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ISSN 1313-7735 RESEARCH PEOPLE AND ACTUAL TASKS ON MULTIDISCIPLINARY SCIENCES Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference Publisher Bulgarian National Multidisciplinary Scientific Network of the Professional Society for Research work Volume 1 LOZENEC, BULGARIA 24– 28 JUNE, 2015

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Page 1: Proceedings of the Fifth International Conferencemultilingual.bionetsyst.com/images/other/2015_Volume_1.pdf · Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference ... Designed to Agriculture

ISSN 1313-7735

RESEARCH PEOPLE AND ACTUAL TASKS ON MULTIDISCIPLINARY SCIENCES

Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference

Publisher

Bulgarian National Multidisciplinary Scientific Network of the

Professional Society for Research work

Volume 1

LOZENEC, BULGARIA 24– 28 JUNE, 2015

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RESEARCH PEOPLE AND ACTUAL TASKS ON MULTIDISCIPLINARY SCIENCES

Fifth Conference

Publisher

Bulgarian National Multidisciplinary Scientific Network of the Professional Society for Research Work

with the support of

Bulgarian National Society of Agricultural Engineers “Engineering and Research for Agriculture”

“Angel Kunchev” University of Ruse, Bulgaria National Institute of Research-Development for Machines and Installations

Designed to Agriculture and Food Industry, Bucharest, Romania University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Banat Timişoara,

Faculty of Zootechny and Biotechnology, Romania Society “ECOLOGICA”, Belgrade, Serbia

Volume 1

Agriculture and Veterinary medicine Technical sciences, Processing & Post Harvest Technology

and Logistics, Power and machinery

LOZENEC, BULGARIA 24– 28 JUNE, 2015

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Organizing Committee

Atanasov Atanas, Bulgaria - Editor in Chief Mihailov Nikolay, Bulgaria Vezirov Chavdar, Bulgaria Vlăduţ Valentin, Romania Biriş S.Sorin, Romania Bungescu Sorin, Romania Atanasova Polina, Bulgaria Dochev Veselin, Bulgaria

International Scientific Committee Vezirov Chavdar, Bulgaria Banaj Đuro, Croatia Paradjikovic Nada, Croatia Milanovic Valentina, Serbia Inoue Keiichi, Japan Vlăduţ Valentin, Romania Biriş S.Sorin, Romania Popescu Simion, Romania Guliyev Elovset, Azerbaijan Fröba Norbert, Germany Kehayov Dimitar, Bulgaria Perković Anica, Croatia Tóth Brigitta, Hungary Zheliazkova Irina, Bulgaria Lorencowicz Edmund, Poland Bungescu Sorin, Romania Kaya Yalcin, Turkey Jovanović Larisa, Serbia Popescu Carmen, Romania

ISSN 1313-7735 Printed in Bulgaria Printing House “Angel Kunchev” University of Ruse 8, Studentska Street, 7017 Ruse, Bulgaria

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PREFACE

Dear Colleagues! The International Scientific Conference “Research People and Actual

Tasks on Multidisciplinary Sciences” is fifth International Conference organized in Bulgaria with basic purpose to create the framework for the presentation, debate and publication of the valuable scientific results obtained by both the young members.

United by the idea of Multidisciplinary Sciences, the researchers and faculty will report the results of their research. Thus, the scientists will contribute is to promote exchange of research results, scientific ideas and their practical implementation and development work in the various disciplines.

We hope this meeting will initiate new joint research projects, new friendships. We owe special thanks to all participants, and especially to the supporting organizations.

Chief Editor Assoc. Prof. Dr. Atanas Atanasov

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CONTENTS VOLUME 1

Agriculture and Veterinary medicine Technical sciences, Processing & Post Harvest Technology

and Logistics, Power and machinery

1. EFFECT OF MINERAL NUTRITION WITH NITROGEN ON PLANT HEIGHT AT DIFFERENT CULTIVARS OF WINTER WHEAT, Nadica Tmušić…. …………..……1

2. THE EFFECT OF SOME YIELD COMPONENTS ON GRAIN YIELD OF WINTER

WHEAT,N. Deletić, S. Stojković, S. Gudžić, B. Ćirković, M. Jelić..............................5

3. LINEAR EVALUATION OF PRIMIPAROUS SIMMENTAL COWS, Zvonko Spasic, Božidar Milošević, Marko Lazić, Slavica Ciric, Nikola Stolic, Zoran Ilic, Bratislav Pesic..........................................................................................................................9

4. AMPELOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF GRAPE VARIETY RED TRAMINER

IN VINEGROWING SUBREGION OF NIŠ, Bratislav Ćirković, Nebojša Deletić, Dušica Ćirković, Saša Matijašević, Dragan Janković, Zoran Jovanović..................14

5. SEASONAL INDICATORS OF STEREOTYPICAL BEHAVIOR IN COWS, B.

Radovic, A. Nitovski, Z. Savic, J. Janjic and V. Milanovic……………………………19

6. PRODUCTIVE PROPERTIES OF SOME WHEAT VARIETIES GROWN ON A MILDLY ACID SOIL, S. Stojković, N. Deletić, M. Aksić, S. Gudžić, M. Biberdžić, D. Beković………………………..…………………………………………………..............24

7. INCIDENCE AND ATTACK INTENSITY OF WHEAT POWDER MILDEW IN

VARIOUS MINERAL NUTRITION REGIMES AFTER LIMING, S. Gudžić, N. Deletić, N. Gudžić, M. Aksić, K. Nikolić, S. Stojković...............................................29

8. PURPOSE AND IMPORTANCE OF NECROPSY IN THE PRACTICE OF

VETERINARY MEDICINE, A. C. Stancu, I.Olariu-Jurca, A Olariu-Jurca. M Pentea………………………………………………………………………………..…….33

9. THE ROLE OF ORGANIC SELENIUM IN DESIGNING EGGS OF HENS

DOMINENT LINE OF PARENTS, Bratislav Pesic, Bozidar Milosevic, Zvonko Spasic, Nikola Stolic Jasmina Filipovic………………………………………..……….37

10. PRODUCTIVITY TRAITS OF PERENNIAL FORAGE LEGUMES IN HILLY-

MOUNTAINOUS REGIONS OF SOUTHEAST SERBIA, D. Beković, R. Stanisavljević, V. Stevović, M. Biberdžić, S. Stojković and J. Knežević……………42

11. THE ANALYSIS OF THE FACTORS AFFECTING THE ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY

OF A MISCANTHUS CULTURE, E. Sorica…………………………………………....47 12. CLUSTERS IN A FUNCTION OF RURAL ENCLAVES DEVELOPMENT IN

KOSOVO, Goran Maksimovic, Bozidar Milosevic, Zvonko Spasic, Sonja Samardzic………………………………………………………………………………….52

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13. INVESTING IN RASPBERRY PRODUCTION AS FACTOR OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF STRPCE MOUNTAINOUS ENCLAVE IN KOSOVO, Goran Maksimovic, Bozidar Milosevic, Sonja Samardzic, Ljubisa Djordjevic……………..57

14. INFLUENCE OF MODERN BIOHEMICAL AND BIOPHYSICAL TEST METODS TO

DISTIGUISH THE ANATOMICAL, HISTOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GASTRIC MUCOSA, A Nitovski , Bisa Radović, Dragana Grčak, Valentina Milanović, Milenković M, Grčak M………………….….62

15. THE DYNAMICS OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY PRODUCTS OF PROTEIN

BREAKDOWN DURING RIPENING OF INDUSTRIALLY PRODUCED WHITE CHEESE, Ž.Savić, O.Maćej and M.Milenković…………………………………..……67

16. THE MICROPROPAGATION OF THE STRAWBERRY CULTIVAR ‘CORTINA’, Z.

Nikolić, K. Nikolić, S. Janković, A. Selamovska, A. Krstić……………………………73

17. THE INFLUENCE OF LIMING AND FERTILIZATION ON YIELD AND NITROGEN AND PHOSPHORUS USE IN WINTER TRITICALE PLANTS AT PSEUDOGLEY TYPE SOIL, M.Jelic, J. Milivojevic, V. Djekic, O. Nikolic, N. Deletic, M. Biberdzic…………………………………………………………………………………...78

18. YIELD OF WINTER BARLEY DEPENDING ON FERTILIZING SISTEM OF ACID

SOILS, M. Biberdžić, M. Jelić, S. Barać, S. Stojković, D. Beković, Dragana Lalević……………………………………………………………………………………...83

19. ANGIOGRAPHY OF A. OVARICA IN CALIFORNIAN RABBIT (ORYCTOLAGUS

CUNICULUS), Valentina Milanovic, Verica Mrvic, A. Nitovski, Bisa Radovic, Bozidar Milosevic .…………………………………………………………………………....……89

20. EFFECT OF PREBIOTIC BIO-MOS ON SERUM PROTEINS IN SUCKLING

CALVES, Nikola Stolić, Bratislav Pesic ,Božidar Milosević, Zvonko Spasić, Zoran Ilic............................................................................................................................94

21. THE IMPACT OF BIOLOGICAL PREPARATIONS ON THE FUSARIUM

MONILIFORME WHEAT GRAIN, Stancic, I., Petrovic, S., Zivic, J……………..…..98

22. RADICAL SCAVEGING ACTIVITY IN WATER-SOLUBLE EXTRACTS FROM SERBIAN CHEESES, Ž. Stolić, Lj. Popović, and S. Popović................................103

23. EFFECT OF PREBIOTIC ON PERFORMANCE OF BROILER CHICKENS FED

LOW PROTEIN DIETS, Izeta Omerovic, Božidar Milosevic, Slavica Ciric, Goran Maksimovic, Sonja Samardzic……………………………………………..………….107

24. THE EFFECT OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ON REPRODUCTIVE TRAITS

OF SIMMENTAL COWS, Nebojsa Lalic, Božidar Milosevic, Zvonko Spasic , Goran Maksimovic……………………………………………………………………………....112

25. COMPARISON OF ECONOMICALLY IMPORTANT TRAITS OF DOMESTIC AND

IMPORTED FLECKVIEH CATTLE, Božidar Milosevic, Slavica Ciric, Zvonko Spasic, Zoran Ilic, Goran Maksimovic………………………………………………….………116

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26. PROBIOTIC EFFECT ON BROILER CHICKENS PERFORMANCE, Sonja Samardzic, Božidar Milosevic, Goran Maksimovic, Slavica Ciric, Izeta Omerovic…………………………………………………………………………………120

27. THE EFFECTS OF ENZYME SUPPLEMENTATION ON ECONOMICALLY

IMPORTANT CARCASS TRAITS OF BROILERS FED ON CORN-SOYBEAN MEAL DIETS, Sonja Samardzic, Bozidar Milosevic, Goran Maksimovic, Ljubisa Djordjevic…………………………………………………………………………………125

28. LOSSES IN ALFALFA MOWING PROCESS PERFORMED BY OSCILLATORY

AND ROTARY MOWER, Vuković,A., Barać,S., Bojana Milenković, Aksić,M., Gudžić,N………………………………………………………………………………….130

29. INFLUENCE OF ARBUSCULAR MYCORRHIZAL FUNGI CONSORTIUM ON

TAGETES SP. ORNAMENTAL PLANTS IN VARIOUS NUTRITIONAL CONDITIONS, B. Schmidt, I. Samfira…………………......…………………………135

30. MATHEMATICAL MODELLING IN ANIMAL FEEDING AND PRODUCTION, Florin

Gogoașă, Cosmin Nițu, Radu Burlacu………………………………………………..140

31. THE EFFECT PRUNING SYISTEM ON BEARING BALANCE OF VINE CULTIVAR WHITE TAMJANIKA IN ŽUPA VINE DISTRICT, Z. Jovanović, B. Ćirković, M. Garić, D. Janković, Z. Nikolić............................................................................................146

32. STUDY ON FERMENTATION CAPACITY OF SEVERAL MICROBIAL STRAINS

FOR BIOETHANOL PRODUCTION FROM LACTOSE, Popa Nicolae, Skumpija Alen, Vintila Teodor, Gergen Iosif…………………………………………………….151

33. RESULTS OF THE EXPLOITING TRIALS ON THE SILAGE COMBINES IN

PREPARING THE SILAGE FOR DAIRY COWS, S. Barac, A. Vukovic, M. Biberdzic, A. Djikic, Bojana Milenkovic, D. Djokic……………………………….....156

34. RESEARCH ON USING THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD FOR THE STUDY OF

COMPRESSION BEHAVIOR FOR SUNFLOWER SEEDS, S.Şt. Biriş, M. Ionescu, V. Vlăduț, and A. Atanasov…………………………………………………………….161

35. CONSIDERATIONS ON THE FACTORS INFLUENCING THE ARTIFICIAL

COMPACTION OF SOIL, Ungureanu N., Vlăduţ V., Voicu Gh., Biriş S. Şt., Paraschiv G., Atanasov At., Dilea M., Ionescu M…………………………..………..167

36. RESEARCH ON THE PROCESSING OF THYME (Thymus vulgaris) PLANTS IN

ORDER TO OBTAIN QUALITY PRODUCTS, A. Pruteanu, L. David, M. Matache, M. Ferdes, G. Gageanu, A. Muscalu………………………………………..………...178

37. ASPECTS REGARDING THE FACTORS INFLUENCING SOIL COMPACTION,

Vlăduţ D.I., Croitoru Şt., Atanasov At., Vlăduţ V., Biriş S.Şt., Paraschiv G., Duţu M.F., Dumitru I., Ungureanu N., Găgeanu I., Mircea I.D……………………………184

38. OPTIMIZATION OF SOIL WORKS FOR MAINTAINING A GOOD AGROPHYSICS

STATE OF THE SOIL, Vlăduţoiu L, Croitoru Şt., Tudor A., Atanasov At., Vlăduţ V., Biriş S.Şt., Dumitru I., Radu O…………………………………………………………189

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39. FEATURES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF GRANULATED CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS THAT INFLUENCE THE WORK PROCESS, Petcu A., Popa L., Ciuperca R., Vlădut V., Stefan V., Girleanu I.C……………………………………..195

40. ENERGY PLANTS – AN ALTERNATIVE FOR THE FUTURE PRODUCTION OF

BIOFUELS, Paun Anisoara, Vladut Valentin, Marin Eugen, Manea Dragos, Lazar George, Gageanu Iuliana………………………………………………………………201

41. ESTABLISHING THE INFLUENCE OF FEED QUALITY TREATED SURFACES

WORK FOR SIMULATION OF CUTTING UNIT OF COMBINED SUTTING AND SPD, Ivaylo Kirilov. Angelov……………………………………………………………209

42. WEAR IN THE GUIDE SUPPORTS AND STATIC DETERMINATIVENESS

SYSTEM - FLOATING CUTTING MODULE – FRAME, Ivaylo Kirilov Angelov….216

43. THE USE OF ALGAE BIOMASS AS SUBSTRATE FOR BIOGAS PRODUCTION – A REVIEW, M. Dinca, Gh. Voicu, M. Ferdes, G. Paraschiv, G. Moiceanu, P. Voicu, N. Ungureanu, M. Ionescu…………………………………………………….………222

44. RESEARCHES CONCERNING THE ASSESSMENT OF THE QUALITY OF THE

PRODUCT OBTAINED FROM THE MECHANIZED HARVESTING OF THE CAMOMILE INFLORESCENCES, A.Muscalu, L. David, A. Pruteanu……………227

45. CURRENT STATUS OF THE CONSTRUCTIVE ACHIEVEMENTS REGARDING

MACHINES FOR PRECISION SEEDING, Cujbescu D., Bolintineanu G., Atanasov At., Marin E., Vlăduţ V, Biriş S. Şt., Dumitru I., Găgeanu I…………………………233

46. RESEARCH ON THE INFLUENCE OF SOIL RESISTANCE ON THE PROCESS

OF DEEP SOIL LOOSENING, Croitoru St., Vladut I.D., Badescu M., Vlăduţ V., Matache M., Persu C., Păun A., Marin E., Atanasov At., Vezirov Ch., Biriş S. St., Dumitru I., Găgeanu I…………………………………………………………………..243

47. MATRIX-VECTOR METHOD FOR KINEMATIC ANALYSIS OF SPATIAL

MECHANSIMS WITH OPEN CONTOURS, Şt. I. Moise, V. Moise,………………248

48. CORRELATION BETWEEN ARABLE LAND AND INSTALLED TRACTORS ENGINE POWER ON FAMILY FARMS, Martin Takalić, Sven Blažičević…….…254

49. THE NECESITY TO IMPLEMNT THE INTEGRATE PARASITIC WEED CONTROL

TECHNOLOGY IN AGRICULTURE COOPS AND ENVIROMENT PROTECTION, A. L. Vişan , V. G. Ciobanu……………………………………………………………259

50. RESISTANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF BISCUITS BY TESTS WITH SHARP PIN

PENETROMETER, Gh. Voicu, E.M. �tefan, G.A. Constantin, A. Lupu………….264 51. CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE WORK PROCESS OF DRUM / DISK

TYPE VEGETAL MASS GRINDING APPARATUS, Chiţoiu M., Voicu Gh., Moiceanu G., Vlăduţ V., Danciu A., Grigore I……………………………………………………269

52. THE SELECTED MACRO-, OLIGO- AND MICROELEMENTS (Na, K, MG, CA, FE,

MN, CU AND ZN) DISTRIBUTION IN GRASSLAND FORAGE HERBS, Harmanescu Monica, Bungescu Sorin, Valentin Vladut, Sorin Biris, Iosif Gergen……………..277

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53. TECHNOLOGICAL PROPERTIES AND BREAD BAKING QUALITIES OF WHEAT VARIETIES, TREATED WITH „BIO-ONE“BACTERIAL FERTILIZER AND HUMIC ACID, Ralitsa Mincheva, Svetlana Stoyanova, Vesselin Dochev, Galina Dyakova, Atanas Atanasov………………………………………………………………………..281

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RESEARCH PEOPLE AND ACTUAL TASKS ON MULTIDISCIPLINARY SCIENCES 24 – 28 JUNE 2015, LOZENEC, BULGARIA

1

EFFECT OF MINERAL NUTRITION WITH NITROGEN ON PLANT HEIGHT AT DIFFERENT CULTIVARS OF WINTER WHEAT

Nadica Tmušić

Abstract: In the biennial period were performed examination the effect of mineral nutrition with

nitrogen on plant height at different cultivars of winter wheat. The experiment was set on experimental field of Fedder Centre Kruševac.The experiment was set dawn with following factors included: - fertilizing with dosages of nitrogen: N0, N90, N120, N150, N180 kgha-1. On each examined variation were used 60 kgha-1 P2O5 as well as 60 kgha-1 K2O; and cultivars: Anastasija, Prima, Zlatka, Renesansa, Rusija, Pobeda. The experiment was set according to block system with random arrangement of variants, in 4 repetition with size of base allotment 5 m2.

