose The Constitution is South Africa's supreme law. It prescribes certain minimum standards with which existing and new laws must comply and binds the legislature, the executive, the judiciary and all organs of state. The Constitution sets the legislative scene for an Open Space system.

How it relates to or provides input into an Open Space Network

Section 24 is the central provision that determines that everyone has the right to an environment that is not harmful to their health and well-being and to have the environment protected, for the benefit of present and future generations.

Section 25, the property clause, provides that no one may be deprived (limited or restricted) of property except in terms of a law of general application and that a person’s property may not be expropriated, except in certain circumscribed circumstances. The property clause is relevant in the context that land earmarked for Open Space in terms of legislation can be seen as a legitimate deprivation of property while property may have to be expropriated to accommodate additional areas of Open Space.

Section 33 provides that everyone has the right to administrative action that is lawful, reasonable and procedurally fair. In any decision or action with regard to Open Space the provisions of this section will have to be followed.

Section 43 also provides for the division of legislative competences between the national, provincial and local government. One must be aware that national, provincial and municipal legislation may all provide for aspects of an Open Space system.

In the context that different spheres of government may be involved in the Open Space system of a municipality, the principles of cooperative governance, set out in Chapter 3 of The Constitution play a significant role.

Legislation The National Environmental Management Amendment Act, 2004 (Act No. 8 of 2004) (NEMA)

Objective/Purpose NEMA seeks to “provide for cooperative governance by establishing principles for decision-making on matters affecting the environment, institutions that will promote cooperative governance and procedures for coordinating environmental functions exercised by organs of state; and to provide for matters connected therewith”.

How it relates to or provides input into an Open Space Network

Within Section 1 sustainability is stressed when the Act speaks of "... the integration of social, economic and environmental factors into planning, implementation and decision-making so as to ensure that development serves present and future generations". Against the background that environmental management “... must place people and their needs at the forefront of its concern, and serve their physical, psychological, developmental, cultural and social interests equitably (Section 2(2)) a central principle determines that “development must be socially, environmentally and economically sustainable” (Section 2(3)).

These principles apply throughout the Republic to the actions of all organs of state that may significantly affect the environment. Besides applying in a constitutional context, they must serve as a general framework against which plans, as set out in the Act, must be formulated; as guidelines for any organ of state to function within and they must guide the interpretation, administration and implementation of any law concerned with the protection or management of the environment (Section 2(1)). They inform a policy on Open Space. Section 9 highlights specific activities that could potentially have a negative impact on the environment and that require assessment and authorisation.

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Legislation The National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, 2004 (Act No.10 of 2004)

Objective/Purpose The Act seeks to provide a framework for the management and conservation of biodiversity. How it relates to or provides input into an Open Space Network

This Act is relevant because it provides for integrated and coordinated biodiversity planning and monitoring, the protection of threatened or protected species as well as the prevention, management and control of alien and invasive species.

Legislation The National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act (Act No. 57 of 2003)

Objective/Purpose To provide for the protection and conservation of ecologically viable areas representative of South Africa’s biological diversity and its natural landscapes and seascapes.

How it relates to or provides input into an Open Space Network

This Act is relevant in the context that it provides for the declaration and management of different types of protected areas in South Africa as well as the maintenance of a register of such protected areas. In a municipal context local protected areas are nature reserves or limited development areas declared by a municipality. This Act also allows for the declaration under subsection (1)(a) of areas as a protected environment to protect the area if the area is sensitive to development due to its— (i) Biological diversity; (ii) Natural characteristics; (iii) Scientific, cultural, historical, archaeological or geological value; (iv) Scenic and landscape value; or (v) Provision of environmental goods and services;

Legislation The Promotion of Administrative Justice Act, 2000 (Act No. 3 of 2000)

Objective/Purpose To give effect to the right to administrative action that is lawful, reasonable and procedurally fair and to the right to written reasons for administrative action as contemplated in Section 33 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996; and to provide for matters incidental thereto.

How it relates to or provides input into an Open Space Network

This Act was enacted in terms of Section 33 of the Constitution and contains provisions relating to just administrative action. Sections 3 and 4 provide for procedures for administrative action for individuals and the public respectively. In any action or decision regarding Open Spaces the CTMM will have to take these provisions into account.

Legislation The National Heritage Resources Act, 1999 (Act No. 25 of 1999)

Objective/Purpose To introduce an integrated and interactive system for the management of the national heritage resources and to protect heritage resources of national significance.

How it relates to or provides input into an Open Space Network

This Act contains general principles for heritage resources management and the setting aside of certain areas as national or provincial heritage sites. Places are identified which have qualities so exceptional that they are of special national significance in terms of certain criteria, for example places, buildings or structures of cultural significance, landscapes and natural features of cultural significance, archaeological and paleontological sites, graves and burial grounds. A protected area may be designated by a national or provincial heritage resources authority. An Open Space system will have to take cognisance of the provisions of this Act as certain heritage sites may already have been set aside.

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Legislation The National Water Act, 1998 (Act No. 36 of 1998)

Objective/Purpose Promulgated in response to the protection of the right to water for basic human needs and the environmental right in the Constitution. The Act regulates the protection, use, development, conservation, management and control of the country’s water resources.

How it relates to or provides input into an Open Space Network

This Act is relevant in the context that it regulates the management, control and protection of all water resources – a term defined to include watercourses, surface water or aquifers. Any river, stream, spring, natural channel in which water flows or any wetland, lake or dam into which or from which, water flows is subject to the provisions of the Act. As many Open Spaces include these categories of water resources they will also be subject to the provisions of the Act.

Legislation The National Forests Act, 1998 (Act No. 84 of 1998)

Objective/Purpose The purpose of this Act is to promote the sustainable management, use and development of forests for the benefit of all as well as to provide special measures for the protection of certain forests and trees.

How it relates to or provides input into an Open Space Network

This Act contains provisions to declare an area as a forest nature reserve, a forest wilderness area or as another type of area, which is recognised in international law or practice. The Act also provides for the declaration of a particular tree, group of trees or woodland to be protected. The National Veld and Forest Fire Act, 1998 (Act 101 of 1998) must be read together with the National Forests Act. Its purpose is to prevent and combat veld, forest and mountain fires throughout the Republic.

Legislation The Development Facilitation Act, 1995 (Act No. 67 of 1995) (DFA) and DFA regulations for Gauteng (Gen Notice 3004, 30 August 1996)

Objective/Purpose The purpose of this legislation is to introduce extraordinary measures to facilitate and speed up the implementation of reconstruction and development programmes and projects in relation to land in both the rural and urban environment; and in so doing to lay down general principles governing land development throughout the Republic.

How it relates to or provides input into an Open Space Network

The Act provides that national, provincial and local governments should strive to define and make known the required functions and responsibilities of all sectors of the economy in relation to land development as well as the desired relationship between such sectors. Many aspects of an Open Space system are already regulated in terms of national and provincial legislation. This implies that each of the three spheres of government will have to work together where Open Spaces belonging to different categories in different spheres of government will have to be regulated and maintained in one municipality.