The aim of these examinations was to determine the effect of mineral nutrition with nitrogen on plant height at different cultivars of winter wheat depending on nitrogen dosage.

Obtained results show that variants of fertilization with nitrogen had highly significant bigger plant height comparing control, and that the tendence of growth was continuing up to dosage N150, while further increasing of nitrogen dosage caused slight depression. The biggest height of plants had cultivars Rusija (93,2 cm) and Anastasija (91,2 cm), and the smallest cultivar Prima (72,8 cm).

Key words: nitrogen, wheat, cultivars, plant height INTRODUCTION

Plant height of wheat is a plant cultivar, under the control of a large number of genes, but the height of the plant is affected also by a number of external factors as well as the use of mineral nutrition [7; 5; 9].

Of all the elements of mineral nutrition of nitrogen has the greatest impact [8; 3; 4; 6]. The aim of these examinations was to determine the effect of mineral nutrition with

nitrogen on plant height at different cultivars of winter wheat depending on nitrogen dosage.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The experiment was set on experimental field of Fedder Centre Kruševac, in the biennial period. The experiment was set dawn with following factors included: - fertilizing with dosages of nitrogen: N0, N90, N120, N150, N180 kgha-1. On each examined variation were used 60 kgha-1 P2O5 as well as 60 kgha-1 K2O; and cultivars: Anastasija, Prima, Zlatka, Renesansa, Rusija, Pobeda.

The experiment was set according to block system with random arrangement of variants, in 4 repetition with size of base allotment 5 m2. For the assay is aplllied standard agrotechnics.

The ground on which the assay was contucted by the type of alluvial (fluvisol). Subtype leached fluvisol reperesent some older ground, in fact transitional forming of the carbonate fluvisol up to weakly developed meadow black soil. Although it does contain Ca CO3 in limited horizon, leached fluvisol is in possession of quite favorable chemical properties. According to the results of examination this ground has following chemical characteristics (table 1.).

It has neutral up to weakly acidic reaction pH in H2O is 6,2 and pH in K2O is 5,7. According to the content of humus 2,7 %, this ground is weakly up to medium provided. The N content in this ground is proportional to the humus content. According to the content of the easy mobile P2O5 this ground are weakly, and by the content of the easy mobile K2O are medium provided.

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Table 1. Chemical characteristics of the experimental field

horizon

profound (cm)

humus (%)

pH

overall N

(%)

P2O5

K2O

mg/100g

soil H2O KCl

Ah-(A1) 0 - 30 2. 7 6.2 5.7 0.138 4.6 17

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Results in year I. - On average for all cultivars only fertilization variants N120 and N150 had significant bigger height in relation to the control, whereby the difference for a variant N150 was significant and on the 0,01 level. The rest of the differences in the height of the plants were not significant (table 2.).

The cultivars reacted differently on the nitrogen fertilizers. On all the fertilization variants Anastasija i Prima had smaller plant height, related to the control, while for the other cultivars fertilization had very significant positive effect on height. At the Renesansa cultivar the biggest plant height was on the variant N120 kgha-1, and with cultivar Zlatka, Rusija and Pobeda on the variant N150 kgha-1.

Under the influence of fertilization, the average height of the plants was increased by 2,6 cm and the difference between the cultivars was 10,3 cm. The biggest plant height is at the Anastasija (90,3 cm) and Rusija (91,2 cm) cultivars, between which there were no significant differences. However, the differences between them and other cultivars were highly significant.

The lowest cultivar Prima was (70,9 cm), which manifested height of less than other cultivars at a sifnificance level of 0,01. Other cultivars Zlatka, Renesansa and Pobeda had significantly bigger plant height in relation to the Prima, and significantly less than the Anastasija and Rusija.

Results in year II. - In the second year of the examination, the plant height on the control without fertilization, on average, for all cultivars, was highly significantly lower in relation to all the nitrogen fertilization variants. Maximum height of the plants was expressed in variant N120, N150, N180, among which there were no significant differences, but with these variants was significantly bigger height in relation to the variant N90. Nitrogen fertilization had a very positive effect on plant height in all the examined cultivars individually [2; 6] (table 3.). At Anastasija maximum height has been achieved at the variant N180 in other it was at the variant N150. The highest cultivar was Rusija (95,1 cm), followed by Anastasija (92,0 cm) with a significantly lower height. The lowest were cultivars Prima (74,6 cm) and Zlatka (76,5 cm), among which there were no significant differences. Under the influence of fertilization the height of the plant is, by the average, increased by 9,0 cm, and the difference between the cultivars was 20,5 cm.

Based on the examination results it is evident that in both years the increasing of the plant height was to the variant N150, so that in variant N180 there was the plant height reduction.

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Table 2. The plant height (year I) Cultivars (b)

Variants fertilizing (a) N0 N90 N120 N150 N180 Average

Anastasija 92.8 90.4 90.1 89.5 89.0 90.3 Prima 72.3 70.6 70.0 71.0 70.7 70.9 Zlatka 71.8 77.0 77.7 77.8 75.8 76.0 Renesansa 82.7 79.2 87.0 83.5 81.0 82.7 Rusija 88.3 91.9 91.6 93.5 91.0 91.2 Pobeda 79.8 86.3 83.9 87.5 86.6 84.8 Average 81.2 82.5 83.4 83.8 82.3 82.7 Fertilizing ( a ) Cultivars ( b ) Interaction ( axb )

lsd 0,05 1.9 2.1 4.7 lsd 0,01 2.6 2.9 6.4

Table 3. The plant height (year II)

Cultivars (b)

Variants fertilizing (a) N0 N90 N120 N150 N180 Average

Anastasija 86.3 88.8 88.1 96.7 99.9 92.0 Prima 68.6 72.5 77.1 79.8 75.1 74.6 Zlatka 74.8 78.2 80.1 73.9 75.6 76.5 Renesansa 85.9 93.3 91.5 92.1 91.7 90.9 Rusija 89.3 94.6 93.3 100.2 98.4 95.1 Pobeda 80.4 89.5 96.1 95.3 92.3 90.7 Average 80.9 86.1 87.7 89.6 88.9 86.6 Fertilizing ( a ) Cultivars ( b ) Interaction ( axb )

lsd 0,05 2.4 2.6 5.8 lsd 0,01 3.2 3.5 7.8

The two-year data for the plant height in the cultivars and fertilizer variants show us

that nitrogen fertilization variants had highly significantly bigger plant height in relation to the control and that the trend of growth continued to dose N150, while further adding of the nitrogen caused mild depression that, however, was not significant (table 4.). On the significant effect of nitrogen on plant height indicates a big number of authors [1; 3; 4].

On two years average, the cultivars have shown major differences in this capacity, which are, of course, caused by differences in their genetic constitution. Thus, the maximum height of plant cultivars had Rusija (93,2 cm) and Anastasija (91,2 cm), and the lowest the Prima cultivar (72,8 cm).

Table 4. The plant height (biennial average)

Cultivars (b)

Variants fertilizing (a) N0 N90 N120 N150 N180 Average

Anastasija 89.6 89.6 89.1 93.1 94.6 91.2 Prima 70.5 71.6 73.6 75.4 72.9 72.8 Zlatka 73.3 77.6 78.9 75.9 75.7 76.3 Renesansa 84.3 86.3 89.3 87.8 86.4 86.8 Rusija 88.8 93.3 92.5 96.9 94.7 93.2 Pobeda 80.1 87.9 90.0 91.4 89.5 87.8 Average 81.1 84.3 85.6 86.7 85.6 84.7 Fertilizing ( a ) Cultivars ( b ) Interaction ( axb )

lsd 0,05 2.2 2.3 5.3 lsd 0,01 2.9 3.2 6.8

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CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

Obtained results show that variants of fertilization with nitrogen had highly significant bigger plant height comparing control, and that the tendence of growth was continuing up to dosage N150, while further increasing of nitrogen dosage caused slight depression.

The derived results indicate that the use of nitrogen had a positive effect on plant height in nearly all variants of fertilization and with all cultivars.

The cultivars, on two years average, have shown large differences in plant height, which are of course caused by differences in the genetic constitution.

The biggest height of plants had cultivars Rusija (93,2 cm) and Anastasija (91,2 cm), and the smallest cultivar Prima (72,8 cm).

REFERENCES

[1]. Božović, D., (1993): Morfološke, fiziološke i produktivne osobine nekih perspektivnih linija i sorti ozime pšenice u uslovima Severne Metohije. Magistarski rad, Poljoprivredni fakultet, Univerziteta u Beogradu. [2]. Lazović, D., Biberdzić, M., Deletić, N., Petrović Natalija (1997): Uticaj nivoa ishrane azotom na produktivne elemente klasa pšenice i prinos zrna, Arhiv za poljoprivredne nauke br. 1-2, 51-60. [3]. Djokić, D. (1988): Izučavanje mogućnosti racionalizacije poboljšanja efikasnosti ishrane pšenice azotom, Zbornik radova, 61-67, Institut za strna žita Kragujevac [4]. Jevtić, S., Malešević, M. (1988): Uticaj rastuće količine NPK na prinos pšenice na černozemu pri različitim uslovima gajenja, Savremana poljoprivreda vol 36, br. 3-4, 101-113. [5]. Pešić Ana, Knežević D., Paunović A., Madić Milomirka (2005): Variability of morphological and productive traits in two wheat cultivars (Triticum aestivum L). Int. Conference of Agricultural faculties, Cacak, Proceedings, 275-282. [6]. Savić Nadica (2004): Sortna specifičnost pšenice prema mineralnoj ishrani azotom, Magistarska teza odbranjena na Poljoprivrednom fakultetu u Lešku, Univerziteta u Prištini, 100. [7]. Sarić, M., Jocić, M. (1993): Biološki potencijal gajenih biljaka u agrofitocenozi u zavisnosti od mineralne ishrane, Posebno izdanje, Knjiga DCXIX, Odeljenje prirodno -matematičkih nauka, Knjiga 6-8,Beograd, 26-45. [8]. Vos, J. (1981): Effect of temperature onol nitrogen supply on postfloral growth of wheat, Measurements and simulation, Agricultural research reports 911, Pudoe, Wageningen. [9]. Zečevic Veselinka, Knezevic, D., Micanovic Danica (2005): Genetic and phenotypic variability of productive tillering in winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Balkan sci. confer., Karnobat, Bulgaria, Proc.'Breeding and cultural practices of the crops', 1, 211-214.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

N. Tmušić, PhD, Associate Professor, University of Pristina, Faculty of agriculture, Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected] , +381642196422

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THE EFFECT OF SOME YIELD COMPONENTS ON GRAIN YIELD OF

WINTER WHEAT

N. Deletić, S. Stojković, S. Gudžić, B. Ćirković and M. Jelić

Abstract: This paper presents the results of a study dealing with individual and joint effect of some yield components on grain yield of representative Serbian cultivars of winter wheat. The trials have been set at two locations (Kraljevo and Zaječar, Serbia), where four winter wheat cultivars (Pobeda, Planeta, ZA-75, Nora) were grown in five fertilization and liming variants. Multiple regression analysis showed that plant height (β=0.639***) and 1000 grain mass (β=0.322**) had significant effect on grain yield. Adjusted R2 value (0.829) showed that 82.9% of the observed variation in wheat grain yield was explained by the studied traits.

Key words: wheat, plant height, spike length, 1000 grain mass, grain yield. INTRODUCTION Grain yield is a complex trait of outstanding economic significance, dependent upon

a number of hereditarily determined traits and environmental conditions in which plant is developing (Madić et al., 2005). Therefore, contribution of various plant traits to grain yield is a permanent subject of studies in plant breeding.

Plant height is an important agronomic trait for morphogenesis and grain yield formation in wheat. An appropriate plant height is a prerequisite for attaining the desired yield in wheat breeding programs. The introduction of dwarfing traits into plants has achieved tremendous increase in wheat grain yield during the „Green Revolution“ (Peter, 2003). Therefore, it is essential to elucidate the genetic basis of plant height in order to gain further increase of grain yield (Cui et al., 2011). Deletić et al. (2013) found significant individual effect of this trait on grain yield, as well as the joint effect with other yield components.

Spike length is one of the important yield components, not only because longer spike offers more room for spikelets, but also because it is the source of assimilates closest to grains. Spike structure is more effective in utilizing illumination than the other parts of the plant, and it also will stay green and functional for a longer time. Because of these features, it contributes up to 20-30% of the dry matter accumulated in grains (Sharma et al., 2003).

Grain mass is also one of the crucial yield components. In fact grain yield is the product of productive tiller number per square unit, number of grains per spike and 1000 grain mass. Saleem et al. (2006) found strong, significant genotypic and phenotypic correlation between grain yield and 1000 grain mass.

This paper presents the results of a study dealing with individual and joint effect of plant height, spike length and 1000 grain mass on grain yield of representative Serbian cultivars of winter wheat.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The trials have been set at two locations (Kraljevo and Zaječar, Serbia), where four winter wheat cultivars (Pobeda, Planeta, ZA-75, Nora) were grown in five fertilization and liming variants. Trials were set in split-plot design, with three replications. Individual effect of plant height, spike length and 1000 grain mass was observed using simple regression analysis, while joint effect of those three traits on grain yield was studied by multiple regression analysis. The input data were for the all cultivars and fertilization variants from both locations, in order to get a better estimate of the part of grain yield variation explained by the investigated grain yield components.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Simple regression has been used in this paper as a measure of individual effect of the studied yield components on grain yield. Simple regression analysis shows that the all independent variables had a positive effect on grain yield, but that effect was significant at the level of P<0.001 for plant height and 1000 grain mass, while for spike length it was not significant. Regression diagrams are presented in graph 1.

Influence of plant height on wheat grain yiled

Grain yield = -8032.0048+167.8949*x

55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95

Plant height

10002000300040005000600070008000

Gra

in y

ield

Influence of spike length on wheat grain yield

Grain yield = 538.668+518.4893*x

7.07.5

8.08.5

9.09.5

10.010.5

11.0

Spike length

10002000300040005000600070008000

Gra

in y

ield

Influence of 1000 grain mass on grain yield

Grain yield = -6210.5468+259.4038*x

43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52

1000 grain mass

4000

5000

6000

7000

Gra

in y

ield

Graph 1. Individual influence of some yield components on wheat grain yield

Table 1. Effects of the observed traits on wheat genotypes’ grain yield calculated by multiple regression analysis

β SE (β) B SE (B) t (d.f. 36) P value

Intercept -- -- -9457.77 1279.250 -7.39321 0.000000Plant height 0.639024 0.099731 120.61 18.824 6.40750 0.000000Spike length 0.042695 0.069783 75.62 123.601 0.61183 0.544498

1000 grain mass 0.321563 0.102351 102.56 32.643 3.14175 0.003352

R=0.918; R2=0.842; adjusted R2=0.829; goodness of fit: F(3, 36)=64.174; P<0.0000

Multiple regression showed similar results (tab. 1). Multiple regression analysis of

individual and joint effect of the studied parameters on wheat grain yield showed that plant

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height (β=0.639***) and 1000 grain mass (β=0.322**) had significant effect on grain yield, while the effect of spike length was not significant. Intercept value was also significant at the level of P<0.001.

Adjusted R2 value (0.829) showed that 82.9% of the observed variation in wheat grain yield was explained by the studied three traits. F test for goodness of fit was significant at the level of P<0.001. Plant height had strongest effect on wheat grain yield, and was followed by 1000 grain mass.

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

Simple regression analysis shows that the all independent variables had a positive effect on grain yield, but that effect was significant at the level of P<0.001 for plant height and 1000 grain mass, while for spike length it was not significant.

Multiple regression analysis of individual and joint effect of the studied parameters on wheat grain yield showed that plant height (β=0.639***) and 1000 grain mass (β=0.322**) had significant effect on grain yield, while the effect of spike length was not significant. Intercept value was also significant at the level of P<0.001.

Adjusted R2 value (0.829) showed that 82.9% of the observed variation in wheat grain yield was explained by the studied three traits. F test for goodness of fit was significant at the level of P<0.001.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The investigation published in this paper is a part of the project “The development of new technologies of small grains cultivation on acid soils using contemporary biotechnology” financed by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia, grant No TR-31054.

REFERENCES

[1]. Cui, F., Li, J., Ding, A., Zhao, C., Wang, L., Wang, X., Li, S., Bao, Y., Li, X., Feng, D., Kong, L., Wang, H. 2011. Conditional QTL mapping for plant height with respect to the length of the spike and internode in two mapping populations of wheat. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 122(8), 1517-1536. [2]. Deletić, N., Stojković, S., Biberdžić, M., Lalević, D., Gudžić, S. 2013. Individual and joint effect of yield components on grain yield of triticale and barley. Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference: „Research People and Actual Tasks on Multidisciplinary Sciences“ 12-16 June 2013, Lozenec, Bulgaria, Vol. I, 36-40. [3]. Madić, M., Paunović, A., Djurović, D., Knežević, D. 2005. Correlations and “path” coefficient analysis for yield and yield components in winter barley. Acta Agriculturae Serbica 10(20), 3-9. [4]. Peter, H. 2003. The genes of the green revolution. Trends in Genetics 19(1), 5-9. [5]. Saleem, U., Khaliq, I., Mahmood, T., Rafique, M. 2006. Phenotypic and genotypic correlation coefficients between yield and yield components in wheat. Journal of Agricultural Research 44(1), 1-6. [6]. Sharma, S.N., Sain, R.S., Sharma, R.K. 2003. Genetics of spike length in durum wheat. Euphitica 130(2), 155-161.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

N. Deletić, PhD, Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture Lešak, Kopaonička Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

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S. Stojković, PhD, Associate Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture Lešak, Kopaonička Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

S. Gudžić, PhD, Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture Lešak, Kopaonička Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

B. Ćirković, PhD, Associate Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture Lešak, Kopaonička Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

M. Jelić, PhD, Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture Lešak, Kopaonička Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

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LINEAR EVALUATION OF PRIMIPAROUS SIMMENTAL COWS

Zvonko Spasic *, Božidar Milošević *, Marko Lazić ***, Slavica Ciric*, Nikola Stolic**, Zoran Ilic*, Bratislav Pesic**

Abstract: The parameters of a linear evaluation of the exterior are important attributes of a livestock

farming because, among other things, they represent the basis for making economic and organisational decisions by overcoming numerous problems occuring in a visual evaluation of immeasurable exterior features, thus providing important information regarding the genetic value of animals.

For the purposes of obtaining average values and variability of linear evaluations the authors analysed the data regarding 180 primiparous simmental cows (daughters od bulls 1411, 1464, and 1488) reared on the farms of individual farmers on the territory of Rasina district in the Republic of Serbia.

The average values of a linear evaluation of primiparous cows obtained in this research have been established in the range of 4,22 for the pelvis angle up to 8,80 for udder cleanliness, which are the values typical of simmental cows.

The established results of linear evaluation indicate that there are statistically significant differences on different levels between father bulls and with regard to the examined traits of the exterior of primiparous cows.

Key words: linear evaluation, primiparous, simmental cows. INTRODUCTION An evaluation of the type and physical development are very important indicators of

the breeding ability of cows, as well as of their capacity to consume sufficient amounts of food, to provide one with quality milk, to reduce energy consumption during production and remain exploited as long as possible [8]. Latinović was the first one in Serbia to perform a linear evaluation of the type at the „Beograd“ agro-combine farms on a scale from 1 to 9 in the case of black and white and Holstein Friesian cattle [6]. By means of a scale ranging between two possible biological extremes (from 1 to 9) many a researcher has performed evaluation on the cattle of a combined production capacity [3,13,15].

By applying linear evaluation on 292 simmental cattle heads, which were chosen in 2002 in the category of bull dams on the territory of Serbia, the authors obtained average values for the frame, muscularity, body capacity and udder, and these values are 7,89; 7,78; 7,79 and 7,64 respectively, with the variation range from 7 to 9, the coefficient of variation 7,85; 7,94; 7,79 and 7,74 respectively and standard deviations of 0,62; 0,62; 0,61 and 0,59 respectively [6]. Within 29 primary breeding organisations in Serbia from 12 districts the authors processed the results submitted to the main breeding organisation regarding 363 bull dams. The average values of the following linear evaluations of the bull dams type have been established: for the frame 7,69 (6,82-8,03), for muscularity 7,72 (7,45-8,01),for body capacity 7,62 (6,90-8,09) and for udder 7,56 (6,76-8,09) [1].

The analysed data of 1370 Croatian simmental primiparous cows regarding 19 exterior traits indicate that the average linear values are 5,29 for muscularity, 5,14 for the pelvis position, 5,88 for the ankle joint angle, 6,18 for the development of the ankle joint, 5,56 for fetlock joint, 5,57 for the hoof height, 4,45 for the fore udder length, 5,87 for the rear udder height, 6,47 for the central ligament, 6,70 for the udder depth, 5,08 for the position of breasts, 6,04 for the length of the breasts and 5,57 for thickness of breasts [10].

By examining the variability of linearIy evaluated traits of simmental bull dams through the method of least squares the authors obtained average values of linear evaluation for 7 regions in which the examined cattle have been bred and in the following ranges: from 7,40 to 8,18 for the frame, from 7,43 to 8,19 for muscularity, from 7,34 to 7,96 for body capacity and from 7,33 to 7,90 for the udder [7]. The influence of the region is statistically significant (Fexp, P<0,01) in linear evaluations of the type [7].

The visual assessment of a body capacity and recognition of dairy features in cows are preliminary indicators of milk production capacity and partially even of their longevity,

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as well as of a reproductive performance of a head, which is very important from the standpoint of economy and milk production [3,5,12,16].

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In order to establish the average values and variability of linear evaluation of primiparous simmental cows (n=180) the authors used the documents of the main breeding organisation which implements the basic breeding programme on the territory of Rasina district. The examination, selection and evaluation of primiparous cows was performed during organised selection festivals in the period between 30 and 150 days after the partus. The tested specimens are quality breeding animals which had gone through multiple selection and assessment. Primiparous simmental cows which have been used in this research had been preventively protected and had not had any health problems.

The primiparous used for the purposes of this paper were inseminated at the age of 16 and 17 months at the body weight of 400 kg, and they were at the age of 25 to 26 months during the first partus. The tested cattle were more easily calved, with or without assistance. The calves were healthy, vital and normally developed, without congenital anomalies and without doublets and triplets.

For the purposes of measuring and evaluating the body capacity of primiparous cows the authors used the measuring ribbon, protractor and Lydtin stick. In this paper numerical, i.e. linear evaluation of the exterior has been performed in the manner which is described in detail in manuals for linear evaluation [4,9,14], and according to the criteria applied by the main breeding organisations. The most preferred rating value is 5, due to the fact that it is located between two possible biological extremes (1 and 9).

For the purposes of the statistical analysis of the examined traits the following parameters have been calculated: the average value ( ), standard error of the mean (S ), standard deviation (Sd), coefficient of variation (Cv%) and variation interval (Min-Max). For the purposes of analysing the degree of significant differences of the used parameters the authors used the ANOVA and t-test.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The obtained results relating to the average values and variability of a linear evaluation of primiparous simmental cows are presented in Table 1.

The presented results show that the highest average value is 8,80 (cleanliness of udder) with variations from 4 to 9, the coefficient of variation 7,54% and standard deviation of 0,66, while the standard error of the mean was 0,05. The lowest value of the standard error of the mean was 0,03 with the thickness and position of the front udder breasts showing the average of 4,80 and 5,95 with the variation interval between 4 and 7, coefficient of variation of 9,45 and 7,80 and standard deviation of 0,45 i 0,46. The represented results regarding the udder traits were identical with the results regarding Croatian simmental heads [3,10], while the analysed linear values of bull dams [1,6,7] are somewhat higher in comparison to the average linear values of randomly selected primiparous simmental cows.

The average muscularity was 6,75 with the variation interval between 4 and 7, coefficient of variation of 7,17% and standard deviation of 0,48, while the standard error of mean was 0,04. Regarding the body capacity, the lowest value appeared for the open angle of the ankle (3), and the variation interval reached the value of 7 (the height – appearance of the hoof). The average height-appearance of the hoof was 5,85 with the

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coefficient of variation of 13,21% and standard deviation of 0,77, while the standard error of mean was 0,06. Other authors obtained identical results [3,10] in their respective researches.

Table 1. Average values and variability of linear evaluation of primiparous cows (n=180)

Trait (1-9) Sd Cv% Min Max

FRAME Aitchbone height 5,93 0,05 0,63 10,55 4 8 Pelvis length 5,85 0,05 0,64 10,91 5 7 Pelvis width 6,10 0,05 0,69 11,38 5 8 Pelvis angle 4,22 0,05 0,69 16,33 3 6 Body depth 6,52 0,04 0,58 8,94 5 8 MUSCULARITY Muscularity 6,75 0,04 0,48 7,17 4 7 LEGS AND HOOFS Ankle angle 4,50 0,06 0,75 16,69 3 6 Ankle development 4,84 0,03 0,44 9,05 4 6 Fetlock joints 5,56 0,04 0,50 8,97 5 6 Hoof height/length 5,85 0,06 0,77 13,21 4 7 UDDER The length of fore udder 6,09 0,04 0,57 9,40 4 7 The length of rear udder 6,11 0,04 0,59 9,61 5 7 The height of rear udder 5,17 0,05 0,64 12,40 4 7 Central ligament 4,48 0,05 0,67 15,01 3 6 Udder depth 5,93 0,05 0,67 11,35 4 8 Breast position of fore udder 5,95 0,03 0,46 7,80 4 7 Breast position 5,07 0,05 0,65 12,85 3 7 Breast length 4,98 0,04 0,50 10,06 4 6 Breast thickness 4,80 0,03 0,45 9,45 4 6 Udder cleanliness 8,80 0,05 0,66 7,54 4 9

The average frame values of a linear evaluation of the type of primiparous simmental

cows ranged from 4,22 0,05 (pelvis angle) to 6,52 0,04 (body depth). The tested cattle heads have not been chosen according to the categories, the consequence of which was a deviation in certain average linear values in comparison to other researches [1,6,7] in which bull dams were tested. The method of a linear evaluation of the type has been applied in various researches for the purposes of assessing exterior traits [11,13,15,16]. However, it should be noted that certain authors have separately evaluated measurable traits [10]

The obtained results relating to the testing of the hypothesis on average values within a linear evaluation of primiparous simmental cows (daughters of bulls 1411, 1464 and1488) are presented in Table 2.

Bearing in mind the obtained results, the differences between the bulls tested for the purposes of linear evaluation are statistically insignificant (Fexp, P >0,05) for the following traits: muscularity, the position of hind legs, development of ankle joint, fetlock joints and udder cleanliness. Since the experimental value is lower than the table value, the hypothesis on the average equality for the listed traits is accepted. However, when it comes to other traits, in the case of the presented example there are significant differences between father bulls for the examined exterior traits.

On the basis of the aforementioned, the most significant differences (texp, P 0,001) appeared in the case of udder traits in the following examples: between the bull number 1411 and the bull number 1464 regarding the length of fore udder, as well as between the bull number 1464 and bull number 1488 for the following traits: the height of rear udder, the length od breasts and central ligament. The obtained results show that, apart from the

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udder traits, the slightest difference appears between father bulls regarding the frame trait, and then regarding the traits of body capacity. The accuracy of assessment regarding the breeding values of a bull type depends primarily on the traits, as well as on the system of linear evaluation [2].

Table 2. Difference between father bulls regarding the values of linear evaluation (n=180)

Trait (1-9)

Ftest ttest

1411/1464 1411/1488 1464/1488 FRAME Aitchbone height P 0.05 * Р =-0,822 NS P 0.01 ** P 0.05 * Pelvis length P 0.01 ** Р = 1,143 NS P 0.01 ** P 0.05 * Pelvis width P 0.01 ** P 0.01 ** P 0.05 * Р =-0,829 NS

Pelvis angle P 0.05 * P 0.05 * Р = 0,910 NS P 0.01 ** Body depth P 0.05 * P 0.05 * Р =-1,111 NS P 0.01 ** MUSCULARITY Muscularity Р = 1,363 NS Р =-1,486 NS Р =-1,300 NS Р = 0,235 NS

LEGS AND HOOFS Ankle angle Р = 2,740 NS Р =-0,868 NS P 0.05 * P 0.01 ** Ankle development Р = 2,322 NS Р = 1,486 NS P 0.05 * Р = 0,658 NS

Fetlock joints Р = 2,549 NS P 0.05 * Р =-0,753 NS Р = 1,593 NS

Hoof height/length P 0.05 * Р =-0,267 NS P 0.01 ** P 0.01 ** UDDER The length of fore udder P 0.01 ** P 0.001 *** Р =-0,923 NS P 0.05 * The length of rear udder P 0.01 ** P 0.01 ** P 0.05 * P 0.05 * The height of rear udder P 0.01 ** Р =-1,294 NS P 0.05 * P 0.001 *** Central ligament P 0.001 *** Р = 1,234 NS P 0.05 * P 0.001 *** Udder depth P 0.001 *** P 0.01 ** P 0.01 ** Р = 1,038 NS

Breast position of fore udder P 0.01 ** P 0.01 ** Р =-0,219 NS P 0.01 ** Breast position P 0.01 ** P 0.01 ** Р = 1,210 NS P 0.01 ** Breast length P 0.01 ** P 0.01 ** Р =-0,859 NS P 0.001 *** Breast thickness P 0.05 * P 0.01 ** P 0.05 * Р = 0,795 NS

Udder cleanliness Р = 1,640 NS Р =-0,492 NS Р =-1,280 NS Р =-1,446 NS

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

On the basis of the conducted research the linear evaluation of primiparous simmental cows in the Rasina district are such that, according to the applied methods, one can draw the following conslusions:

The average values within the linear evaluation of primiparous cows obtained in this research are established in the range of 4,22 for pelvis angle to 8,80 for udder cleanliness, which represents the typical values for the simmental stock.

Bearing in mind that the established differences between the tested daughtes of the said bulls regarding the linearly evaluated traits are statistically insignificant (P > 0,05) with regards to muscularity, the position of the hind legs, development of the ankle joint, fetlock joints and udder cleanliness, the obtained results for other linear evaluation values show that there are significant differences at different levels between father bulls regarding the examined exterior traits.

REFERENCES

[1]. Glavna odgajivačka organizacija, 2012. Govedarstvo (Simentalska rasa). Stručni izveštaj i rezultati obavljenih poslova kontrole sprovođenja odgajivačkog programa u 2012. godini. Institute for Animal Husbandry. Belgrade, Serbia.

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[2]. Jagusiak, W., et al. 2015. Genetic correlations between type traits of young Polish Holstein-Friesian bulls and their daughters. Czech J. Anim. Sci., 60 (2) 75–80. [3]. Jovanović, S. and Raguž N. 2011. Analysis of the Relationships Betveen Type Traits and Longevity in Croatian Simmental Cattle Using Survival Analysis. Agriculturae Conspectus Scientificus (ACS). 76 (3) 249-253. [4]. Pantelić, V., et al. 2005. Uputstvo za linearno ocenjivanje tipa i kondicije goveda. Institute for Animal Husbandry. Belgrade, Serbia. [5]. Pantelić, V., et al. 2006. Telesna razvijenost bikovskih majki simentalske rase. Biotechnology in Animal Husbandry. 23 (3-4) 23-32. [6]. Pantelić, V., et al. 2007. Linearno ocenjivanje bikovskih majki simentalske rase. Savremena poljoprivreda 56 (1) 49-53. [7]. Pantelić, V., et al. 2007. Variability of linearly evaluated traits of type of simmental bull dams. Biotechnology in Animal Husbandry. 23 (5-6-1) 201-208. [8]. Pantelić, V., et al. 2011. Variability and heritability of type traits of Holstein-Friesian bull dams. Biotechnology in Animal Husbandry. 27 (3) 305-313. [9]. Posavi, M. 1999. Procjena vanjštine goveda (linear scoring). Hrvatski stočarsko selekcijski centar. Zagreb, Croatia. [10]. Posavi, M., et al. 1999. Procjena heritabiliteta za svojstva vanjštine linearno ocenjenih metodom "System 97". Agriculturae Conspectus Scientificus, 64 (1) 59-65. [11]. Pérez-Cabal, M.A. and Alenda R. 2002. Genetic Relationships between Lifetime Profit and Type Traits in Spanish Holstein Cows. Official Journal of the American Dairy Science Association (JDS). 85 (12) 3480-3491. [12]. Strapák, P., et al. 2010. Relation of the length of productive life and the body conformation traits in Simmental breed Slovak. Archiv Tierzucht 53 (4) 393-402 [13]. Sölkner, J. and Petschina R. 1998. Relationship between tzpe traits and longevity in Austrian Simmental cattle. 49th Annual Meeting of the European Association for Animal Production (EAAP). 24-27 August, Warsaw, Poland. [14]. Šakić, V., et al. 2004. Linear estimation the exterior Simmental and Holstein cattle. Faculty of Veterinary Medicine University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina [15]. Y. de Haas and H.N. Kadarmideen 2005. Genetic parameters for predictors of body weight, production traits and somatic cell count in Swiss dairy cows. 56th Annual Meeting of the European Association for Animal Production (EAAP). CG2.8, session 5, 5-8 June, Uppsala, Sweden. [16]. Zavadilová, L. and Štípková, M. 2012. Genetic correlations between longevity and conformation traits in the Czech Holstein population. Czech J. Anim. Sci., 57 (3) 125–136

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Zvonko Spasić, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Priština - Kosovska Mitrovica, Kopaonička b.b. 38219 Lešak, Republic of Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

Božidar Milošević, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Priština - Kosovska Mitrovica, Kopaonička b.b. 38219 Lešak, Republic of Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

Marko Lazić, B.Sc., Agriculture Cooperative "Eko Župa", Jaše Petrovića 42, 37230 Aleksandrovac, Republic of Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

*- Faculty of Agriculture-University of Pristina, Kopaonička bb, 28273 Lešak, Serbia e-mail: [email protected] **- Agricultural College Prokuplje ***- Agriculture Cooperative "Eko Župa", Jaše Petrovića 42, 37230 Aleksandrovac #- The paper has been funded Ministry of Science RS – project TR31001

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AMPELOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF GRAPE VARIETY RED

TRAMINER IN VINEGROWING SUBREGION OF NIŠ

Bratislav Ćirković, Nebojša Deletić, Dušica Ćirković, Saša Matijašević, Dragan Janković, Zoran Jovanović

Abstract: Traminer is an old European grape variety which still has a burden of unanswered questions

and attracts attention of scientist in viticulture and enology. The obtained results point to possibility of successful growing Red Traminer in the vinegrowing subregion of Niš. The average grape yield varied from year to year depending on weather conditions. The highest grape yield was observed in the first year of investigation, while the best wine quality was reached in the second year of the study. Best vines of Red Traminer were selected for further studies and multiplication.