The general principles for land development state that policy, administrative practice and law should promote, both efficient and integrated land development by encouraging environmentally sustainable land development practices and processes (Section 3(1)(c)(viii) of the Act) and sustainable land development at the required scale by encouraging the sustained protection of the environment (Section 3(1)(h)(iii) of the Act). Section 28(b)(ii) states that in setting land development objectives the "sustained utilization of the environment" must be taken into account.

Legislation The Environment Conservation Act, 1989 (Act No. 73 of 1989) (ECA)

Objective/Purpose The purpose of this Act is to provide for the effective protection and controlled utilization of the environment and for matters incidental thereto.

How it relates to or provides input into an Open Space Network

The ECA was assigned to the provinces in terms of Proclamation R29 Government Gazette 16346 dated 7 April 1995. After its partial repeal by (NEMA) the ECA contains provisions for protected natural environments (Section 16 &16A), special nature reserves (Sections 17 & 18) and limited development areas (Section 23). All of these provisions will, be replaced by the National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act (Act 57 of 2003).

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The ECA plays a very significant role in the context that it presently regulates the submission of environment impact assessments (EIAs) in terms of Regulations R1182 and R1183 of 1997 (Government Gazette 18261 dated 5 September 1997) where certain changes in the use of land are envisaged. These are in the process of being replaced by regulations drafted in terms of NEMA (namely, the National Environmental Management Second Amendment Bill 2003 Government Gazette 24777 dated 22 April 2003). EIAs may be of significance where they will be required for land to be changed to “Open Space” or visa versa.

PROVINCIAL LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK RELATING TO THE OPEN SPACE SYSTEM

Legislation Gauteng Planning and Development Act, (Act No. 3 of 2003)

Objective/Purpose Promulgated to regulate planning and development within the province

How it relates to or provides input into an Open Space Network

This Act will, when it comes into operation, provide a set of principles for land development in the province, procedures to regulate the plan-creation aspects on the one hand such as SDF’s and land-use management procedures on the other hand. It is envisaged that this statute will repeal the system of fragmented and uncoordinated legislation that still exists in the province.

Legislation Gauteng Removal of Restrictions Act, 1996 (Act No. 3 of 1996)

Objective/Purpose Will be repealed by the Gauteng Planning and Development Act, (Act No. 3 of 2003) How it relates to or provides input into an Open Space Network

This Act sets out procedures to remove restrictions on land. These include conditions of title and zoning provisions. Should land use have to be changed to accommodate or include Open Spaces the provisions of this legislation are applicable.

LOCAL LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK RELATING TO OPEN SPACES

Legislation The Land Use Management Bill 2001 (Government Gazette 22473 , 20 July 2001)

Objective/Purpose This bill gives municipalities five years to implement Land Use Schemes throughout the whole municipality.

How it relates to or provides input into an Open Space Network

This Act contains overriding principles of land use and also sets out a land use management system comprising the provision of plans as well as procedures to change the use of land. It contains the provisions for the compilation of Spatial Development Frameworks (SDF), one of the components of the Integrated Development Plans (IDPs) which must be compiled by municipalities in terms of the Local Government: Municipal Systems Act, 2000 (Act 32 of 2000). The SDF will include a land use policy which will guide desired patterns of land use in the municipality and the spatial reconstruction of the municipal area including inter alia “the conservation of the natural and the built environment” (Section 16(2)(a)). The Land Use Scheme will determine the purpose for which each piece of land in which the scheme applies may be used (Section 21(1)(b)).

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Legislation The Local Government: Municipal Systems Act, 2000 (Act No. 32 of 2000)

Objective/Purpose Promulgated to provide for the core principles, mechanisms and processes that are necessary to enable municipalities to move progressively towards the social and economic upliftment of local communities, and ensure universal access to essential services that are affordable to all.

How it relates to or provides input into an Open Space System

This Act sets out procedures for integrated development plans, a component of which is the Spatial Development Framework (SDF). A municipality has the responsibility of drawing up an SDF for its area of jurisdiction. This is determined in terms of an envisaged draft Land Use Management Bill (Government Gazette 22473: dated 20 July 2001).

The Act also includes a chapter dealing with community participation, significant where a number of aspects regarding an Open Space system such as its determination and management will need to be made.

Legislation The Local Government: Municipal Structures Act, 1998 (Act No. 117 of 1998)

Objective/Purpose Promulgated to provide for the establishment of municipalities in accordance with the requirements relating to categories and types of municipalities to establish an appropriate division of function and powers between categories of municipalities and to regulate internal systems, structures and office-bearers.

How it relates to or provides input into an Open Space System

This Act refers to Section 156 of the Constitution where the powers and functions of municipalities are referred to. These are the local government matters listed in Part B of Schedule 4 and Part B of Schedule 5 of the Constitution and include municipal planning.

Legislation Town-planning and Townships Ordinance 15 of 1986

Objective/Purpose Will be repealed by the Gauteng Planning and Development Act, Act 3 of 2003

How it relates to or provides input into an Open Space System

The Town-planning and Townships Ordinance 15 of 1986 (Transvaal) sets out procedures for town planning and township establishment. In terms of the principle of the integration of Open Space matters in the planning system both these aspects of planning are relevant to the demarcation, maintenance and regulation of Open Spaces. Where land use must be changed which envisages the amendment of the planning scheme (rezoning) this Ordinance applies.

REGIONAL AND LOCAL INITIATIVES

A number of directives or initiatives, both regional and local can play a vital role in informing the direction and compilation of an Open Space policy within the CTMM. These include: Gauteng Departmental of Agriculture, Conservation and Environment In-house Red Data Policy Document, 2004 The Red Data plant policy, established by GDACE is based on the following principles, which must direct the CTMM’s Open Space policy specifically in terms of protecting Open Spaces that serve an ecological function: As the relevant provincial authority, GDACE is obliged to ensure that the objectives of the

Biodiversity Act (Act No. 10 of 2004) are achieved.

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Species endemic to Gauteng must be afforded the utmost protection, as they occur nowhere else in the world.

Conservation of only one population essentially ignores the lowest level of biodiversity, which is genetic diversity

In situ conservation is preferable to ex situ conservation. In order to ensure the persistence of a population, it is imperative that the ecological processes

maintaining that population persist. In order to ensure the persistence of a plant population, it is vital that pollinators are conserved. Translocation of red data plant species is an unacceptable measure. Rural parts of the province should be protected from insensitive developments and urban sprawl

should be discouraged. Red data plant species historically recorded on site, but not located during searches within

species flowering seasons, may be dormant due to unfavourable environmental conditions. Suitable habitat adjacent to known populations of Red Data plant species has a high probability

of being colonized. In order to protect a plant population that occurs in a fragmented landscape from edge effects, it

is necessary to protect it with a buffer zone that extends from the edge of the population. The transformation of natural vegetation to crops is considered as permanent as urbanization

and may cause the extinction of Red Data plant populations and their pollinators. Three major criteria emerge from the Red Data policy for when planning the Open Space design within the CTMM. The conservation of habitat that may contain endemic or Red Data species, buffer zones around existing Red Data records, and the further reduction of vegetation to urban development or agriculture should be allowed for. Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Environment In-house Ridges Policy Document, 2004 The quartzite ridges of Gauteng, together with the Drakensberg Escarpment, should be regarded as one of the most important natural assets in the entire region of the northern provinces of South Africa. Due to their high spatial heterogeneity, these ridges provide habitat for high numbers of plant and animal species and, as they function as islands even within a natural landscape, are particularly suitable as future refuges for biodiversity in an urbanised landscape. In recognition of their value, GDACE has compiled a policy to protect the ridges of the province from further development, however, this policy has been adapted and ridges have classified into classes according to the current transformed status. These classes are: Class 1: These ridges are between 0-5 % transformed Class 2: These ridges are between 5-35 % transformed Class 3: These ridges are between 35-65 % transformed Class 4: These ridges are between 65-100 % transformed Within the policy, Class 1 and Class 2 ridges are highly sensitive due to limited disturbance and therefore are considered ‘no go’ areas in terms of future development.