Key words: Ampelographic Description, Fertility, Red Traminer,Variety. INTRODUCTION

The occurrence of byotipes and forms within old grapevine cultivars is a well-known

fact (Keserer and Regner, 2003). Traminer is an old European grape variety which still has a burden of unanswered questions and attracts attention of scientist in viticulture and enology. The variety, as well as its clones and subvarieties, is described by many researchers, and all of them pointed out to its great variability in quantitative and qualitative traits (Zirojević, 1974; Galet, 1998; Cindrić et al., 2000; Imazio et al., 2002; Kaserer et al., 2003; Santiago et al., 2007). The first written data about this variety go back to XV century (Goethe, 1887). There is an opinion that its origin is Tyrolese town Tramin in Italy, from where it spreaded to many European countries (Goethe, 1887). Traminer is a heterogeneous variety with several clones and subvarieties, and there are some disputes about them. Thus, according to botanical characteristics Gewürztraminer is identical to Red Traminer, but some researchers reported it as a separate variety (Pospišilova, 1981). In many papers Hillebrand (1984) did not mention Red Traminer but Gewürztraminer. On the contrary, Nemeth (1975) did not regard Gewürztraminer as a separate variety but as a variant of Red Traminer. Red Traminer with its more productive subvarieties is dominant, but those genotypes have weaker scent than that usually expected from Traminer (Zirojević, 1974; Cindrić, 2000).

This paper has been aimed to establish growth, productivity, grape yield, as well as quality of grapes, must and wine of the variety Red Traminer in vinegrowing subregion of Niš, which can improve knowledge about properties of this variety and its suitability for growing in the conditions of Niš subregion.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The investigation has been carried out during the period 2004-2006 in the collection vineyard of the Center for Viticulture and Enology at Niš. This grape varieties’ collection is located in vinegrowing subregion of Niš, characterized by moderately continental climate with average annual air temperature of 11.8oC and average vegetational air temperature of 18.1oC. The absolute minimum of air temperature during the study was -18.2oC.

The average annual precipitation amount in the observed period was 750 mm, 422 mm of which fell during vegetation. Soil type was eutric cambisol. The vineyard was established in 1995, with planting distance of 3x1.2 m (2777 vines per ha), which was universal value for the all varieties at this collection vineyard. Bud load per vine was 20 buds or 6.6 buds per m2.

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The trial was set in random complete block design with four replications, and the data were processed by analysis of variance. Ampelographic description has been done according to the descriptor list of OIV. Resistance to Botrytis cinerea was estimated by means of OIV descriptor, Code 459: 1 – 3 very low resistance, 5 – medium resistance, 7 – 9 high or very high resistance. Must quality, presented through the average content of sugar and total acid, was determined on representative samples during the vintage. Oechsle scale was used to measure sugar content, while titration with N/4 NaOH was applied in order to measure the total content of acid. Microvinification and chemical analysis of wine were carried out in the enological laboratory of the Viticulture and Wine Production Center of Niš. The quality of the wine produced was determined based on the results of the chemical analysis and organoleptic assessment made by the wine tasting commission of the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade. The all observed parameters were determined by standard ampelographic procedures.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Ampelographic description of the variety Red Traminer. Ampelographic description has been done according to the descriptor list for grape varieties and Vitis species by OIV and harmonized with its 2nd edition (OIV, 2009).

Young shoot tip was fully open (001-5), with low anthocyanin coloration of prostrate hairs (003-3), high density of prostrate hairs (004-7) and semi-erect attitude (006-3). Mature leaf blade was small (065-3), circular (067-4), with three lobes (068-2) and dark green color (069-7). Petiole sinus was brace-shaped (080-2) and upper lateral sinuses were open (082-1). Density of prostrate hairs on main veins on lower side of blade was high (086-7). Petiole was slightly shorter than middle vein (092-3). Woody shoot was elliptic at cross section (101-2), red-violet colored (103-3), with short internodes (353-3). Flowers had fully developed stamens and gynoecium (151-3). Bunch was short (11.64 cm; 202-3), dense (204-7), with 93 grapes in average. Peduncle of primary bunch was short (2.17 cm; 206-1). Berries were short (220-3), uniform (222-2), broad ellipsoid (223-3) and red (225-3). Berry flavor is muscat (236-2). Single berry weight was low (503-3). Length of seeds was medium (242-5) and weight of seeds was very low (243-1).

Table 1. Phenological stages of grape variety Red Traminer development.

Stage of development

Year of investigation

Average 2004 2005 2006

Bleeding sap March 26th March 30th March 28th March 28th

Time of bud burst April 14th April 17th April 20th April 17th

Beginning of flowering June 5th June 10th June 12th June 9th

End of flowering June 14th June 19th June 21st June 18th

Veraison August 6rd August 13th August 11th August 10th

Full berry maturity August 11th August 17th August 14th August 14th

OIV descriptors for phenological stages of Red Traminer development

OIV Code Elements of description Score

301 Time of bud burst 3

302 Time of full bloom 5

303 Time of veraison 5

304 Time of full maturity of the berry 3

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Phenological stages of the variety Red Traminer. Phenological observation showed that beginning and duration of phenological stages depended on weather conditions of the investigated year (tab. 1). The earliest bud burst was noticed in 2004 (April 14th), and the latest one in 2006 (April 20th). As average for the investigated period, flowering began at June 9th and ended at June 18th. Grape harvesting was carried out at September 14th.

Productivity of buds and shoots. Weather conditions significantly influenced number of developed shoots, differentiation of productive buds and development of productive shoots. Of the total buds, 16.94 gave developed shoots, and 12.61 of them were productive (tab. 2). The lowest number of developed shoots was observed in 2005 as a result of the lowest count of activated buds, which was significantly lower than in the other two investigated years.

Table 2. Basic productivity parameters of grape variety Red Traminer.

Parameter

Year of investigation

Average

LSD

2004 2005 2006 0.05 0.01

Buds per vine 20.0 20.0 20.0 20.0 -- --

Developed canes 17.58 16.08 17.17 16.94 0.57 0.76

% of developed canes 87.90 80.40 85.85 84.71 -- --

Productive canes 13.17 11.17 13.50 12.61 1.18 1.58

% of productive canes 74.91 69.46 78.62 74.33 -- --

Bunches per bud 1.03 0.64 0.99 0.89 0.14 0.19

Bunches per dev. cane 1.16 0.79 1.14 1.03 0.15 0.20

Bunches per pr. cane 1.55 1.16 1.43 1.38 0.13 0.18

Bunches per vine 20.50 12.83 19.83 17.72 2.73 3.66

Bunch mass 124.67 98.74 100.34 107.91 11.46 15.37

Share of productive shoots in the total count of developed shoots was from 69.46%

to 78.62%. The highest number of bunches per vine (20.50) was observed in the year with highest coefficient of production (2004). Bunch mass did not vary significantly among the investigated years. As the average, Red Traminer had 17.72 bunches of 107.91 g.

Grape yield and quality. Grape yield depended much more on number of bunches than on bunch mass (tab. 3).

Table 3. Elements of grape yield and quality of the variety Red Traminer.

Parameter

Year of investigation

Average

LSD

2004 2005 2006 0.05 0.01

Yield per bud (g) 129.06 63.40 97.15 96.53 17.32 23.33

Yield per dev. cane (g) 146.48 79.26 112.96 112.90 18.95 25.41

Yield per pr. cane (g) 192.57 114.43 142.41 149.81 15.62 20.95

Yield per vine (kg) 2.581 1.267 1.942 1.930 0.346 0.464

Yield per hectare (kg) 7169 3521 5395 5361 961 1289

Pruned vine mass (g) 805.42 721.67 723.75 750.28 42.61 57.14

Sugar content (%) 23.02 19.12 20.68 20.94 -- --

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Total acid content (g/l) 7.83 8.44 8.20 8.15 -- --

The observed grape yield per bud, developed shoot, productive shoot and vine

varied significantly at the level of P<0.01 among the investigated years. As the average for the investigated period, Red Traminer gave grape yield per vine of 1.930 kg and 5361 kg per hectare. The highest mass of pruned biomass (805.42g) was observed in 2004, with 17 developed shoots per vine and internode length of 8.07 cm. As the average for the studied period, must had 20.94% of sugar and 8.15 g/l of organic acids. In ecological conditions of vinegrowing subregion of Niš, Red Traminer gave wine having 12.67% of alcohol and 5.4 g/l of organic acids, with very pleasant and refreshing muscat flavor and taste, and average sensory score of 18.44 points.

Resistance of Red Traminer to Botrytis cinerea was evaluated by using OIV descriptor 459 (tab. 4).

Table 4. Resistance to Botrytis cinereа of grape variety Red Traminer (OIV 459).

Year of investigation Score

2004 9

2005 7

2006 7

Average 7.6

During the observed period, Red Traminer showed a high level degree of resistance

to gray mold caused by the fungus Botrytis cinerea. During the second (2005) year of investigation berry ripening was slowed down, because precipitation amount in August was higher regarding many-year average (88 mm), which caused a higher attack of the diseases during full berry maturity.

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

Red Traminer showed positive agrobiological and technological properties and it could be successfully grown in the studied conditions.

Beginning and end of flowering dated slightly later than the date reported by Zirojević (1974), while berry harvest was carried out earlier than reported by the mentioned source.

Bunch mass observed in this investigation is lower than the one reported by Cindrić et al. (2000) for the conditions of vine district Fruška Gora. Grape yield depended much more on number of bunches than on bunch mass. The lowest grape yield was observed in 2005 and it was high-significantly lower than in the other two years of investigation. On the basis of the observed grape yield Red Traminer can be classified as a variety with low productivity.

Cindrić (2000) stated that the Red Traminer was more resistant to Botrytis cinerea than Gewürztraminer, which is confirmed by our study.

On the basis of the three-year investigation of vine variety Red Traminer in the conditions of Niš’s vinegrowing subregion, we can conclude the following:

In the ecological conditions of Niš’s subregion, bud burst was early, flowering was moderately late, and berry maturation was early. Twenty buds gave 17 shoots, 13 of them were productive, with 1.03 bunches per developed shoot, and 1.38 per productive shoot. One vine gave 18 bunches with the average 100 berry mass of 107.91 g. The average grape yield per vine was low, and amounted 5.361 kg.

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Must had 20.94% of sugar and 8.15 g/l of total acid. It gave wine with 12.67% of alcohol and 5.4 g/l of total acid. The average degustation score was 18.44, which put the wine in the category of supreme quality wines.

Red Traminer showed a high resistance level to Botrytis cinerea. REFERENCES

[1]. Cindrić, P., Korać, N. and V. Kovač. 2000. Sorte vinove loze. Prometej, Novi Sad, Serbia. [2]. Galet, P. 1998. Précis d'ampélographie pratique (7th ed). Published by the author, Montpellier, France. 172-179. [3]. Goethe H. 1887. Handbuch der Ampelographie. Zweite Auflage. Verlag Paul Parey, Berlin, Germany. [4]. Hillebrand, W. 1981. Taschenbuch der Rebsorten. Dr. Fraund, Wiesbaden, Germany. [5]. Imazio, S., Labra, M., Grassi, F., Winfield, M., Bardini, M., and A. Scienza. 2002. Molecular tools for clone identification: the case of the grapevine cultivar Traminer. Plant Breeding, 121(6), 531-535. [6]. Kaserer, H. and F. Regner. 2003. Genetic differences within the grapevine variety Traminer. First Meeting of the ECP/GR Working Group of Vitis. Palić, Serbia. 15. [7]. Nemeth, M. 1975. Ampelografiai album. Mezögazdasági Kiadó, Budapest, Hungary. [8]. OIV. 2009. OIV descriptor list for grape varieties and Vitis species, 2nd edition. Paris, pp 1-179. [9]. Pospišilova, D. 1981. Ampelografia ČSSR. Published by the author, Bratislava, ČSSR. pp 151-158. [10]. Santiago, J., Boso, S., Gago, P., Villaverde, V. and M. Martinez. 2007. Molecular and ampelographic characterisation of Vitis vinifera L. Albarino, Savagnin Blanc and Caino Blanco show that they are different cultivars. Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research, 5(3), 333-340. [11]. Zirojević, D. 1974. Poznavanje sorata vinove loze. Vol. 1. Gradina, Niš, Serbia. 130-142.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

B. Ćirković, PhD, Associate Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture Lešak, Kopaonička Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

N. Deletić, PhD, Full Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture Lešak, Kopaonička Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

D. Ćirković, MSc, Research Associate, College of Professional Studies in Agriculture and Food Technology Prokuplje, 1 Ćirila i Metodija Street 18400 Prokuplje, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

S. Matijašević, PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Agriculture, 6 Nemanjina Street 11080 Zemun, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

D. Janković, Phd, Full Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture Lešak, Kopaonička Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

Z. Jovanović, Phd, Assistant Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture Lešak, Kopaonička Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

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SEASONAL INDICATORS OF STEREOTYPICAL BEHAVIOR IN

COWS B. Radovic, A. Nitovski, Z. Savic, J. Janjic and V. Milanovic

Abstract: Causality of stereotypical behaviour in cows is complex. The present study suggests a connection between specific biochemical parameters of blood and the dominant form of stereotypical cow behaviour, namely „tongue rolling“. The study was conducted using a farm of Simental cows. Four groups of 28 cows were formed for both, winter and summer season: high pregnancy, puerperium, early lactation and late lactation group. The most important biochemical parameters (glucose, proteins, urea, Ca and P) were determined from the blood samples. Behaviour of the animals was evaluated by observing them 2 – 4 hours after feeding. „Tongue rolling“ was detected in 10.71% of individuals studied in the fourth group of cows during the winter season. Unfavourable energy and protein status, as well as disturbance of mineral metabolism in fourth group indicates a possible connection between stereotypical behaviour of the cows and their biochemical blood parameters.

Key words: cows, blood, stereotypical behavior

INTRODUCTION

Stereotypical behavior is repetitive behaviour without clear purpose, more precisly one with no obvious function. It is characterized by a clearly defined range of movements of an individual’s body parts, which are always repeated in the same way and in the same rhythm and are relatively simple (Wiepkema, 1983). Some stereotypes are a function of adaptive mechanisms, and are considered as the attempts of „normal“ individuals to resist the impact of harsh environment. These behaviours are seen as particularly frustrating, frightening, or impoverished when an individual has no control over their environment. Thus, the stereotypical behavior is usually seen as a reflection of their difficulties. The status of the stereotypical behavior was discussed, but not studied in detail until Broom (Broom, 1983) who suggested that these stereotypes have a bad effect on the animal welfare, regardless of their function, if they occupy 10% or more of the total time that animals spend in the waking state. Interestingly, such stereotypical behaviour can also occur in humans and all species of animals, but they are most comon in cattle (Vucinic, 2006).

The dominant form of stereotypical behavior in cattle is „tongue rolling“ and it can last for hours. That behaviour can have negative influence on food intake and therefore on the performance of the individuals. The affected individual flicks its tongue outside its mouth, trying to reach mucous membrane of the nasal passage, parts of the facial skin, especially the corners of the lips, and then rolls it back inside the mouth. It is considered that there is a genetic predisposition for this type of behaviour. This stereotypical behavior could be found in all cattle breeds and in all age groups, but when livestock farming is usually found during the summer in older breeding cows and in early lactating ones (Prodanović et al., 2013). Predisposing factors for stereotypical behavior of cows can be; long intermeals intervals, poor comfort, high ambient temperatures, and unsanitary housing conditions (Philips, 2002). Poor energy status or metabolic diseases associated with a deficiency of macro and trace elements can also lead to a "tongue rollling" in cows (Lindstrom and Redbo, 2000). Magnesium deficiency in early lactation (Prodanovic et al., 2013), experimentally induced deficit of manganese (Rosenberger, 1995) and the lack of copper and cobalt (Karatzias, 1995; Issi, 2009) are also associated with stereotypical behaviour of cows, which can occur in more than 10% of cases (Sato, 1994).