Development policies have been compiled for each class of ridge identified. These policies are critical to the future protection of these systems and therefore play a major role within the spatial planning and policy of Open Spaces within the CTMM..

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Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Environment In-house Filling Station Policy Document, 2004 1. New filling stations will generally not be approved where they will be:

within 100m of residential properties, schools or hospitals, unless it can be clearly demonstrated that no significant impacts will occur by reason of factors such as noise, visual intrusion, safety considerations or fumes and smells;

within three (3) kilometres of an existing filling station in urban, built-up or residential areas; within twenty-five (25) kilometres driving distance of an existing filling station in other instances

(i.e. rural areas, and along highways and national roads), or within a sensitive area.

2. Applications for new filling stations will not be considered unless it is intended to undertake

the development within a period of six months of approval by the department. 3. Where the filling station is likely to have a significant impact either on the built environment or

in areas of high scenic quality, the use of standard “corporate” designs and signage may not be acceptable.

4. For filling stations along provincial roads the approval of the Department of Transport and Public Works (Gautrans) will be used as a key factor in the decision-making process, and approval will be denied if the conditions of Gautrans cannot be complied with.

5. The department encourages upgrades, where it provides an opportunity to improve environmental conditions on an old site.

The following will be required as a minimum for submission for consideration: the applicant must appoint an independent consultant to compile a Scoping Report in accordance

Annexure 1. The EIA Guideline Document (EIA Regulations- Implementation of sections 21, 22 and 26 of the Environment Conservation Act - DEAT, April 1998), must be followed to ensure that the process is in accordance with the legal requirements.

Annexure 4 must be completed in full and submitted with the scoping report. Note: where the application is in respect of a filling station, which requires a deviation from the general requirements, set out in section 2, a detailed motivation must be included in the application. Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Environment In-house Conservation Plan (2004) C-Plan focuses on the mapping and management of priority areas in terms of biodiversity and will inform the CTMM Open Space policy through its conservation management plan. Tshwane is identified within C-Plan as containing irreplaceable and important sites (25 % of the municipal area) due to the presence of Red Data species, endemic species and potential habitat for these species. The Tshwane Integrated Environmental Policy, 2004 The general principles of the Tshwane Integrated Environmental Policy are listed below: 5.1.1.1 Sustainable Development Environmental Management should seek to facilitate and enhance development which socially environmentally and economically sustainable. This includes making use of the natural resources to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

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Environmental Justice Environmental Management should seek to integrate social, economic and environmental justice with development. Equity Everyone should have fair access to environmental resources, benefits and services in order to meet their basic needs and ensure well-being Public Trust The environment must be held in public trust for the people such that the beneficial use of environmental resources serves the public interest and the environment is protected as people’s common heritage. Participation and Transparency The participation of all interested and affected parties in environmental decision-making and governance should be promoted. Decisions must be undertaken in an open and transparent manner, and access to information must be provided in accordance with the relevant legislation. Community Well-being and Empowerment Community well-being and empowerment should be promoted through environmental education, the raising of environmental awareness, the sharing of knowledge and experience and other appropriate means. Co-operative Governance There must be inter-governmental co-ordination in the implementation of policies, legislation and actions relating to the environment. The CTMM shall comply with and effectively enforce relevant environmental legislation. Ecological Integrity and Minimisation of Negative Environmental Impacts Environmental management should ensure the avoidance of environmental impacts that threaten ecological integrity, or where environmental impacts are unavoidable, should minimise the impact thereof through effective management systems and rehabilitation. Reducing the Ecological Footprint of the City Environmental management should aim at reducing the bio-productive space used for producing the resources consumed within the city and absorbing the waste produced. Realisation of the Integrated Nature of Ecosystems Environmental management should consider the holistic concept of the connection between different elements within the environment. Integration of Environmental Considerations into Decision-making Environmental protection should constitute an integral part of all development processes. Best Practice Environmental Solutions and Management

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Best practice environmental solutions and management should be implemented, where practical in alliance with the principles of the World Summit on Sustainable Development, Local Agenda 21 and all international protocols to which South Africa is a signatory. Continual Improvement Environmental quality and human health and well-being should be continually improved through effective implementation of environmental management systems and strategies. In addition CTMM’s environmental performance should demonstrate continual improvement. Precautionary Approach A risk-averse and cautious approach should be applied in environmental management, taking into account the limits of current knowledge regarding consequences of decisions and actions. Internalisation of Environmental Costs The “polluter pays” principle should be implemented in order to ensure that those responsible for pollution and/or negative environmental impacts are responsible for remediation and the implementation of preventative measures. This requires efficient and effective law enforcement. Consideration of Full Environmental Costs The management processes should consider the environmental cost of goods, services and processes throughout the life-cycle of the project/product. Shared Responsibility All individuals and organisations in the Tshwane area have a shared responsibility towards the sustainable use of the environment and to the improvement of environmental quality and human health and well-being. The draft Tshwane Integrated Environmental Policy provides detailed goals, objectives and policy statements based on the above principles. The Tshwane Metropolitan Spatial Development Framework (MSDF) In terms of legislation i.e. the Local Government: Municipal Systems Act, 2000 (Act No. 32. 2000) and the Local Government: Municipal Planning and Performance Management Regulations, (Notice 796. 2001), a Spatial Development Framework (SDF) must be formulated. The SDF is a core component of the Integrated Development Plan (IDP) and should, therefore, be formulated through the process prescribed for the formulation of the IDP itself. It has, furthermore, to give effect to the DFA principles and be aligned with the spatial development frameworks of neighbouring municipalities. The spatial restructuring of the Tshwane metropolitan area is the most important aspect of the total restructuring of the City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality. It is the purpose of the MSDF (2004) to provide a context for the restructuring and therefore a number of general and specific objectives were identified. In order to achieve certain of these objectives such as: ensuring sustainable use of environmental resources, their enhancement and replenishment; ensuring environmental resources are utilised to enhance the uniqueness, ecological sustainability and liveability of the metropolitan area as well as to meet community needs and promote community values and aspirations, a policy

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addressing the design, conservation and integration of Open Space resources within the CTMM to fall inline with the concept of restructuring the city is required. Ideally, the MSDF should be informed by the Open Space policy so as to guide the planning of the metropolitan structure in such a way that optimum sustainable development can take place within it.