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As causes of "tongue rollling" in cows are rather complex, the aim of this study was to test for connections between certain biochemical parameters of blood and this dominant form of stereotypical cow behaviour.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The research was conducted on a dairy farm of free-range Simmental breed cows. Four groups of cows were formed with 28 cows in each group for both winter and summer season: late gravidity (I), the puerperium (II), early lactation (III), and late stage of lactation (IV). The data were collected during this period of careful observation. The assesment of the behavior of cows was done 2 - 4 hours after food intake by standard criteria (Redbo, 1992). Blood samples for biochemical analysis was taken by puncture of the jugular vein. Concentration of glucose, total protein, urea, calcium and inorganic phosphorus were estimated from blood serum samples, using commercial test packages (BioMérieux) and Chemistry Analyzer RAYTO – 1904c. The results were analysed with industry standard statistical methods, and statistic significance of average values, was evaluated using a Student’s t–test.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In this study stereotypical "tongue rollling" behaviour is observed in cows in late lactation during the winter. Percentage of these stereotypes was 10.71%, which is consistent with work of Sato (Sato, 1994), and it is less frequent than stereotypical behaviour found by Prodanović (Prodanović, 2013). Results of the energy and protein status of cows in the experiment are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. The concentration of glucose, urea nitrogen and total protein levels in blood

serum during the cold and hot periods of the year Parameters Glucose (mmol/l) Total protein levels (g/l) Urea (mmol/l) Groups Winter

Summer Winter Summer Winter

Summer I 2,48 ±

0,31 2,64 ± 0,29

82,50 ± 7,86 77,62 ± 5,99

5,04 ± 0,61

2,98 ±1,08

II 1,71 ± 0,42

2,05 ± 0,72

81,17 ± 8,51 76,52 ± 6,44

4,53 ± 0,81

2,05 ±0,59

III 2,25 ± 0,33

2,34 ± 0,33

82,43 ± 4,93 75,14 ± 2,01

3,84 ± 0,41

1,24 ±0,53

IV 2,20 ± 0,20

2,29 ± 0,52

82,83±11,95 78,50 ± 7,86

5,97 ± 1,95

2,30 ±0,69

Glucose is one of the parameters that determines blood energy status. In our study,

in cows of all four groups and in both seasons, glycemia was below the physiological minimum, in comparison with reference values given by Kaneko and coworkers (Kaneko et al., 2008), especially expressed in puerperal group with exception observed in the first group in summer season. Winter and summer tests for average blood glucose values did not reveal a statistically significant difference, indicating that glucose is not subject to seasonal changes, but the concentration of glucose in the blood energy largely depends on the quality of nutrients. A majority of resesearches now agree that the model of normally observed behaviour - as well as stereotypical behaviour in cattle - is influenced by food composition (Lindstrom and Redbo, 2000). Furthermore, predisposing factors would not influence the appearance of stereotypical behaviour.

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Concerning the total protein levels, in all four groups we detected hyperproteinemia during the winter season which is oposite of the results given by Žuržul and coworkers (Žuržul et al., 1988). A statistically significant difference (p <0.05) in average levels of total protein in the winter and summer tests is detected between the third and fourth group. Hyperproteinemia can occur from the dehydration of the organism, or chronic inflammatory processes, or can be caused by surplus of proteins in diet (Jazbec, 1990).

Both winter and summer tests of average urea levels showed statistically highly significant difference (p <0.01) in all four groups. According to the Lotthammer (Lotthammer, 1991), uremia is a sensitive indicator for assessing the protein supply, where high uremia (>5.0 mmol/l) indicates surplus of proteins with the lack of energy in the diet, and it is more common in the summer. On the contrary, in our study urea level was higher in the winter. Also, Marenjak (Marenjak et al., 2004) believes that urea levels in blood increase with excessive protein intake with a simultaneous energy deficit. This can also increase with insufficient supply of meals with fermentable carbohydrates, which is found in our study in the fourth group of cows during winter. Unfavorable energy and protein status of cows in the fourth group during the winter and the emergence of "tongue rolling" in this group (10,71%) is in accordance with values given by Lindst and Redbo (Lindst and Redbo, 2000).

Concetration of calcium, inorganic phosphorus as well as their ratio in blood of tested cows, as an indicator of mineral metabolism, is shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Concetration of calcium (Ca), inorganic phosphorus (P) and their ratio (Ca :

P) in cows’ blood serum during cold and warm season Par

ametrs Calcium

(mmol/l) Phosphorus

(mmol/l) Ca : P

Groups

Winter

Summer

Winter

Summer

Winter

Summer

I 2,39 ± 0,23

2,43 ± 0,17 2,08 ± 0,29

2,15 ± 0,11

1,15 ± 0,08

1,14 ± 0,53

II 2,36 ± 0,29

2,42 ± 0,25 1,62 ± 0,41

1,72 ± 0,29

1,48 ± 0,10

1,45 ± 0,44

III 2,29 ± 0,20

2,47 ± 0,26 1,86 ± 0,40

1,87 ± 0,23

1,28 ± 0,14

1,23 ± 0,15

IV 2,20 ± 0,15

2,58 ± 0,17 2,03 ± 0,28

2,13 ± 0,28

1,03 ± 0,16

1,26 ± 0,07

With cows in the puerperium (second group), during the winter and spring seasons

the level of inorganic phosphorus was close to the lower limit of normal values. Low calcium levels ware detected at the fourth group of cows during the winter period of the year. Significant statistical differences (p <0.01) of the average values of Ca in the winter and summer were found in the fourth group of cows. Calcium regulates large number of physiological and biochemical processes, as well as neuromuscular excitability. Low concentrations of calcium in the blood interferes with muscle function of the body and leads to both irritability and nervous system disorders (Djokovic et al., 2014). The calcium and phosphorus ratio in fourth group of cows also has a significant statistical difference (p <0.05) and was lowest in the winter. The metabolic disorder of these minerals in addition to other factors mostly occurs due to their lack or inadequate ratios in food.

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

Stereotypical behavior of cows in this study, namely "tongue rolling" was observed in cows in late lactation during the winter (10.71%). Unfavorable energy and protein status,

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as well as a disorder of mineral metabolism was detected in relation to the occurrence of stereotypical behavior in this group, which indicates a causal connection.

REFERENCES

[1]. Broom D., M.,(1983): In Indicators Relevant to Farm Animals Welfare edited by Smidt, D. Martimus Nijhoff Publishers, p. 81

[2]. Đoković R., Giadinis D. N., Argiroudis S., Bojkovski A. J. (2014): Zdravstvena zaštita preživara, Univerzitet u Kragujevcu, Agronomski fakultet u Čačku, Čačak

[3]. Issi M., Özcelik M., Gül Y., (2009): Vitamin and some mineral supstance levels along with hematological findings in cattle with tanque roling disease, Kafkas Universitesi, Veteriner Fakültesi Dergisi, 15 (6), 931 – 5

[4]. Kaneko J. J., Harvey J., Bruss M., (2008): Veterinary Clinical Biochemistry of Domestic Animals. Sixth Edition, Academic Press, London, New York, Tokyo

[5]. Karatsiaz H., Roubies N., Polizopoulou Z., PapasteriadesA., (1995): Tongue play and magnesium deficiecy in dairy cattle, Zungenspielen und Manganmangel bei Milchkuhen. dtsch Tierztl Wachenschr, 102, 352 -3

[6]. Jazbec I., (1990): Kliničko laboratorijska dijagnostika, Ljubljana [7]. Latthammer K., H., (1991): Einflüsse und Folgen unausgeglichenet Fütterung auf

Gesundheit und Fruchtbarkeit des Milschrindes, Zbornik radova, XX, Inovacije znanja veterinara, Beograd

[8]. Lindstom T., Redbo I., (2000): Effect of feeding duration and rumenfill on behaviour in dairy cows, Appl Anim Behav Sci, 70 (2), 83 – 97

[9]. Marenjak T. S., Poljiček – Milas N., Stojević Z., (2004): Svrha određivanja kocentracije ureje u kravljem mleku, Praxis veterinaria 52 (3), 233 – 241

[10]. Philips C., (2002): Cattle behaviour and welfare. 2nd.ed. Ames: Blackwell Science ltd

[11]. Prodanović R., Kirovski Danijela, Vujanac I., Nešić Ksenija, Janevski A., Marić J., Kukrić V., (2013): Stereotipno ponašanje na farmama visokomlečnih krava – „igra jezika“, Veterinarski glasnik, Vol. 67, br. 5 -6, 349 - 357

[12]. Redbo T., (1992): The influence of restraint on the occurence of oral stereotypies in dairy cows, Appl Anim Behav Sci, 35 (2), 115 – 23

[13]. Rosenberger G., (1995): Clinical Examination of Cattle. Oxford: Blackwell Science Ltd

[14]. Sato S., Nagamine R., Kubo T., (1994): Tonque-playing intethered Japanese Black cattle:diurnal patterns, analysis of variance and behavior sequences, Appl Anim Behav Sci, 39, 39 – 47

[15].Vučinić Marijana (2006): Ponašanje, dobrobit i zaštita životinja, Fakultet veterinarske medicine, Univerzitet u Beogradu, Beograd

[16]. Wiepkema P. R. (1983): In Farm Animal housing and Welfare, edited by Bacster S.H., Baxter M, The Hague, p. 45

[17]. Žuržul D., Šamanc H., Jovanović M., Damnjanović Z., Radojičić B., Trbojević M., Urošević D., Đurđević D., Đurđev J. (1988). Rezultati određivanja nekih parametara u krvnom serumu krava na farmama PIK „Tamiš“, Zbornik radova, XVII Seminar za inovaciju znanja veterinara, Beograd

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Bisa Radović, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Pristina, Kopaonička bb, 28273 Lešak, Serbia, E - mail: [email protected]

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Atanas Nitovski, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Pristina, Kopaonočka bb, 28273 Lešak, Serbia, E – mail: [email protected]

Željko Savić, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Pristina, Kopaonička bb, 28273 Lešak, Serbia, E – mail: [email protected]

Jasmina Janjić, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Pristina, Kopaonička bb, 28273 Lešak, Serbia, E – mail: [email protected]

Valentina Milanović, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Pristina, Kopaonička bb, 28273 lešak, Serbia, E – mail: [email protected]

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PRODUCTIVE PROPERTIES OF SOME WHEAT VARIETIES GROWN ON

A MILDLY ACID SOIL

S. Stojković, N. Deletić, M. Aksić, S. Gudžić, M. Biberdžić and D. Beković

Abstract: This paper presents the two year results of an investigation dealing with productivity of twenty recently developed Serbian winter wheat cultivars, on the acid soil typed as eutric vertisol. The average grain yield per spike was from 0.73 g/spike, given by the cultivar Milica in the first year, up to 2.23 g, given by the cultivar Gruža in the second year. Number of grains per spike for both years ranged from 30 to 41, and 1000 grain mass from 34-49 g. Grain harvest index was from 27% to 60%. There was significantly lower plant height in the in the second year of investigation than in the first one.

Key words: wheat, grain yield, yield components, soil, acidity. INTRODUCTION Photosynthetic activity of green organs and absorption activity of wheat root create

dry substance of the plant, i.e. biological yield. Part of this substance is used for grain filling. That means grain yield will depend on level of biological yield and percentage of grain in biological yield, usually called grain harvest index (Donald and Hamblin, 1976; Borojević, 1986). Grain yield also depends on dry matter decrease in vegetative organs between flowering and ripening, which is caused by reutilization of substance synthesized earlier from vegetative organs for grain filling. Increased productivity of newer wheat cultivars is partially obtained by increased accumulation of dry substance and nitrogen compounds in plant, and by improved redistribution of these matters between vegetative and reproductive organs in favor of latter (Borojević, 1986).

In order to reach high and stable grain yield, one ought to use genes that improve efficiency of water and minerals uptake, as well as genes for good light utilization, creating so conditions for optimal organogenesis and life cycle of plants (Petrović et al., 1998; Dimitrijević et al., 2000). Furthermore, it is necessary to use genes for increased spike length, number of spikelets per spike, number of grains per spike, seed size and mass (Knežević et al., 2007).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The study has been carried out with 20 wheat cultivars. Samples for analyzes were taken during flowering and the stage of full ripeness, and standard laboratory methods were used. The trials were set in random complete block design, with four replications. Data were processed by analysis of variance, and statistical significance among genotypes was estimated by F test, but differences between genotypes one-to-one were estimated comparing with least significant differences (lsd test). The trials were set on eutric vertisol soil type, with A-Bt-C profile. Upper part of A horizon is gray and because of rinsing down has low content of alkali and humus. Its pH value is strongly acid to acid, with level of saturation with alkali lower than 70% (Jelić, 1996). Acidity of cultivated layer in water was between 5.41 and 5.83, while in KCl it was between 4.15 and 4.37. Titration acidity was 17.89 ccm.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Significant differences in grain yield were observed among cultivars and especially between years. The average grain yield per spike in the first year was from 1.50 g in cultivar Mina, up to 2.23 g in cultivar Gruža (tab. 1). The lowest grain yield per spike in the

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second year was given by cultivar Milica (0.73 g), and the highest one by cultivar Tiha (1.14 g). Lower grain yield per spike reached in the second year was caused by lower number of grains per spike and 1000 grain mass. The average grain yield per spike for the all cultivars in the second year was 0.89 g.

Table 1. Grain yield per spike and number of grains per spike

Wheat genotype Grain yield per spike Grains per spike

1st year 2nd year average 1st year 2nd year average 1.Pobeda 1.76 0.88 1.32 37 24 30 2. NS Rana 5 1.91 0.85 1.38 42 24 33 3. Evropa 90 1.92 0.83 1.37 45 25 35 4. Milica 1.74 0.73 1.23 40 24 32 5. Jarebica 1.78 0.93 1.35 40 29 34 6. Kremna 2.00 0.92 1.46 54 28 41 7. Prima 1.69 0.87 1.28 43 28 35 8. Renesansa 1.78 0.87 1.32 41 27 34 9. Tera 1.77 0.74 1.25 40 21 30 10. Nevesinjka 2.19 0.92 1.55 54 28 41 11.Takovčanka 1.58 0.99 1.28 42 26 34 12. Gruža 2.23 0.90 1.56 46 25 35 13. Toplica 2.02 0.96 1.49 41 26 33 14. Bistrica 1.75 0.88 1.31 40 21 30 15. KG 100 1.91 0.87 1.39 47 23 35 16. Pesma 1.96 1.04 1.50 52 30 41 17. Zlatka 1.75 0.91 1.33 44 25 34 18. Prva 2.06 0.78 1.42 51 22 36 19. Mina 1.50 0.81 1.15 38 27 32 20. Tiha 2.00 1.14 1.57 47 31 34 average 1.86 0.89 1.37 44 26 35 (year) A (genotype) B AxB (year) A (genotype) B AxB LSD 0.05

LSD 0.01 0.07 0.10

0.27 0.40

0.47 0.77

1.74 2.31

6.39 9.30

10.9 18.0

Ranking of cultivars according to grain yield in the second year was different from the

ranking observed in the first year. That change in ranking was caused by drought. Drought caused decreased nitrogen uptake and its lack in plants. Amount of assimilates synthesized during vegetation period determines forming of reserve organs, especially spike size and potential number of grains in it. These processes are strongly affected by environmental factors, especially water and mineral supplies, temperature, light intensity and duration (Stojković et al., 2004). Variation of grain number per spike is greater among cultivars than between years, which point out to great effect of environment. The lowest number of grains per spike in the first year was observed in cultivar Pobeda (37), and the highest one in cultivar Nevesinjka (54). During the second year of investigation much lower number of grains per spike was observed in almost all cultivars, so it was the lowest in cultivars Tera and Bistrica (21), and the highest in cultivar Tiha (31). As the average for both years number of grains per spike was from 30 to 41 (tab.1).

One can see that grain yield per spike increased by increasing number of grains, which was in accordance with data reported by Fischer et al. (1977). Significant differences in 1000 grain mass were observed in our investigation among cultivars and especially between years. 1000 grain mass in the first year was from 37 in cultivar Kremna to 49 g in cultivar Gruža, while in the second year it was between 34 in cultivar Kremna and 42g in cultivars Gruža, Toplica and KG-100. Despite lower number of grains per spike

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in the second year 1000 grain mass was also lower, because unfavorable condition during grain filling.

Table 2. 1000 grain mass

Wheat genotype 1000 grain mass

1st year 2nd year average 1.Pobeda 48 39 43 2. NS Rana 5 43 39 41 3. Evropa 90 43 38 40 4. Milica 43 37 40 5. Jarebica 44 38 41 6. Kremna 37 34 35 7. Prima 40 37 38 8. Renesansa 44 39 41 9. Tera 46 37 41 10. Nevesinjka 41 38 39 11.Takovčanka 38 36 37 12. Gruža 49 42 45 13. Toplica 49 42 45 14. Bistrica 43 39 41 15. KG 100 42 42 42 16. Pesma 38 37 37 17. Zlatka 40 38 39 18. Prva 41 37 39 19. Mina 40 40 40 20. Tiha 43 37 40 average 43 48 40 (year) A (genotype) B AxB LSD 0.05

LSD 0.01 1.0 1.3

3.7 5.4

6.3 10.4

Mean values for grain harvest index of the studied wheat cultivars are presented in

table 2. Grain harvest index in the first year was between 42% in cultivar Milica and 60 % in cultivar Gruža, while in the second year it was from 27% in cultivar Toplica to 32% in cultivars Pobeda, Kremna, Takovčanka, Pesma and Tiha. The investigation showed significant difference in grain harvest index between years. Drought during the second year of investigation caused low biological yield, and bad weather conditions in the period between heading and ripening induced very low grain yield. For that reason grain harvest index in the second year of investigation (31%) was much lower than in the first year (51%). Large part of assimilates in the conditions of drought cannot reach grain, because of aggravated translocation from vegetative organs to grain. Grain harvest index, as the average for both years, was from 35% in cultivar Milica to 45% in cultivar Gruža.

Weather conditions also affected plant height. Lower stem length was observed in the second year of investigation, except cultivars Kremna, Prima and Prva. Grain harvest index was also affected by stem length. Thus, it was lower in cultivars with longer stem, such as Toplica and Bistrica, than in cultivars with shorter stem such as 100 (tab. 3). This was in accordance with the findings of Kumakov (1967). Differences in plant height of wheat cultivars can affect economy of grain yield forming. Cultivars with higher plant spend greater amount of nutrients to form biological yield, which does not have adequate effect on grain yield (Borojević, 1971).

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Table 3. Harvest index and plant height

Wheat genotype Harvest index Plant height (cm)

1st year 2nd year average 1st year 2nd year average 1.Pobeda 47 32 39 87 78 822. NS Rana 5 54 31 42 85 80 823. Evropa 90 48 31 39 92 80 864. Milica 42 29 35 87 78 825. Jarebica 52 31 41 85 78 816. Kremna 56 32 44 74 77 757. Prima 55 31 43 67 76 718. Renesansa 52 29 40 84 74 799. Tera 54 31 42 76 73 7410. Nevesinjka 55 31 43 83 73 7811.Takovčanka 46 32 39 96 79 8712. Gruža 60 30 45 82 74 7813. Toplica 52 27 39 90 80 8514. Bistrica 47 30 38 85 80 8215. KG 100 51 31 41 80 67 7316. Pesma 52 32 42 82 73 7717. Zlatka 50 32 41 76 75 7518. Prva 53 31 42 75 76 7519. Mina 50 31 40 83 75 7920. Tiha 49 32 40 90 79 84

average 51 31 41 83 76 79 (year) A (genotype) B AxB (year) A (genotype) B AxB LSD 0.05

LSD 0.01 1.3 1.7

4.87.0

8.213.6

1.62.1

5.7 8.4

9.816.2

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

The average grain yield per spike in the first year was from 1.50 g in cultivar Mina, up to 2.23 g in cultivar Gruža. The lowest grain yield per spike in the second year was given by cultivar Milica (0.73 g), and the highest one by cultivar Tiha (1.14 g). Higher values in the first year were caused by favorable conditions until flowering, which created large leaf area and number of grains per spike.

The average number of grains per spike for both years was from 30 to 41. 1000 grain mass in the first year was from 37 in cultivar Kremna to 49 g in cultivar Gruža, while in the second year it was between 34 in cultivar Kremna and 42g in cultivars Gruža, Toplica and KG-100. Grain harvest index in the first year was between 42% in cultivar Milica and 60 % in cultivar Gruža, while in the second year it was from 27% in cultivar Toplica to 32% in cultivars Pobeda, Kremna, Takovčanka, Pesma and Tiha.

Lower stem length was observed in the second year of investigation, except cultivars Kremna, Prima and Prva. Lower average value of grain yield in the second year was caused by drought and high temperature during the stage of grain filling.

REFERENCES

[1]. Borojević, S. 1971. Izgradnja modela visoko-prinosnih sorata pšenice. Savremena polјoprivreda 6, 33-47. [2]. Dimitrijević, M., Knežević, D., Petrović S., Zecević V. 2000. Stability of yield components in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). EUCARPIA, XIth Meeting of the Section Biometrics in Plant Breeding, 105-106. Paris/France

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[3]. Donald, C.M., Hamblin, J. 1976. The biological yield and harvest index of cereal as agronomic and plant breeding criteria. Adv. Agron. 28, 361-405. [4]. Đokić, D. 1986. Genotipska variranja nekih pokazatelјa akumulacije i iskorišćavanja azota u ozime pšenice. Zbornik radova Instituta za strna žita Kragujevac 8, 59-70. [5]. Đokić, D. 1989. Akumulacija i iskorišćavanje suve materije i azota u bilјci kao indikatori produktivnosti sorata pšenice. “Unapređenje proizvodnje pšenice i drugih strnih žita “ Univerzitet “ Svetozar Marković”, Kragujevac, 263-281. [6]. Jelić, M. 1996. Proučavanje mineralne ishrane pšenice gajene na lesiviranoj smonici. Doktorska disertacija. Beograd. [7]. Knežević, D., Paunović, A., Madić, M., Djukić, N. 2007. Genetic analysis of nitrogen accumulation in four wheat cultivars and their hybrids. Cer. Res. Comm. 35(2), 633-336. [8]. Кумаков, В.А. 1967. Показатели фотосинтеза как селекционий признак у пшениц. С-хз. биология 4, 551-556. [9]. Loffler, C.M., Rauch, T.L. Busch, R.H. 1985. Grain and plant protein relationships in hard red spring wheat. Crop Sci. 25, 521-524. [10]. Petrović, S., Kraljević-Balalić, M., Dimitrijević, M. 1998. Genotype/environment interactions and stability parameters in wheat. Proc. of 1st Int. Symp. ”Breeding of Small Grains” Kragujevac, 1, 133-138. [11]. Stojković, S. 2001. Genotipska variranja nekih pokazatelјa akumulacije i iskorišćavanja suve materije i azota kod ozime pšenice. Magistarska teza, Polјoprivredni fakultet, Univerzitet u Prištini. [12]. Stojković, S., Deletić, N., Biberdžić, M., Stojanović, J. 2004. Variability of dry substance accumulation and utilization parameters of winter wheat plant. Genetika 36(3), 237-243. [13]. Fisher, R.A., Aguilar, I., Lang, D.K. 1977. Post anthesis sink-size in a high yielding dwarf wheat: yield response to grain number, Aust. J. Agr. Res. 2, 165-177. [14]. Cox, M.C., Qualset, C.O., Rains, D.W. 1985. Genetic variation for nitrogen assimilation and translocation responses and its correlations with grain yield components II. Nitrogen assimilation in relation to grain yield and protein. Crop Sci. 25, 435-440.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

S. Stojković, PhD, Associate Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture Lešak, Kopaonička Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected] [email protected]

N. Deletić, PhD, Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture Lešak, Kopaonička Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

M. Aksić, PhD, Associate Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture Lešak, Kopaonička Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

S. Gudžić, PhD, Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture Lešak, Kopaonička Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

M. Biberdžić, PhD, Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture Lešak, Kopaonička Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

D. Beković, PhD, Associate Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture Lešak, Kopaonička Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

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INCIDENCE AND ATTACK INTENSITY OF WHEAT POWDER MILDEW IN VARIOUS MINERAL NUTRITION REGIMES AFTER LIMING

S. Gudžić, N. Deletić, N. Gudžić, M. Aksić, K. Nikolić, and S. Stojković

Abstract: The average infection intensity, for given trial variants, in the cultivar Pobeda was 28.7%,

and in the cultivar Kruna it was 20.0%. Moderately susceptible infection type 3 and infection intensity of 40% was observed in fertilization variants N60P100K100 and N35P60K60 + 2.5 t CaO. The lowest disease intensity of 20% was observed in variants with liming (N35P60K60 + 5.0 t CaO and N60P100K100 + 2.5 t CaO). The cultivar Kruna in the all fertilization variants reacted by resistant and moderately resistant infection type (1 and 2) and with a lower infection intensity (0-10%).

Key words: Wheat, Powder Mildew, Intensity, Fertilization. INTRODUCTION

Wheat (Triticum aestivum. L) is the most important bread-making grain, so, according to the official data, wheat bread is eaten by over 70% inhabitants of the world (Glamočlija, 2004). Annual wheat grain yield variations indicate that wheat production in Serbia is strongly influenced not only by weather conditions, but also by the use of unregistered seed (Denčić et al., 2009; Protić et al., 2005). An important limiting factor for high and stable wheat production is insufficient use of mineral fertilizers (Protić et al., 2004; 2008) and pathogen outbreaks, among them powder mildew caused by the agent Blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici. Furthermore, rising percent of acid and degraded soils, characterized by unfavorable or less favorable productive properties and lack of available forms of the most important plant nutrients, is one of limiting factors for agricultural production as in Serbia as globally (Von Uexkull and Mutert, 1995; Sumner, 2004; Kovačević et al., 2006; Jelić and Đalović, 2008). It is widely known that acid soils lack plant nutrients, but have surplus iron, aluminum and other toxic elements and heavy metals (Kamprath and Foy, 1985). Lime is the main tool for remediation of acid soils and improvement of their properties. It eliminates excess acidity, which is harmful for crops, creating that way better condition for development of agricultural plants. The main goal of this investigation has been to establish influence of different nutrition regimes after liming on attack intensity of powder mildew causal agent, in the conditions of natural infection.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The investigation was carried out in 2013, at the experimental field of Secondary School of Agriculture in Kraljevo (Serbia). The trials were set at 192 m of altitude, 43o43'N of latitude and 20o40' E of longitude. The trial was set in random complete block design (RCBD) with four replications. Cultivars Pobeda and Kruna were studied. Area of an elementary plot, used for a combination of fertilization and cultivar, was 2 m2. Single fertilizing combination contained certain quantity of macroelements N, P and K, with or without certain amount of liming material, CaO. Combinations of fertilization and liming were the following:

1. Ø (unfertilized) 2. N35P60K60 3. N60P100K100

4. N60P120K120 5. N35P60K60 + 2.5 t CaO 6. N60P100K100 + 5.0 t CaO 7. N35P60K60 + 5,0 t CaO 8. N60P100K100 + 2.5 t CaO

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Fertilization was carried out by applying whole amount of phosphorus and potassium

and part of nitrogen during basic soil cultivation (plowing), using NPK fertilizers. The rest of nitrogen, according to predetermined combinations, was applied during vegetation. Furthermore, during basic soil cultivation was applied the whole amount of CaO.

During maximal pathogen development, reaction mode of the investigated cultivars was graded by determining infection type from 0-4 (Stakman et al., 1962) and severity of infection from 0-100% (Peterson et al., 1948). On the basis of determined infection type and severity of infection we calculated coefficient of infection multiplying severity of infection by numerical values for infection types (0-0; 1-0.2; 2-0.4; 3-0.8 and 4-1). Cultivars with observed coefficient of infection 0-5 were regarded as very resistant, 6-10 as resistant, 11-25 as moderately resistant, 26-40 as moderately susceptible, 41-65 as susceptible and 66-100 as very susceptible ones (Stojanović, 2004).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The average infection intensity, for given trial variants, in cultivar Pobeda was 28.7%, while in cultivar Kruna it was 20.0% (table 1).

Table 1. Attack intensity of Blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici on wheat

Trial variants Cultivars

Pobeda Kruna t I CI t I CI

Ø 2 20 8 1 10 2

N35P60K60 3 30 24 2 30 12

N60P100K100 3 40 32 2 20 8

N60P120K120 2 30 12 2 20 8

N35P60K60 + 2.5 t CaO 3 40 32 2 30 12

N60P100K100 + 5.0 t CaO 3 30 24 2 20 8

N35P60K60 + 5.0 t CaO 3 20 16 1 20 4

N60P100K100 + 2.5 t CaO 3 20 16 1 10 2

Average 28.7 20.0

In cultivar Pobeda, the highest disease intensity (40%) was observed in the variant

N60P100K100, which contained the highest amount of nitrogen, and the variant N35P60K60 + 2.5 t CaO. In mentioned variants the highest infection coefficient was observed (32), which characterized cultivar Pobeda as moderately susceptible to Blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici. The lowest disease intensity in cultivar Pobeda (20%) was observed in the liming variants (N35P60K60 + 5.0 t CaO and N60P100K100 + 2.5 t CaO) as well as in the unfertilized variant (control).

In cultivar Kruna, the highest disease intensity (30%) was observed in the variant with the lowest amount of all three macroelements (N35P60K60) and in the variant N35P60K60 + 2.5 t CaO. In mentioned variants the highest infection coefficient was observed (12), which characterized cultivar Kruna as moderately resistant to Blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici. The lowest disease intensity in cultivar Kruna (10%) was observed in the unfertilized

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variant and the variant N60P100K100 + 2.5 t CaO. In mentioned variants the highest infection coefficient was observed (2), which characterized cultivar Kruna as very resistant. Such kind of cultivar reaction to powder mildew causal agent was reported by Stojanović et al. (1994; 2004) and Gudžić et al. (2008). Lowered infection intensity of powder mildew causal agent on wheat cultivars is caused by an extended latency period and weaker infection success (Jerković and Jevtić, 2000).

On the basis of the presented results, we can say that cultivar Kruna showed a higher resistance to Blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici, as well as that different nutrition and liming regimes did not show any significant effect on appearing and intensity of powder mildew in the observed agroecological conditions during the period of investigation.

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

Powder mildew of small grains is very widespread and frequent plant disease in Serbia. In cultivar Pobeda, the highest disease intensity (40%) was observed in the variant N60P100K100 and the variant N35P60K60 + 2.5 t CaO. In cultivar Kruna, the highest disease intensity (30%) was observed in the variant with the lowest amount of all three macroelements (N35P60K60) and in the variant N35P60K60 + 2.5 t CaO. Comparing resistance of the studied cultivars, one can see a higher resistance of Kruna in regard to Pobeda. The average disease intensity in Kruna was lower by 8.7%.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The investigation published in this paper is a part of the projects “The development of new technologies of small grains cultivation on acid soils using contemporary biotechnology” (grant No TR-31054) and “The study of genetic basis improving yield and quality of cereals in different ecological conditions” (grant No TR-31092), financed by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia.

REFERENCES

[1]. Denčić, S., Kobiljski, B., Mladenović, N., Pržulj, N. 2009. Proizvodnja, prinos i potrebe za pšenicom u svetu i kod nas. Zbornik radova Instituta za ratarstvo i povrtarstvo 46(2), 367-377. [2]. Glamočlija, Đ. 2004. Posebno ratarstvo. Draganić, Beograd, pp 311. [3]. Gudžić, S., Deletić, N., Gudžić, N., Aksić, M. 2008. Otpornost nekih sorti prema prouzrokovaču pepelnice pšenice. Agroznanje 9(1), 67-73. [4]. Jelić, M., Đalović, I. 2008. Mehanizmi adaptacije biljaka strnih žita nakiselost zemljišta – novija saznanja. Zbornik radova XIII savetovanja o biotehnologiji, Čačak 13(14), 19-29. [5]. Jerković, Z., Jevtić, R. 2000. Rezultati oplemenjivanja pšenice na otpornost prema prouzrokovačima bolesti. Zbornik rezimea radiva sa XI Jugoslovenskog simpozijuma o zaštiti bilja i Savetovanja o primeni pesticida, 45, Zlatibor. [6]. Kamprath, E.J., Foy, C.D. 1985. Lime-fertilizer-plant interactions in acid soils. Fertilizer technology and use, 91-151. [7]. Kovačević, V,. Banaj, D., Kovačev,ić J., Lalić, A., Jurković, Z., Krizmanić, M. 2006. Influences of liming on maize, sunflower and barley. Cereal Research Communications 34 (1), 553-556. [8]. Peterson, R.F., Campbell, A.B. and A.E. Hannah. 1948. A diagramic scale for estimating rust intensity on leaves of cereals. Canadian Journal of Research, Section C 26, 496-500.

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[9]. Protić, R., Rajković, S., Janković, S., Protić, N. 2004. Prinos strnih žita u Republici Srbiji i važnije agrotehničke mere. Zbornik naučnih radova Instituta PKB Agroekonomik 10(1), 79-89. [10]. Protić, R., Janković, S., Poštić, D., Protić, N. 2005. Stanje useva i mere nege pšenice u proizvodnoj 2005/2006. godini u Republici Srbiji. Poljoprivredne aktuelnosti 3-4, 17-27. [11]. Protić, R., Marković, M., Protić, N. 2008. Prinos zrna ozime pšenice u jednoj sušnoj godini u Republici Srbiji. Poljoprivredne aktuelnosti 7(1-2), 5-19. [12]. Sumner, M.E. (2004): Food production on acid soils in the developing world: problems and solutions. Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Plant-Soil Interactions at Low pH, Sendai, Japan, 1-5. [13]. Stakman, E.C., Stewart, D.M. and W.G. Loegering. 1962. Identification of physiologic races of Puccinia graminis var. tritici. USDA Agricultural Research Service E-617, 1-53. [14]. Stojanović. S., Gudžić, s., Božović, D., Deletić, N. 1994. Reakcija važnijih sorata pšenice prema prouzrokovaču pepelnice u agroekološkim uslovima Kosova I Metohije. Zaštita bilja danas i sutra, 53-59. [15]. Stojanović S., Staletić M., Milovanović M., Pešić V., Gudžić S. 2006. Otpornost nekih genotipova pšenice prema prouzrokovačima pepelnice, lisne rđe i sive pegavosti lišća. Zbornik radova sa XI Savetovanja o biotehnologiji, Čačak 11(11-12), 325-330. [16]. Stojanović, S. 2004. Poljoprivredna fitopatologija. Srpsko biološko društvo, Kragujevac, Serbia. [17]. Von Uexküll, H.R., Mutert, E. 1995. Global extent, development and economic impact of acid soils. Plant and Soil 171(1), 1-15.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

S. Gudžić, PhD, Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture Lešak, Kopaonička Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

N. Deletić, PhD, Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture Lešak, Kopaonička Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

N. Gudžić, PhD, Associate Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture Lešak, Kopaonička Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

M. Aksić, PhD, Associate Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture Lešak, Kopaonička Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

K. Nikolić, Teaching Assistant, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture Lešak, Kopaonička Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

S. Stojković, PhD, Associate Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture Lešak, Kopaonička Street bb 38219Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

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PURPOSE AND IMPORTANCE OF NECROPSY IN THE PRACTICE

OF VETERINARY MEDICINE

A. C. Stancu, I.Olariu-Jurca, A Olariu-Jurca. M Pentea Abstract: The term comes from the greek lungage (nekros = death, opsis =view) and involves a

series of maneuvers investigation of a corpse with injuries to highlight the various tissues and organs to determine the cause of death and nosologic diagnosis or disease (gr. Nosos = disease). With the necropsy tissue samples are collected in order to carry out additional tests, such as cytology, histopathology, bacteriological, parasitological, virological, biochemical and toxicological that helps diagnosis.