Centurion Open Space Network, 2003 This purpose of this document was to establish a Public Open Space Network with the principle design focusing on the public realm as a basis for the Centurion Spatial Development Framework (CSDF). The network did not address environmental factors such as sensitivity, cultural or heritage within the project and only generic management criteria were addressed. The approach such as utilising primary, secondary and tertiary networks to define Open Spaces on different scales could be utilised to inform this policy in the development of the Open Space concept and design for the CTMM. The Environmental Resource Plan, 1999 The concept of the Greater Pretoria Metropolitan Council (GPMC) Environmental Resources Plan (ERP) originated after the finalisation of the 1998 Integrated Development Plan (IDP) for the Greater Pretoria metropolitan area. Due to the GPMC’s commitment to Local Agenda 21, the new EIA Regulations in terms of the Environmental Conservation Act, 1989 (Act No. 73 of 1989) and the increasing development pressure on the environmental resources of Greater Pretoria and its surroundings, the compilation of an Environmental Resources Plan was identified as a priority project.

The ERP captured a broad range of environmental components including geology and soils, hydrology, climatology, geomorphology, biology, urban morphology, economic activities and heritage. Two components of the plan emerged: The Open Space Plan and the City Image Plan. Areas in both plans were classified into zones of environmental importance. For each of these plans guidelines were set for planning and design, specific land uses and for the optimal use of resources. Although focussing on the greater Pretoria area, information regarding management and implementation principles within the ERP can be applied to the whole CTMM. The ERP was used to plan for, guide, evaluate and monitor sustainable development.

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ANNEXURE B: RED DATA

IUCN Red Data List Categories (new) - Versions 3.0 (National) & 3.1 (Global) As used by Victor & Pillay for the preparation of new lists (to be published in 2005) Figure 2: Structure of the IUCN 3.1 categories

THE CATEGORIES EX EXTINCT (EX)

A taxon is Extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died. A taxon is presumed Extinct when exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected habitat, at appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal, annual), throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual. Surveys should be over a time frame appropriate to the taxon's life cycle and life form.

EW EXTINCT IN THE WILD (EW)

A taxon is Extinct in the Wild when it is known only to survive in cultivation, in captivity or as a naturalized population (or populations) well outside the past range. A taxon is presumed Extinct in the Wild when exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected habitat, at appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal, annual), throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual. Surveys should be over a time frame appropriate to the taxon's life cycle and life form.

CR CRITICALLY ENDANGERED (CR)

A taxon is Critically Endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E for Critically Endangered (see Section V), and it is therefore considered to be facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild.

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EN ENDANGERED (EN)

A taxon is Endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E for Endangered (see Section V), and it is therefore considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild.

VU VULNERABLE (VU)

A taxon is Vulnerable when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E for Vulnerable (see Section V), and it is therefore considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild.

NT NEAR THREATENED (NT)

A taxon is Near Threatened when it has been evaluated against the criteria but does not qualify for Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable now, but is close to qualifying for or is likely to qualify for a threatened category in the near future.

LC LEAST CONCERN (LC)

A taxon is Least Concern when it has been evaluated against the criteria and does not qualify for Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable or Near Threatened. Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category.

DD DATA DEFICIENT (DD)

A taxon is Data Deficient when there is inadequate information to make a direct, or indirect, assessment of its risk of extinction based on its distribution and/or population status. A taxon in this category may be well studied, and its biology well known, but appropriate data on abundance and/or distribution are lacking. Data Deficient is therefore not a category of threat. Listing of taxa in this category indicates that more information is required and acknowledges the possibility that future research will show that threatened classification is appropriate. It is important to make positive use of whatever data are available. In many cases great care should be exercised in choosing between DD and a threatened status. If the range of a taxon is suspected to be relatively circumscribed, and a considerable period of time has elapsed since the last record of the taxon, threatened status may well be justified.

NE NOT EVALUATED (NE) A taxon is Not Evaluated when it is has not yet been evaluated against the criteria.

The criteria for Critically Endangered, Endangered and Vulnerable CRITICALLY ENDANGERED (CR) A taxon is Critically Endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the following criteria (A to E), and it is therefore considered to be facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild:

A) Reduction in population size based on any of the following: 1 An observed, estimated, inferred or suspected population size reduction of 90% over the last 10 years or

three generations, whichever is the longer, where the causes of the reduction are clearly reversible AND understood AND ceased, based on (and specifying) any of the following:

a) (direct observation b) an index of abundance appropriate to the taxon c) a decline in area of occupancy, extent of occurrence and/or quality of habitat d) actual or potential levels of exploitation e) the effects of introduced taxa, hybridization, pathogens, pollutants, competitors or parasites.

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2 An observed, estimated, inferred or suspected population size reduction of 80% over the last 10 years or three generations, whichever is the longer, where the reduction or its causes may not have ceased OR may not be understood OR may not be reversible, based on (and specifying) any of (a) to (e) under A1.

3 A population size reduction of 80%, projected or suspected to be met within the next 10 years or three generations, whichever is the longer (up to a maximum of 100 years), based on (and specifying) any of (b) to (e) under A1

4 An observed, estimated, inferred, projected or suspected population size reduction of 80% over any 10 year or three generation period, whichever is longer (up to a maximum of 100 years in the future), where the time period must include both the past and the future, and where the reduction or its causes may not have ceased OR may not be understood OR may not be reversible, based on (and specifying) any of (a) to (e) under A1.

B) Geographic range in the form of either B1 (extent of occurrence) OR B2 (area of occupancy) OR both: 1 Extent of occurrence estimated to be less than 100 km², and estimates indicating at least two of a-c:

a) b)

Severely fragmented or known to exist at only a single location. Continuing decline, observed, inferred or projected, in any of the following:

(i) extent of occurrence (ii) area of occupancy (iii) area, extent and/or quality of habitat (iv) number of locations or subpopulations (v) number of mature individuals. c) Extreme fluctuations in any of the following: (i) extent of occurrence (ii) area of occupancy (iii) number of locations or subpopulations (iv) number of mature individuals. 2 Area of occupancy estimated to be less than 10 km², and estimates indicating at least two of a-c:

a) Severely fragmented or known to exist at only a single location. b) Continuing decline, observed, inferred or projected, in any of the following: (i) extent of occurrence (ii) area of occupancy (iii) area, extent and/or quality of habitat (iv) number of locations or subpopulations (v) number of mature individuals. c) Extreme fluctuations in any of the following: (i) extent of occurrence (ii) area of occupancy (iii) number of locations or subpopulations (iv) number of mature individuals. C) Population size estimated to number fewer than 250 mature individuals and either: 1 An estimated continuing decline of at least 25% within three years or one generation, whichever is longer,

(up to a maximum of 100 years in the future) OR 2 A continuing decline, observed, projected, or inferred, in numbers of mature individuals AND at least one of

the following (a-b):

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a) Population structure in the form of one of the following: (i) no subpopulation estimated to contain more than 50 mature individuals, OR (ii) at least 90% of mature individuals in one subpopulation. b) Extreme fluctuations in number of mature individuals. D) Population size estimated to number fewer than 50 mature individuals. E) Quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 50% within 10 years

or three generations, whichever is the longer (up to a maximum of 100 years). ENDANGERED (EN) A taxon is Endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the following criteria (A to E), and it is therefore considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild:

A) A. Reduction in population size based on any of the following:

1

An observed, estimated, inferred or suspected population size reduction of 70% over the last 10 years or three generations, whichever is the longer, where the causes of the reduction are clearly reversible AND understood AND ceased, based on (and specifying) any of the following:

a) direct observation b) an index of abundance appropriate to the taxon c) a decline in area of occupancy, extent of occurrence and/or quality of habitat d) actual or potential levels of exploitation e) the effects of introduced taxa, hybridization, pathogens, pollutants, competitors or parasites.

2

An observed, estimated, inferred or suspected population size reduction of 70% over the last 10 years or three generations, whichever is the longer, where the reduction or its causes may not have ceased OR may not be understood OR may not be reversible, based on (and specifying) any of (a) to (e) under A1.

3

A population size reduction of 50%, projected or suspected to be met within the next 10 years or three generations, whichever is the longer (up to a maximum of 100 years), based on (and specifying) any of (b) to (e) under A1.

4

An observed, estimated, inferred, projected or suspected population size reduction of 50% over any 10 year or three generation period, whichever is longer (up to a maximum of 100 years in the future), where the time period must include both the past and the future, and where the reduction or its causes may not have ceased OR may not be understood OR may not be reversible, based on (and specifying) any of (a) to (e) under A1.

B) Geographic range in the form of either B1 (extent of occurrence) OR B2 (area of occupancy) OR both:

1 Extent of occurrence estimated to be less than 5000 km², and estimates indicating at least two of a-c: a) Severely fragmented or known to exist at no more than five locations. b) Continuing decline, observed, inferred or projected, in any of the following: (i) extent of occurrence (ii) area of occupancy (iii) area, extent and/or quality of habitat (iv) number of locations or subpopulations (v) number of mature individuals. c) Extreme fluctuations in any of the following: (i) extent of occurrence (ii) area of occupancy (iii) number of locations or subpopulations (iv) number of mature individuals.

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2 Area of occupancy estimated to be less than 500 km², and estimates indicating at least two of a-c: a) Severely fragmented or known to exist at no more than five locations. b) Continuing decline, observed, inferred or projected, in any of the following: (i) extent of occurrence (ii) area of occupancy (iii) area, extent and/or quality of habitat (iv) number of locations or subpopulations (v) number of mature individuals. c) Extreme fluctuations in any of the following: (i) extent of occurrence (ii) area of occupancy (iii) number of locations or subpopulations (iv) number of mature individuals. C) Population size estimated to number fewer than 2500 mature individuals and either:

1

An estimated continuing decline of at least 20% within five years or two generations, whichever is longer, (up to a maximum of 100 years in the future) OR

2 A continuing decline, observed, projected, or inferred, in numbers of mature individuals AND at least one of the following (a-b):

a) Population structure in the form of one of the following: (i) no subpopulation estimated to contain more than 250 mature individuals, OR (ii) at least 95% of mature individuals in one subpopulation. b) Extreme fluctuations in number of mature individuals. D) Population size estimated to number fewer than 250 mature individuals. E) Quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 20% within 20 years

or five generations, whichever is the longer (up to a maximum of 100 years). VULNERABLE (VU) A taxon is Vulnerable when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the following criteria (A to E), and it is therefore considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild: A) Reduction in population size based on any of the following:

1

An observed, estimated, inferred or suspected population size reduction of 50% over the last 10 years or three generations, whichever is the longer, where the causes of the reduction are: clearly reversible AND understood AND ceased, based on (and specifying) any of the following:

a) (a) direct observation b) (b) an index of abundance appropriate to the taxon c) (c) a decline in area of occupancy, extent of occurrence and/or quality of habitat d) (d) actual or potential levels of exploitation e) (e) the effects of introduced taxa, hybridization, pathogens, pollutants, competitors or parasites.

2

An observed, estimated, inferred or suspected population size reduction of 30% over the last 10 years or three generations, whichever is the longer, where the reduction or its causes may not have ceased OR may not be understood OR may not be reversible, based on (and specifying) any of (a) to (e) under A1.

3 A population size reduction of 30%, projected or suspected to be met within the next 10 years or three generations, whichever is the longer (up to a maximum of 100 years), based on (and specifying) any of (b) to (e) under A1

4 An observed, estimated, inferred, projected or suspected population size reduction of 30% over any 10 year

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or three generation period, whichever is longer (up to a maximum of 100 years in the future), where the time period must include both the past and the future, and where the reduction or its causes may not have ceased OR may not be understood OR may not be reversible, based on (and specifying) any of (a) to (e) under A1.

B) Geographic range in the form of either B1 (extent of occurrence) OR B2 (area of occupancy) OR both:

1 Extent of occurrence estimated to be less than 20,000 km², and estimates indicating at least two of a-c: a) a. Severely fragmented or known to exist at no more than 10 locations. b) b. Continuing decline, observed, inferred or projected, in any of the following: (i) extent of occurrence (ii) area of occupancy (iii) area, extent and/or quality of habitat (iv) number of locations or subpopulations (v) number of mature individuals. c) c. Extreme fluctuations in any of the following: (i) extent of occurrence (ii) area of occupancy (iii) number of locations or subpopulations (iv) number of mature individuals.

2 Area of occupancy estimated to be less than 2000 km², and estimates indicating at least two of a-c: a) a. Severely fragmented or known to exist at no more than 10 locations. b) b. Continuing decline, observed, inferred or projected, in any of the following: (i) extent of occurrence (ii) area of occupancy (iii) area, extent and/or quality of habitat (iv) number of locations or subpopulations (v) number of mature individuals. c) c. Extreme fluctuations in any of the following: (i) extent of occurrence (ii) area of occupancy (iii) number of locations or subpopulations (iv) number of mature individuals. C) Population size estimated to number fewer than 10,000 mature individuals and either:

1

An estimated continuing decline of at least 10% within 10 years or three generations, whichever is longer, (up to a maximum of 100 years in the future) OR

2 A continuing decline, observed, projected, or inferred, in numbers of mature individuals AND at least one of the following (a-b): a Population structure in the form of one of the following: (i) no subpopulation estimated to contain more than 1000 mature individuals, OR (ii) all mature individuals are in one subpopulation. b Extreme fluctuations in number of mature individuals. D) Population very small or restricted in the form of either of the following:

1 Population size estimated to number fewer than 1000 mature individuals. 2

Population with a very restricted area of occupancy (typically less than 20 km²) or number of locations (typically five or fewer) such that it is prone to the effects of human activities or stochastic events within a very short time period in an uncertain future, and is thus capable of becoming Critically Endangered or even Extinct in a very short time period.

E) Quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 10% within 100 years.