Key word: necropsy, importance, veterinary, medicine

INTRODUCTION

Disease is one of many factors affecting the viability of wild populations. In a balanced ecosystem, most populations survive with low levels of disease or with periodic epidemics. However, as wildlife populations become more dense from habitat restriction, the risks of a catastrophic epidemic within wildlife populations increase. Transmission of diseases between wild and domestic animals also becomes more likely [1].

To determine the disease risks to a population, the causes of morbidity and mortalities in that population must be identified. Risk assessment also includes an understanding of the natural history of infectious diseases in that environment, including the history of previous epidemics. Many wildlife disease epidemics affecting valuable wildlife resources or livestock have gone undetected because appropriate samples were not collected for diagnostic testing from animals that died during the epidemic. When appropriate samples and accurate written and photographic records are taken, the cause of an epidemic can be determined in most cases.

While it is ideal to transport sick or recently dead animals to a pathology laboratory for necropsy by trained personnel, in most circumstances transport is not possible. However, appropriate tissue samples can be obtained by field personnel if trained in necropsy procedures and sample collection. The purpose of this manual is to provide practical guidelines for performing field necropsies on wild animals and for collecting, storing and shipping samples in the field for diagnostic testing [1, 3, 4].

We strongly recommend that complete tissue and blood samples be obtained from carcasses . If only selected samples are taken because a particular disease is suspected and the animal does not have that disease, these samples may be inadequate to test for other diseases that might be causing the epidemic. Furthermore, selective sampling limits the information that could be procured from a wild animal necropsy that could aid in future population or ecosystem management.

Before performing a necropsy on an animal two important points need to be considered: Purpose: The necropsy aims to determine the cause of death and disease etiologic diagnosis:

1. ZOONOTIC DISEASES : Could this species have a disease that is transmissible to humans? Diseases such as rabies or echinococcosis (Hydatid disease) in carnivores, anthrax or rabies in ungulates, or psitticosis in birds can cause serious and fatal diseases in humans. Many primate diseases also can cause human illness. For this reason, the person performing the necropsy should wear a mask and protective clothing. Wearing a mask is particularly important when preforming a necropsy on a primate, bird, or a carnivore suspected of rabies or hydatid disease. Also, all samples should be handled with

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care and unfixed samples should be placed in leakproof containers so that dangerous infectious materials do not leak during transport.

2. REPORTABLE AND INFECTIOUS DISEASES : Could this animal have a disease that is infectious to livestock or other wild animals? Diseases such as anthrax, foot and mouth disease, or tuberculosis can spread to other animals through contamination of the environment during the necropsy procedure. Anyone necropsying wild animals should be aware of the typical lesions of these diseases and take extra precautions when decontaminating a necropsy site. Suspicious carcases should be deeply buried to prevent scavenger access if anthrax is suspected [1,2,5].

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Personal safety Because some diseases can cause serious illness or death in humans, all carcasses

should be handled as if they were harboring potentially dangerous diseases and precautions for personal safety should be exercised. Minimal protective clothing includes coveralls, gloves and a mask that covers the nose and mouth, rubber boots. When necropsying a primate, a full face shield, coveralls, and double gloves should be worn. A washable rubber apron also is recommended.

Carcass handling and disposal Diseased wildlife also should be handled to minimize exposure of other wild and

domestic animals. If anthrax is suspected, a blood smear should made by nicking an ear vein or other available vein and checking for Bacillus anthracis by microscopy before the carcass is opened. Carcasses with anthrax or other infectious diseases should be buried (preferably covered with a disinfectant and buried at least 2 m deep to prevent scavenging).

Necropsy was performed on the basis of general rules to both mammals and birds, with features depending on the species. Regardless of species, necropsy are certain mandatory steps, such as registering body, history, general external examination, the body opening, gutting and examination of organs and tissues and sampling for special examinations. The macroscopic examination must be submitted for each one diagnostic pathology and organ tissue and partly based on their morphological picture will be synthesized. Morphological picture is often sufficient to determine the cause of death but accurate nosologic diagnosis, unless with specific morphological picture or pathognomonic for certain diseases requires additional laboratory tests (microbiological, toxicological etc.) [3,4 6].

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Necropsy and pathologists have a significant practical, helping to establish the cause of death and disease etiologic diagnosis, while having importance in scientific research.

In clinical practice, pathology examination confirm or not clinical diagnosis. Pathological investigation results can lead to correction of failures in therapy.

Pathologist must reconstruct the basis of the findings necropsy whole evolve disease installation sequence injuries, death, and finally, the etiological diagnosis.

Anamnetic data and clinical diagnosis are also important in determining the cause of death. Necropsy examination, together with laboratory examination, enable disease etiopathogenesis and serve to clarify the proper application of therapy basically is the continuation and completion of clinical exams. To corroborate enables practitioners necropsy lesions manifest symptoms during life, establishing relations of cause and effect. Besides the classical technique, pets longer and necropsy performed cosmetic.

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Aesthetics necropsy Performing classical technique, complete necropsy, is unacceptable, often for dog

and cat owners who want to know, however, the causes of death of the animal. In these cases, the physician must meet two requirements prosector major question as complete examination of the corpse and keeping his integrity intact as to not hurt the sensitivity of the owner.

In this respect, careful planning of incisions required to be done in order to reconstruct the body after necropsy. As a general rule, the technique chosen and all incisions to be made very clear to be determined in agreement with the owner.

Collection of anamnetic, tools used and the animal does not involve examining the exterior differences from the usual technique.

On opening the body must be taken of the bodies which must be examined and as a general principle, the incision lines should be as short and are less evident after suturing.

Consideration will be made in the dorsal position, the body is held in this position by a person aids or support with objects.

Opening the abdominal cavity will be only xifoidian the appendix to the umbilical scar. Examine the general appearance of the cavity and pleural punctured diaphragm vacuum check.

Cut the costal insertion of diaphragm wall, cut trachea, esophagus and blood vessels in the anterior part of the thoracic cavity and thoracic organs removed after cutting the distal esophagus and great vessels at the level crossing diaphragm.

Follow evisceration of abdominal organs as liver, spleen, stomach and duodenum, small intestine and mesentery thick by cutting each segment[1, 4].

CONCLUSIONS

Necropsy diagnosis is important in determining the cause of death in the practice of veterinary medicine.

Necropsy help determine the cause of death, and thus the course of treatment for animals left alive in case of epidemics.

Necropsy aesthetics is important to your pet. REFERENCES

[1]. CĂTOI C.: 2003, Diagnostic necropsic veterinar, Ed. AcademicPress, Cluj-Napoca.

[2]. OPREAN O.Z.: 2002, Diagnosticul necropsic la carnivorele de companie, Ed. "Ion Ionescu de la Brad" Iaşi.

[3]. BABA A. I.: 1996, Diagnostic necropsic veterinar. Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti. [4]. CABANA E.M, Cosmetic necropsy technique, DVM (CLSU, Phil '84), MVSt

(UQ, Aus '91) Asst Professor - Veterinary Pathology College of Veterinary Science and Medicine Central Luzon State University Nueva Ecija 3120, Philippines.

[5]. CABANA E.M, Examination stage DVM (CLSU, Phil '84), MVSt (UQ, Aus '91) Asst Professor - Veterinary Pathology College of Veterinary Science and Medicine Central Luzon State University Nueva Ecija 3120, Philippines.

[6]. CABANA E.M, Necropsy procedures:general considerations DMV (CLSU, Phil '84), MVSt (UQ, Aus '91) Asst Professor - Veterinary Pathology College of Veterinary Science and Medicine Central Luzon State University Nueva Ecija 3120, Philippines.

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

A Stancu ., Banat’s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Timisoara – Faculty of Veterinary Medicine , 119, Calea Aradului Street, Nr. 119, Timisoara – Romania, Zip code 300645, e-mail: [email protected]

I Olariu-Jurca., Banat’s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Timisoara – Faculty of Veterinary Medicine , 119, Calea Aradului Street, Nr. 119, Timisoara – Romania, Zip code 300645 e- mail [email protected]

A Olariu Jurca., Banat’s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Timisoara – Faculty of Veterinary Medicine , 119, Calea Aradului Street, Nr. 119, Timisoara – Romania, Zip code 300645, e- mail [email protected]

M Pentea., Banat’s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Timisoara – Faculty of Veterinary Medicine , 119, Calea Aradului Street, Nr. 119, Timisoara – Romania, Zip code 300645 e-mail [email protected]

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THE ROLE OF ORGANIC SELENIUM IN DESIGNING EGGS OF HENS

DOMINENT LINE OF PARENTS

Bratislav Pesic1*, Bozidar Milosevic2, Zvonko Spasic2, Nikola Stolic1 Jasmina Filipovic3

VPPS Prokuplje, Serbia1, Faculty of agriculture, Pristina-Kosovska Mitrovica, Serbia2

PSSS Jagodina, Jagodina, Serbia3 *[email protected]

Abstract: In this work the effects of adding organic selenium (selenized yeast) at the rate of dominent

line of parental flock COBB 500 on the quality and design of shell eggs. The experiment was performed on a total of 1,640 moulting hens and 160 roosters COBB 500 of the dominent line of parents that were divided into four groups.

During the experiment the first group (O1) of hens and roosters was fed in the addition of organic selenium (selenized yeast) in the amount of 0.30 mg / kg., The second (O2) group received a food containing 0.30 mg / kg. inorganic selenium (natrium selenite), the third with the addition of 0.30 mg / kg. mixtures of organic and inorganic selenium (synergy = 0.15 mg selenium yeast + 0.15 mg sodium selenite), and the fourth (K) control group that did not receive supplements of selenium.

During the experiment the quality of the egg shell was researching. On prepared and marked samples of eggs, per group, were measured thickness of the shell taken from the equatorial level with ejected membrane, using a micrometer screw.

After the analysis of results it has been showed that the thickness of the shell eggs (33.17) was the highest in the experimental group which consumed foods in which was addition of organic selenium, where in comparison with other experimental groups, the first experimental group (O1) showed a significant difference and statistically significant (P <0.001).

Adding selenium organic origin (selenized yeast) in the mixture for feeding of the dominant line of parents has great significance because it affects the formation of high quality and thick eggs shell whose role is huge in keeping embryos.

Key words: hens, selenium, eggs, shell INTRODUCTION

Selenium (Se) is a very important element, which is involved in many metabolic processes in the body of humans and animals. The nature of the selenium was obtained as a subordinate product of the filtering of copper and sulfur. We can find most often in two forms, organic and inorganic. The last forty years, as stated by Burke (1976), the fact that selenium is a component of the 25 functional selenoproteins in the human body and the antioxidant enzyme glutathione peroxidase and Adenylyl-sulfate reductase (thioredoxin) and that has a very important function in the regulation of various physiological functions in the body. Latshaw and cap. (1974) came up also with similar results and concluded that seleniumoaminoacids are the main source of natural selenium in food ingredients of animal origin. With this hypothesis were agreed and Cai and sar. (1995). Exploring the physiological value of organic and inorganic forms of selenium was determined the difference first of all in the ability seleniumaminoacids to be implanted non-specific proteins in the body. As Schrouzer said (2000) in his research, selenium or selenomethionine as a major source of natural selenium in plants take tissues and organs with a high degree of protein synthesis (muscle, liver, kidney, stomach, pancreas and mucous membranes gastrointerstinal). Similar research is carried out and Jacques (2001) related to incorporation of selenium in the body proteins, where has been proven that a bit of from selenium selenite built into body tissues and that most of the selenium from inorganic sources, that are not used quickly excreted from the body through the organs of excretion, mostly through the kidneys. A similar researches were conducted by Hawkes and sar.,

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(1985); Arthur (1997) relating to the using of organic and inorganic selenium in nutrition of poultry and their biological function, whereby it has been proven that the organic selenium must be converted from organic in inorganic form, and then again in organic form. This view of conversion is a very important thing in the synthesis of seleniumproteins, because the concetration increases selenium in the body of animals, on average, to 60%. Selenium together with vitamin E, presents a multicomponent barrier protection of biological membranes from oxidative degradation. Selenium is the active ingredient of the enzyme glutathione peroxidase-GSH-px. The protective role of selenium is reflected in transforming resulting free radicals in inactive and less toxical compounds. Free radicals, with the help of oxygen, causing peroxidation of phospholipids effecting on double bonds of unsaturated fatty acid-phospholipid that are part of cell membrane. A variety of responses between free radicals and lipid molecules lead to damage of the cell membranes, as well as other damage.

The problems with the lack of selenium in nutrition of parentis heavy lines worked on Edens (1970) and his associates. Parental Couples of heavy lines Plymouth Rock, the male and female lines, showed a problem in fertility because of entering of small amount of selenium. Paton and sar., (2000) investigated the effect and influence of the organic and inorganic selenium on egg quality of parents heavy lines. By adding organic selenium in food broiler breeder, increased the level of other antioxidants (vitamin A, E and carotenoids) that have positive impact on the quality of eggs and the preservation of biological cells (Sura and Sparks, 2001).

MATERIALS AND THE WORK METHODS

For this experiment is used 1,640 hens and 160 roosters. The hens were aged 58 weeks before they arrive on the farm and from the first day they are included in the process of molting. The moulting was performed by the method of restriction of food and water, with correction of the light order. The first phase of this experiment required the formation of experimental groups, where each group counted 410 of hens and 40 roosters.

The first group was the control group that received standard commercial food without the presence of in premix. Another group consisted of experimental group that received food with selenium, in which in premix was not present selenium. The third group used a food with the addition of inorganic selenium, in which was not present also selenium in premix, and the fourth group was received the food which contains both additives.

Hens were fed with 16.5% proteins and 2,750 kcal / kg ME. The control group (K) used a mixture that consist the mineral addition which did not contain selenium. Experimental group (O1) used the same mixture in which was added selenium as seleniummethionine which is the commercial name Sel-PlexTM (Altech Inc, Kentucky, USA) in an amount of 0.30 mg / kg. Experimental group (O2) as opposed to the first experimental group received addition of selenium in the form of inorganic selenium - Sodium selenite 0.30 mg / kg of the mixture, while the third experimental group (O3) received a mixture of mixed organic and inorganic selenium in the amount of (0.15 + 0.15 mg / kg) 0.30 mg / kg of the mixture.

At the beginning of the experiment was carried out collecting eggs and their marking. The next stage of the experiment was to explore the thickness of the egg shell without membranes. On the already prepared and marked samples of eggs sorted into groups, on which previously were made mechanical analysis, was taken part of shell with the equatorial plane, the membrane was removed and be measured for thickness using a micrometer bolts machine SOMET. Reading values were expressed in micrometres.

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All received informations were processed using standard statistical variations of methods. We used the descriptive method of determining the arithmetic mean, standard deviation (SD), standard errors of the arithmetic mean (SE), and testing of statistical difference were performed by analysis of variance (ANOVA).

THE RESULTS OF RESEARCHING

Testing of eggshell quality is of great importance, because her role in keeping the quality of the eggs is very important and first of all in the formation of the embryo. It presents mechanical protection of the embryo, and actively participate in the formation of the skeleton of future chickens. Results of testing are shown in the table and present the initial values of the measured thickness of the shell in exploring groups.

Although the increased value resulting from the measurement of the shell thickness, there was no observed difference between groups that participated in the experiment, as shown in Table 1.

Table 1. The average thickness of the eggs shell is very important after moulting - fourth measurement, um.

A review of Table 2, which shows a statistically significant differences as measured

the shell thickness, it is evident that selenium, regardless of his origin, has a direct effect on the quality, And indirectly on the forming embryo.

This test has not established significance between groups in the experiment.

Table 2. The statistically significant differences of measured shell thickness

DISCUSSION

The results that are received during the following of the quality of eggs showed that chickens which consumed food with the addition of organic selenium or in combination with inorganic selenium, have a better quality of eggs. The received results show that are in accordance with the claims and the results of Molenaar and cap., (2006). The shell is a mechanical protection for the egg and is of great importance for the health of embryos, prevents infection of the inside of an egg, preventing water evaporation from the contents of the egg and what is of most importance, it is a source of calcium in forming the skeleton of the embryo. During the analyzing of results statistically significant differences between

Group Average N Мin Маx SD SG Index Control 29,92 12 22,00 39,00 0,656 0,189 100,00 Оrganic selenium 31,00 12 26,00 37,00 1,252 0,361 99,91 Inorganic selenium 31,25 12 23,00 40,00 1,393 0,402 95,28 Synergies selenium

32,67 12 27,00 37,00 0,503 0,145 100,95

Comparation Differences p Q P Significance Control-Inorganic 0,44 4 1,4950 0,717 NS Control-Synergies 0,37 4 1,2410 0,817 NS Control-Оrganic 0,01 4 0,0282 1,000 NS Organic-Inorganic 0,43 4 1,4660 0,729 NS Organic Synergies 0,36 4 1,2130 0,827 NS Synergies Organic 0,08 4 0,2540 0,998 NS

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the experimental groups were not determined, but it is generally improved the shells quality. The results of these researches have not confirmed the investigations of Pavlovski and cap. (2000), Siverside and Scot (2001), Sura (2006). El-Shikh and Salama (2010), their scientific works have confirmed that the fact and our results by adding selenium in food of poultry significantly affects the quality of egg shells, primarily on the strength of the egg, and it was necessary to use greater force for breaking eggs while differences received by measuring the shell thickness is very important do not show a significant difference. The received average values during the measurement of egg mass and thickness, which has worked by Peric and cap., (1998), the weight of egg shell studied by Sura and cap., (2001), Abdel-Galil, and Abdel-Samad and cap., (2004), breaking force and deformation of eggshells that are interpreted by Dekic and cap, (2007), Raijicic and cap, (2008) agree with the results obtained in our experiment.