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Scientific Name Common Name Conservation Status Habitat Flora Aloe peglerae Endangered Ridge Bowiea volubilis Near Threatened Ridge Ceropegia decidua subsp. pretoriensis Critically Endangered

Ridge Cleome conrathii Critically Endangered Grassland, Ridge Cucumis humifructus Endangered Woodland Delosperma gautengense Endangered Ridge Delosperma vogtsii Endangered Ridge Eulophia coddii Endangered Ridge Frithia pulchra Near Threatened Ridge Habenaria bicolor Near Threatened Wetland Habenaria mossii Endangered Grassland, Ridge Lotononis adpressa subsp. leptantha Critically Endangered Grassland Melolobium subspicatum Critically Endangered Grassland Nuxia glomerulata Near Threatened Ridge Trachyandra erythrorrhiza Vulnerable Wetland Avifauna Alcedo semitorquata Halfcollared Kingfisher Near Threatened Riverine Anthropoides paradiseus Blue Crane Vulnerable Wetland, Grassland Aquila rapax Tawny Eagle Vulnerable Woodland Buphagus erythrorhynchus Redbilled Oxpecker Near Threatened Woodland Eupodotis barrowii Barrow's Korhaan Vulnerable Grassland Falco biarmicus Lanner Falcon Near Threatened Grassland, Ridge Falco naumanni Lesser Kestrel Vulnerable Grassland, Ridge Gyps coprotheres Cape Vulture Vulnerable Ridge Mirafra cheniana Melodius Lark Near Threatened Grassland Mycteria ibis Yellowbilled Stork Near Threatened Wetlands Podica senegalensis African Finfoot Vulnerable Riverine Polemaetus bellicosus Martial Eagle Vulnerable Woodland Saggitarius serpentarius Secretarybird Near Threatened Grassland Tyto capensis GrassOwl Vulnerable Wetland Mammals Atelerix frontalis South African Hedgehog Near Threatened Grassland Chrysospalax villosus Rough-haired Golden Mole Critically Endangered Wetland Cloeotis percivali Short-eared Trident Bat Critically Endangered Ridge Dasymys incomtus Water Rat Near Threatened Wetland Hyaena brunnea Brown Hyaena Near Threatened Grassland, Woodland Mellivora capensis Honey Badger Near Threatened Grassland, Woodland

Miniopterus schreibersii Schreibers' Long-fingered Bat

Near Threatened Ridge

Myotis tricolor Temminck's Hairy Bat Near Threatened Ridge Mystromys albicaudatus White-tailed Rat Endangered Grassland Neamblysomus julianae Juliana's Golden Mole Critically Endangered Ridge

Rhinolophus blasii Peak-saddle Horseshoe Bat

Vulnerable Ridge

Rhinolophus clivosus Geoffroy's Horseshoe Bat Near Threatened Ridge

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Rhinolophus darlingi Darling's Horseshoe Bat Near Threatened Ridge Hepetofauna Pyxicephalus adspersus Giant Bullfrog Near Threatened Wetland Python natalensis South African Rock Python Vulnerable Ridge, Riverine Invertebrates Aloeides dentatis Roodepoort Copper Vulnerable Ridge

Hadogenes gracilis Rock Scorpion

Threatened (based on a preliminary regional assessment) Ridge

Hadogenes gunningi Rock Scorpion

Threatened (based on a preliminary regional assessment) Ridge

Ichnestoma stobbiai Fruit Chafer Beetle

Critically Endangered (based on a preliminary regional assessment) Ridge

Opistophthalmus pugnax Scorpion

Endangered (based on a preliminary regional assessment) Ridge

Trichocephala brinckii Fruit Chafer Beetle

Vulnerable (based on a preliminary regional assessment) Ridge

Stasimopus robertsi Cork Lid Trapdoor Spider

Rare (based on a preliminary regional assessment) Ridge

Ancylotrypa brevipalpus Wafer Lid Trapdoor Spider

Rare (based on a preliminary regional assessment) Ridge

Ancylotrypa nuda Wafer Lid Trapdoor Spider

Data Deficient (based on a preliminary regional assessment) Ridge

Ancylotrypa pretoriae Wafer Lid Trapdoor Spider Ridge

Galeosoma hirsutum Shield Bum Trapdoor Spider

Rare (based on a preliminary regional assessment) Ridge

Galeosoma pallidum Shield Bum Trapdoor Spider

Rare (based on a preliminary regional assessment) Ridge

Galeosoma pilosum Shield Bum Trapdoor Spider

Rare (based on a preliminary regional assessment) Ridge

Galeosoma planiscutatum Shield Bum Trapdoor Spider

Rare (based on a preliminary regional assessment) Ridge

Galeosoma robertsi Shield Bum Trapdoor Spider

Rare (based on a preliminary regional assessment) Ridge

Gorgyrella schreineri Shield Bum Trapdoor Spider

Data Deficient (based on a preliminary regional assessment) Ridge

Idiops gunningi Shield Bum Trapdoor Spider

Rare (based on a preliminary regional assessment) Ridge

Idiops pretoriae Shield Bum Trapdoor Spider

Rare (based on a preliminary regional assessment) Ridge

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Segregara monticola Shield Bum Trapdoor Spider

Rare (based on a preliminary regional assessment) Ridge

Segregara transvaalensis Shield Bum Trapdoor Spider

Rare (based on a preliminary regional assessment) Ridge

Moggridgea paucispina African Tree Trapdoor Spider

Rare (based on a preliminary regional assessment) Ridge

Brachionopus.pretoriae Baboon Spider

Data Deficient (based on a preliminary regional assessment) Ridge

Pterinochilus junodi Baboon Spider Not Evaluated Ridge GDACE, 2004. Gauteng State of the Environment Report.

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ANNEXURE C: METHODOLOGY

In order to obtain an accurate account of Open Space within the CTMM, both private and public Open Spaces were captured to the cadastral files supplied by the Tshwane Manager of the Topocadastral GIS Section, Geomatics. Cadastral information was supplied in three shape files containing a specific ID code which links to Tshwane’s geodatabase: erf.shp, ah.shp and farm_portion.shp. Open Spaces were then classified using information obtained from the above-mentioned Section, the Parks & Horticultural Services Section, the Nature Conservation and Resorts Section as well as Map Studio data, and placed to the following categories: • Ecological Open Spaces: These included wetlands, protected areas and ridges • Social Open Spaces: These included recreational Open Spaces, sports fields etc • Institutional Open Spaces: These included Libraries (with associated lawns); educational facilities

and cemeteries • Heritage Open Spaces • Agricultural Open Spaces, both small and large scale

Mapping to political boundaries did contain some limitations including and not restricted to: • Surface calculations queries on Open Spaces will be incorrect (eg. Heritage site on large farm

portion) • Agricultural holdings and farm portions contained shared land uses (eg: weland, cemetery and

agricultural activities) • Complete erven coverage is lacking • Cannot search shared landuses in the GIS attribute table. Habitat mapping in a separate shapefile was therefore essential in determining physical boundaries. Habitat types were mapped digitally onscreen from 1m resolution orthophotos (2001) at a scale of between 5000 and 10 000. A field investigation of randomly selected sites was performed within the CTMM to determine the accuracy of capturing and to digitally correct classification of the habitat types. These habitat types were then assigned a ranking of ‘High’, ‘Medium’ or ‘Low’ based on ecological sensitivity and conservation importance. Categories to determine the ranking were: • Red Data species habitat (RD) • Percentage Disturbance (DIS) • Species Diversity (DIV) • Percentage Alien infestation (ALIE) • Local Importance (LOC) • Regional Importance (REG) Each category was further ranked against another using the Pairwise Comparison Matrix (Table 1). A full description of this type of matrix and ranking system is addressed in Appendix 1.

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Table 1: Pairwise Comparison Matrix

Presence

of Red Data

species

% Disturbanc

e % Alien

Infestation %

Diversity Local

Significance Regional

Significance

Presence of Red Data species

1.00 0.14 0.14 0.20 0.14 0.14

% Disturbance

7.00 1.00 0.20 3.00 3.00 3.00

% Alien Infestation

7.00 5.00 1.00 7.00 5.00 5.00

% Diversity 5.00 0.33 0.14 1.00 0.20 0.33

Local Significance

7.00 0.33 0.20 5.00 1.00 0.20

Regional Significance

7.00 0.33 0.20 3.00 5.00 1.00

Total Rating 34.00 7.14 1.89 19.20 14.34 9.67

CLASSIFICATION RANKING CALCULATION

7 Much more important RANK PAIRWISE RATING 5 More important High >431.16 3 Slightly more important Medium 143.72<431.16

1 Equal Low <143.72 1/3 Slightly less important 1/5 Less important 1/7 Much less important

Habitat types identified within the CTMM had the following rating assigned base on the above criteria (Table 2). All Open Spaces contained in the ‘High’ rank must be incorporated into the Open Space Network as no go areas. Table 2: Environmental rating of the habitat types within the CTMM

HABITAT CODE HABITAT DESCRIPTION SENSITIVITY SCORE

101 Rocky grassland High

102 Hyparrhenia grassland Medium

103 Disturbed grassland Low

104 Disturbed areas Low

200 Wetlands and associated buffers High

301 Open woodland/savanna Medium

302 Closed woodland Medium

303 Protea woodland High

304 Disturbed woodland Medium

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HABITAT CODE HABITAT DESCRIPTION SENSITIVITY SCORE

401 Small Holdings Medium

404 Mines/Quarries Low

405 Golf Courses Low

408 Built-Up Low

409 Alien bush clumps Low

500 Agriculture Low

601-603 Ridges High

Status Quo The outcomes from capturing all Open Space data within the CTMM resulted in the reporting on the following systems:

• Ecologically Sensitive / Important Systems (Ridges and Wetlands); • Protected Areas; and • Urban Open Space.

Verification Sessions were held with Parks and Horiticultural Services as well as Nature Conservation and Resorts to confirm the location of Open Spaces captured, their development status, problem areas, etc.

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ANNEXURE D: SWOT ANALYSIS OUTCOMES

Various sessions were held with Ward Councillors over the period September 2004. The following summary highlights the major findings of the interaction: Socio-Economic Function

STRENGTHS High Quality development Meeting outdoor user needs Tourism City image Infrastructure Aesthetic (Sense of Place) Economic benefit (Attracting development) Legacy & Historical value (Heritage) Awareness/Appreciation for environment

Green culture Life style Entrenched maintenance High standard Qualified Job opportunities Health Sense of well-being Psychological Existing enforcement by laws (ordinances)

WEAKNESSES

Insufficient staff Budget constraints Not integrated Left over space Not adding value Interaction of line function & responsibility Not all suitable for Open Space

Under utilised Lack of AWARENESS of function Security Development vs. maintenance Apathy versus Community buy-in Rate of development – Endowment Selective allocation of funds

OPPORTUNITIES

Cash endowment P.P.P. – Economic External funding – MIG Co-operative agreement Integrated development Community benefits CDS Legislative environment Park rangers

EIA Employment Awareness – Environment education City image – Urban agriculture Marketing Promotion – City vision Tourism Urban Agriculture

THREATS

Densification of urban sprawl Short term gain for economic gain Cheap & available Endowment Political Commitment Perception vs. reality

Security Interdepartmental communication Inappropriate utilisation Poverty Incompatible surrounding land use Alienation

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Ecological Function

STRENGTHS Approved EMP for

Rietvlei/Groenkloof/Wonderboom Quantity and quality in developed areas PROXIMITY – accessibility Unique interfaces – Bronberg Representation of biodiversity protection

and red data presence 1200km of river systems 3 major wetlands 5 catchments (quaternary) Ridges x4 (Unique city form Friends groups Economic benefits High specie diversity Historical & cultural site in ecological areas Fair level of connectivity

Urban conservation – sound examples of well managed areas

Environmental health Air - qualitative Water – qualitative

Noise buffering Established eradication teams

Working for water Wrking for Wetlands

Environmental education Awareness Non-renewable resources CARA – legislation Visual relief

WEAKNESSES

No protected areas in North Differing perception of urban conservation Marketing – not site specific but general

Over exploitation of resources Perceived as “nice to have” – non essential

OPPORTUNTIES

Focus development towards conservation & integrated eco-planning

Friends groups Diversification of activities (land-uses) Higher usage = higher awareness,

= better conservation = security

Quality of life Ordinance Sustainable development of Open Space

with FRAMEWORK Urban agriculture within a framework Medicinal plant utilisation – in terms of

framework Integrated planning & resource utilisation

THREATS

Insufficient infrastructure Monitoring of compliance to commitments

contractors No return/once lost – replacement (DFA) High level interface Ecological degradation due to lack of

planning & understanding Surrounding land uses – incompatible Poverty High agriculture provincial land

Medicinal plants unmanaged utilisation Development pressure – alienation Alien vegetation Inappropriate development application Infrastructure requirement development and

maintenance– servitude Existing land use rights (real rights) Fragmentation – privatisation of Open

Spaces Access – lack thereof

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Spatial Function

STRENGHTS Identity Legibility – city (old east) vs. suburbs Orientation Well defined entrances

Gateways Landmarks

Vistas/vantage points Aesthetic value of traffic island – sense of place Street trees Opportunity for landmark –water tower etc Road reserve size

WEAKNESSES

No identity of undeveloped areas Undocumented & undeveloped cultural &

historical areas Lack of enforcement of boulevard traffic Maintenance of boulevards Un-integrated planning – no alternative

assessment Lack of urban design

Inappropriate design of urban design Lack of ablution facilities Lack of forward planning Focus on soft (green) vs. hard space Lack of urban design guidelines Infrastructure vs. urban structure

OPPORTUNITIES

Connectivity Alternative transport planning Branding

Public art Forward planning Structural planning

THREATS

Vandalism Signage Loss of trees

Informal trading Lack of enforcement

Ward Councillors’ perceptions around key Open Spaces were as follow:

Resorts Ecological Spatial Socio-Economic Fountains (Groenkloof) x x x Derdepoort x x x Rooihuiskraal x x Swartkop x x x Ga-Mothakga x x Moretele x x x Wonderboom x x x Joos Becker x x x Kwagga spruit x x x (Swimming pools) x x

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ANNEXURE E: BIBLIOGRAPHY

Anderson, K.M. “Marginal Nature: An Inquiry into the Meaning of Nature in the Margins of the Urban Landscape”. Allen, P et al. ‘Measuring the Economic Value of Urban Parks: A Caution’ Leisure Sciences”. 7(4) pp.467-476. Askwith, C. “The economic contribution of Historic Parks, Gardens and Designed Landscapes: a review of existing data and research and recommendations for future research”’. Cultural Trends 35. pp.29-79. Association of Town Centre Managers. “Key Performance Indicators”. London: ATCM 2000. Barclay, E. “Sustainable Metropolis - Gardens Renew Cuba's Urban Core”. May 2004 Bormann, H F. Balmori, D. Gebelle,T. “Redesigning the American Lawn”. Carr, S., Francis, M., Rivlin, L.G. and Stone, A.M. “Public Space”. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. CFP Report 19 - Urban Agriculture: A Survey of Academic Expertise and Programs in Canada Chittenden Nicks de Villiers & Cape Metropolitan Council. “Defining, Mapping and Managing MOSS in the CMA”. Cape Metropolitan Council, September 2000. Chittenden Nicks de Villiers & Cape Metropolitan Council .”CMOSS Phase II: Mapping”. City of Cape Town, November 2001. City Council of Pretoria: Town Planning and Architecture Department. “Pretoria: Ridges and Watercourses”. City Council of Pretoria, 1967. City Council of Pretoria: Culture and Recreation Department. “Policy regarding the Sale, Lease and Utilisation fo Public Open Space – the alientation of Public Open Space. City Council of Pretoria, February 2000. Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment. “ The Value of Urban Design”. CABE: London, 2001. Common Ground Consulting. “An Overview of Durban’s Environment. Durban Metropolitan Council, May 1998. Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism & Technikon Pretoria. “Urban Open Space: Guidelines for effective management. Discussion document based on Agenda 21 and the RDP”. Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism: Directorate Human Living Environment, November 1995. Drescher, D & Franco-Wills, P. “Assessing Parks Deficiency in an Urban Environment -Flower Mound Master Plan. 2001 DTLR Green Spaces.”Better Places London”.2002. Dunnett, N et al. “Improving Urban Parks, Play Areas and Green Spaces”. London: DTLR, 2002.

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Durban Metropolitan Council: Development Planning Service Unit: Environmental Branch. “DMOSS Framework Plan “. Durban Metropolitan Council, 1999. Durban Metropolitan Council: Development Planning Service Unit: Environmental Branch. “Durban Metropolitan Open Space System “. Durban Metropolitan Council, July 1999. Ethekwinin Municipality. “Durban Environmental Services Management Plan. Ethekwini Municipality, 2002. Forrest, R and Kearns, A. “Joined Up Places? Social cohesion and neighbourhood regeneration York”. York Publishing Services Ltd, 1999. Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Environment. “Gauteng Communications Network Strategy”. Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Environment. March 2002. Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Environment. “Guideline for the Construction and Upgrade of Filling Stations and Associated Tank Installations”. Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Environment. March 2002. Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Environment: Directorate of Nature Conservation. “Departmental Policy: Red Data Plant Policy for Environmental Impact Evaluations”. Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Environment: Directorate of Nature Conservation: Scientific Services. 24 August 2001. Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Environment: Directorate of Nature Conservation. “Departmental Policy: Development Guidelines for Ridges”. Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Environment: Directorate of Nature Conservation: Scientific Services. 19 April 2001. Gehl, J. “The Life Between Buildings”. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1987. Gobster, P. “Urban parks as green walls or green magnets? Interracial relations in neighbourhood boundary parks’”. Landscape and Urban Planning 41, pp 43-55, 1998. Godbey, G. “The contribution of Recreation and Parks to Reducing Health Care Costs: From Theory to Practice.” In Trends: Justifying Recreation and Parks to Decision Makers., v. 30 no 4, 1993. Greater Pretoria Metropolitan Council. “Environmental Resources Plan”. Greater Pretoria Metropolitan Council. 2000. Greenhalgh, L. and Worpole, K. “The Richness of Cities: urban policy in a new landscape”. London: Comedia, 1997. Guildford Borough Council. “Supplementary Planning Guidance: Open Space”, April 2002. Hetherington, P. “ Invest in greenbelt land: Planners eye green belts for housing”. Guardian, May 2002. Hamilton Parks & Open Space Draft Discussion Paper May 2004 Harrison, C., Burgess, J., Millward, A. and Dawe, G. “Accessible Natural Green Space in Towns and Cities: A review of Appropriate Size and Distance Criteria. English Nature Research Report. No. 153. Peterborough: English Nature, 1992.

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Hass-Klau, C., Crampton, G., Dowland, C. and Nold, I. “Streets as Living Spaces – helping public places play their proper role. London:Landor Publishing Ltd, 1999. Holm, Jordaan and Partners. “Centurion Open Space Network”. Centurion Town Council, 1999. Hough, M. “City Form and Natural Processes”. New York: Von Nostrand Rinehold, 1984. Strategic Environmental Focus. “Johannesburg Metropolitan Open Space System”. 2002. Kit Cambell Associates. “Rethinking Open Space: Open Space Provision and Management: A Way Forward. A research report prepared for the Scottish Executive Central Research Unit”. Edinburgh: Scottish, 2001. Leinberger, C.B. Financing Progressive Development., Capital Xchange. May 2001. London Region. “ Canary Wharf, from Greenwich”. March 2004. Long, J & Sanderson, “The social benefits of sport. Where’s the Proof?’ in Gratton, C. and Henry, I. Sport in the City. London: Routledge, 2001. More, T. “The positive values of Urban Parks’ Trends” 25(3), 13-17, 1988. More, T.A., Stevens, T. and Allen, P.G. “Valuation of Urban Parks”. Landscape and Urban Planning 15 pp.139-152, 1988. National Playing Field Association. “The Six Acre Standard: Minimum Standards for Outdoor Playing Space”. London: NPFA, 1992. Newcastle City Council. “Planning Policy Guidance 17: Planning for Open Space, Sport and Recreation”, July 1997. ODPM. Planning Policy Guidance (PPG) 17: Planning for Open Space, Sport and Recreation. London: HMSO. 2002. Opperman, B. “Challenges for Greenstructure Planning in Germany. Pidot, J. “Reinventing Conservation Easements”. April 2005. Rabinovich, J. “Land Property Rights and Natural Resources Ownership in the Context of Environmental Sustainability in a Market Economy”Lincoln Institute Research Report, 2000. Roelofs Joan. The Economics of Greening Cities Scotland: Planning Advice Note: PAN 65: “Planning and Open Space”, January 2003 Solecki,W.D. and Welch, J.M. “Urban parks: Green spaces or green walls?” Landscape and Urban Planning 32, pp. 93-106, 1995. United Nations. “World Urbanization Prospects, The 1999 Revision, 2001. Vancouver-Clark Parks & Recreation. “Clark County Regional Parks, Recreation & Open Space Plan”. June 2000

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Wellington Shire Counci. “Open Space Policy 2000 – 2010”. November 2000. Yakima Parks and Recreation.” Blue Prints for the Future: Five-Year Comprehensive Plan, 2000 – 2005.” June 2000. Young, T. “Creating Community Greenspace: A Handbook for Developing Sustainable Open Spaces In Central Cities”. California League of Conservation Voters-Education Fund, 2000.

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