CONCLUSION

The results obtained exploration of the impact effect of selenium of different origin on performance and production results of heavy line of parents COBB 500, we can be concluded:

1. The influence of organic selenium on average food consumption was not determined because the food consumption was almost the same in all groups.

2. The addition of selenium of different origins there is little effect on the production results of hens. The best results were achieved by a group of hens which consumed organic selenium and selenium obtained by synergy organic and inorganic selenium. They did not establish significant eggs mass differences between experimental groups to the conclusion that organic selenium had no effect.

3. The eggshells thickness control is of extreme importance keeping in mind the role and importance of the shell and its quality. During the measurements of this parameter it is not determine a significance between experimental groups and the influence of organic selenium on the thickness of the shell.

REFERENCES

[1]. Abd-El-Galil, M.A. El-Samad M.H., (2004): Effect of vitamin E, C, Selenium and Zine supplementation on reproductive performance of two local breeds of chickens under hot climate conditions, Egypt, Poult, Sci, 24(1):217-229 [2]. Arthur J. R, (1997): Non-glutathione peroxidase functions of selenium, In: Biotechnology in the Feed Industry, Proceeding of Alltech’s 13th Annual Symposium (T,P, LyoNS and K,A, Jacques, eds), Nottingham University Press, Nottingham, UK, pp, 143-154, [3]. Burk R.F. (1976): Selenium in Man, In: Trace Elements in Human Health and Disease (A.S. Prasad and D. Oberleas, eds), Academic Press, New York, pp, 105-133. [4]. Cai X., Block E., Uden P. C., Zhang X., Quimby B. D., Sullivan J. J. (1995): Allium chemistry: identification of selenoamino acids in ordinary and selenium-enriched garlic, onion, and broccoli using gas chromatography with atomic emission detection, Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 43:1754-1757. [5]. Edens F.W.,, (1970): Reproductive characteristics in lines of chichens selected for high and low juvenile body weight, Master of Science Thesis, The Grauduate School, Virginia Polytehnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia.

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[6]. El-Sheikh S. E. M. Salama A. A (2010): Effect of vitamin C end Easwater additives on production performance and eggquality of heat stressed local laying heNS in SiwaAqsis,Egypt,Poult,Sci,, 30: 679-697, [7]. Đekić Vera, Tolimar Nataša, Milivojević Jelena Staletić Mirjana (2007): Variability of certain table egg quality traits depending on the genotype and age, I International Congress: Food Technology, Quality and Seferty, XI Syimposium NODA, 236-240 [8]. Jacques K. A. (2001): Selenium metabolism in animals: the relatioNShip between dietary selenium form and physiological response, In: Science and Technology in the FeedIndustry, Proceedings of Alltech's 17th Annual Symposium, (T,P, LyoNS and K,A, Jacques, eds,), pp, 319-348, Nottingham University Press, Nottingham, UK, [9]. Hawkes W.C., Wilhelmsen E.C., Tappel. A. L. (1985): Abundance and tissue distribution of selenocysteine-containing proteins in the rat, Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry, 23:77-92 [10]. Latshaw, J,D,, Osman, M, (1974): A selenium and vitamin E responsive condition in the laying hen, Poultry Science, 53: 1704-1708, [11]. Molenaar. R,; Reijrink I. A. M., Meijerhof R., Brand H. (2007): In: Combined Workshop on fundamental Phisiology and Periental Development in Poltry, 5-10 October, 2007, Berlin, Germany, + Berlin, Germany : Freie Universitat Berlin, 2007. [12]. Paton N. D., Cantor A. H., Pescatore A. J., Ford M. J., Smith C. A. (2002): Effect of dietary selenium source and level on inclusion on selenium content of incubated eggs, Poultry Science, 70(Suppl, 1):40, [13]. Pavlovski Z., Cmiljanić R., Lukić M., Škrbić Z, (2000) Odnos potrošača prema živinskim proizvodima, Savremena poljoprivreda vol, 51, br, 3-4, str, 211-214 [14]. Perić Lidija, Supić B., Milošević N., Konjević S, (1998): Ispitivanje kvaliteta konzumnih jaja dva genotipa kokoši, Nauka o živinarstvu, vol,1-2, str, 201-206 [15]. Rajičić Vera, Mitrović S., Tolimar Nataša, Perić Lidija (2008): Povezanost genotipova i uzrasta nosilica na kvalitet ljuske jajeta, Veterinarska medicina, stočarstvo I ekonomika u proizvodnji zdravstveno bezbedne hrane, Savremena poljoprivreda, vol, 57, 1-2, str, 201-206

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PRODUCTIVITY TRAITS OF PERENNIAL FORAGE LEGUMES IN HILLY-MOUNTAINOUS REGIONS OF SOUTHEAST SERBIA

D. Beković, R. Stanisavljević, V. Stevović, M. Biberdžić, S. Stojković and J. Knežević

Abstract : In order to examine productivity traits of perennial forage legumes, an experiment was

conducted in the village of Ponor, located on the mountain of Tresibaba. The research included the following four species of perennial forage legumes: alfalfa - cultivar K-22, red clover - cultivar K-17, birdsfoot trefoil - cultivar K-37, and sainfoin - cultivar Makedonka. The average hay yield after three years was 6.08 t ha-1 with the peak in the third year (7.18 t/ ha-1), while the lowest was in the first year (3.56 ha-1). The highest average hay yield was produced by alfalfa (6.66 t/ ha-1), with the lowest being produced by sainfoin (5.45 t ha-1).

When it comes to dry matter, containing the most crude proteins, alfalfa came up on top 194.5 g/ kg-

1), while the lowest content of crude proteins was found in birdsfoot trefoil (167.2 g kg-1). On the other hand, birdsfoot trefoil had the highest content of crude cellulose (289.3 g/ kg-1), while red clover had the lowest (236.6 g kg-1).

Key words: perennial forage legumes, hay yield, dry matter quality .

INTRODUCTION The dominant source of forage in hilly-mountainous, as well as southeast areas of

Serbia are grasslands, predominantly natural, which take about a third of the entire agricultural land (Lugić et al. 2010). These areas are characterized by multi-decade migrations of the population, so today many households are abandoned or inhabited by older members of the household. Consequences of this situation are constant decrease of cultivable – arable land, on the account of an increase in grassland areas. The production of forage in grasslands is characterized mostly by low yield (meadows 1.8 t ha-1, pastures 0.6 t ha-1), even though yields up to 4 t ha-1 are possible without fertilization on higher quality grasslands in years of greater precipitation (Vučković et al. 2005). Besides the low yields, grasslands are also characterized by a high share of grass and less involvement of forage legumes, which in turn has lower quality and less nutritive value due to low content of proteins. The lack of proteins in forage could be compensated by growing perennial forage legumes which represent an especially significant group of plants when it comes to producing high quality forage, as well as agricultural production in general. The significance of these plants can be seen firstly in high yields, and especially in nutritive value enabled by the great protein content.

When it comes to production in agro-ecological conditions of Serbia the most common plant is alfalfa as the leading fodder culture. On shallower and sour lands not suitable for growing alfalfa, high yields and high quality fodder is accomplished by growing red clover (Lakić and Vojin, 2010).

In conditions where moisture represents a limiting factor for successful production of alfalfa fodder, other species of perennial legumes that can successfully replace this culture appear, most common of which are birdsfoot trefoil and sainfoin. Research so far shows that sainfoin is an incredible fodder culture for arid conditions, primarily due to little demand towards outdoor conditions of the environment, as well as the outstanding upgrowth energy they have, which enables higher number of swaths (Ćupina et al. 2010).

Birdsfoot trefoil gives somewhat lower fodder yields, but it’s of solid quality. However, thanks to the outstanding biological characteristics, it has little demand towards the outdoor conditions of the environment, so it’s easily grown in utterly limiting conditions, whilst giving pretty good yields.

Taking into consideration everything said above, the purpose of this research was examining the possibility of producing perennial forage legumes in agro ecological conditions of hilly-mountainous regions of southeast Serbia, the growing of which would

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affect an increase in yields and quality of forage, which in turn would result in an increase of livestock in this area, as well.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

In order to examine the productive properties of perennial forage legumes, experimental research was conducted in the time frame between the year of 2011 and 2013. A field experiment was set up in Ponor, located on the mountain of Tresibaba. The research covered four species of perennial forage legumes: alfalfa – cultivar K-22, red clover – cultivar K-17, birdsfoot trefoil – cultivar K-37 and sainfoin – cultivar Makedonka. The sowing was done in the spring of 2011 with the seed consumption of 15 kg ha-1 for alfalfa and red clover, 10 kg ha-1 for birdsfoot trefoil and 120 kg ha-1 for sainfoin legumes. The experiment was set up as a random block system in three repetitions. The size of the basic parcel was 5 m2 (5x1 m), with the inter row spacing of 20 cm.

Table 1: Mean Monthly Temperatures (oC) and Total Precipitation (mm) - Knjaževac

2011-2013.

Year

I

II

III IV

V

VI

VII

VIII

IX

X

XI

XII

I-XII Aver./

Amount Temperatures - oC

2011 0.3 0.0 5.6 11.6 15.9 20.8 22.6 22.3 20.0 9.8 2.8 3.9 11.4 2012 0.0 -4.2 7.6 13.1 16.4 23.1 25.7 23.7 19.5 12.9 7.9 -0.2 12.2 2013 1.5 3.0 4.7 13.0 18.0 20.3 22.2 23.8 16.3 12.2 8.3 1.1 12.1

Amount of precipitation – mm 2011 32.1 58.3 36.1 13.2 30.6 44.5 78.4 2.5 9.4 46.4 1.1 36.7 389.3 2012 77.4 50.1 10.1 48.0 153.7 6.0 66.9 1.1 7.2 59.3 18.0 70.5 561.3 2013 37.3 72.8 73.9 31.2 72.8 108.3 19.1 6.6 31.1 64.8 51.9 11.4 581.2

Based on the information gathered throughout several years, the southeast regions of

Serbia is characterized by long arid summers. During the year of 2011, which was the sowing year, the lowest precipitation was shown during the examination period (389.3 mm). Still, thanks to the adequate disposition during May and June, equal and uniform germination was accomplished. Two cuts were accomplished with all species this year. The years of 2012 (561.3 mm) and 2013 (581.2 mm) had somewhat higher precipitation (Table 1). This made three cuts possible with all species in 2012, whereas in 2013 all species made three cuts, except red clover, which made two.

The gained results are statistically processed using the variance analysis (ANOVA), and the difference significance was accomplished using the LSD test.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

During a three year long period of examination (2011-2013) perennial forage legumes produced an average yield of 6.08 t ha-1 (table 2). Sorted by years, the greatest yield was accomplished in the third year of research (7.51 t ha-1), followed by (7.18 t ha-1) made in the second year which could be explained by somewhat better agro ecological conditions, whereas the least yield was made in the first year of research, as expected (3.56 t ha-1). The accomplished yields suggest that high quality forage yields are possible in the agro ecological conditions of hilly-mountainous regions of southeast Serbia. Observing the hay yields by species, it’s clear that red clover made the greatest yields during the first two years of research (4,04 t ha-1 and 8.69 ha-1 respectively). Red clover made significantly greater yields compared to birdsfoot trefoil and sainfoin in the first year of research. The

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second year, red clover gave significantly greater yield compared to alfalfa, and even more significantly greater compared to birdsfoot trefoil and sainfoin (table 2).

Table 2: Perennial Forage Legume Hay Yield in 2011-2013 (t ha-1)

Species

Year Average

2011 2012 2013

Alfalfa 3.76 7.04 9.18 6.66 Red clover 4.04 8.69 6.60 6,44 Birdsfoot trefoil 3.31 6.85 7.21 5.79 Sainfoin 3.15 6.15 7.05 5.45 Average 3.56 7.18 7.51 6.08 LSD 001 005

0.67 0.90

1.15 1.75

1.31 1.98

0.88 1.32

The greatest hay yield in 2013 was made by alfalfa (9.18 t ha-1), the lowest by red

clover (6.60 t ha-1), whereas sainfoin and birdsfoot trefoil made almost equal yield (7.05 t ha-1 and 7.21 ha-1). The differences in hay yields between the alfalfa and the rest of the perennial forage legumes were highly significant. The lower hay yield of red clover in the third year of research was expected, because that’s a three-year species, and so red clover was only cut twice that year.

Within the period of three years during which this research was conducted, the hilly-mountainous area did not prevent significantly higher hay yields to occur when compared to the multiple years’ average with all examined species. Stevovic et al. (2010) reported the lowest alfalfa hay yields (5.54 do 7.24 t ha-1), with Bekovic (2004) reporting slightly higher yields (10.24 t ha-1), whereas Katic et al (2010) reported significantly higher three-year-long average yield (18.6 t ha-1). Higher red clover hay yields (6.71 do 9.48 t ha-1) were reported by Stevovic et al (2004), followed by Lakic and Vojin (2010) with the average of 9.70 t ha-1, while significantly higher red clover hay yields (9.9 do 12.5 t ha-1) were reported by Đukić et al (2007). The average achieved birdsfoot trefoil hay yield can be considered satisfactory. Still, significantly higher yields (14.1 t ha-1) were achieved by Đukić et al (2007), and Radovic et al (2007), who achieved the dry matter yield average of 11.34 t ha-1 by examining 12 populations of birdsfoot trefoil. The lowest hay yields were achieved by sainfoin, which is significantly lower compared to the results found by Liu et al (2008), who reported a three-year-long average that based on the time of sowing varies from 8.97 t ha-1 (sown in April) to 9.34 t ha-1 (sown in May), followed by Đukić et al (2007) who found the average yield of 11.7 t ha-1 for the local cultivar Krajina.

The chemical structure of perennial forage legumes points at the dry matter quality differences between the examined species (table 3). When it comes to the dry matter quality, alfalfa is leading, whereas the lowest dry matter quality was found in birdsfoot trefoil.

When looking at the crude proteins content as the most significant indicator of the quality of dry matter, alfalfa stands out (194.5 g kg-1), followed by sainfoin (183.2 g kg-1), whereas the lowest crude proteins content was found in birdsfoot trefoil (167.2 g kg-1). The highest crude cellulose content was found in birdsfoot trefoil (289.3 g kg-1), followed by sainfoin (270.5 g kg-1), whereas the lowest content of crude cellulose was found in red clover (236.9 g kg-1).

Table 3: Chemical Composition of Perennial Forage Legumes (g kg-1)

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Species

CP

CFib

CFats

CAsh

NFEM

Alfalfa 194.5 268.1 21.8 87.0 428.5 Red clover 174.1 236.0 25.8 80.8 482.2 Birdsfoot trefoil 167.2 289.3 25.5 76.1 448.8 Sainfoin 183.2 270.5 23.3 72.9 450.2 CP-Crude Proteins, CFib-Crude Cellulose, CFats-Crude Fats, CAsh-Crude Ash, NFE-Nitrogen-free

Extractive Matter Crude fats content varied from 21.8 g kg-1 (alfalfa) to 25.8 g kg-1, crude ashes content

varied from 72.9 g kg-1 (sainfoin) to 87.0 g kg-1 (alfalfa), while nitrogen-free extractive matter varied from 428.5 g kg-1 in alfalfa, to 482 g kg-1 in red clover.

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

Based on the results of the three-year-long research, following conclusions can be made:

Agro ecological conditions of hilly-mountainous regions of southeast Serbia allow for the achievement of high yields of high quality forage by growing perennial forage legumes.

However, the conditions had a significant influence on the yield levels, and in such a way that the highest yields were made in the third year of research (7.51 t ha-1), followed by the second year (7.18 t ha-1), and finally, the lowest yields were achieved in the first year of research (3.56 t ha-1).

The highest hay yield was achieved by alfalfa (6.66 t ha-1) and red clover (6.44 t ha-

1), whereas somewhat lower yields were achieved by birdsfoot trefoil and sainfoin (5.79 and 5.45 t ha-1).

The highest dry matter quality was found in alfalfa, which stands out with the highest contents of crude proteins (194.5 g kg-1) and lowest content of crude cellulose (268.1 g kg-

1), whereas the lowest dry matter quality was found in birdsfoot trefoil with the lowest content of crude proteins (167.2 g kg-1) and highest content of crude cellulose (289.3 g kg-

1).

Acknowledgments Research was financed by the Ministry of Science and Technological Development,

Republic of Serbia, project TR 31016.

REFERENCES

[1]. Beković, D. 2004. Proizvodne osobine domaćih sorti lucerke. Actae Agriculturae Serbica, Vol. IX, 17 (2004) 303-307 [2]. Ćupina, B., Marinković, L., Krstić, Dj., Mikić, A., Antanasović, S., Erić, P. 2010. Effect of genotype and crop density on sainfon (Onobrychis vicifolia Scop.) forage yield. Biotechnology in Animal Housbendry. 26, 285-292. [3]. Đukić, D., Lugić, Z., Vasiljević, S., Radović, J., Katić, S., Stojanović I. 2007. Domaće sorte višegodišnjih leguminoza – nastanak i kvantitativna svojstva. Institut za ratarstvo i povrtarstvo, Zbornik radova . Vol. 44, No I, 7-19. [4]. Katić, S., Milić, D., M ihailović, V., Karagić, Đ., Vasiljević, S., 2010. Dependendence of alfalfa yield on dense and spaced planting. Biotechnology in Animal Housbendry. 26, 27-33. [5]. Lakić, Ž., and Vojin, S. 2010. Variability of agronomic triats of red clover genotypes (Trifolium Pratense L.). . Biotechnology in Animal Housbendry. 26, 35-40. [6]. Liu, Z., Lane, G. P. F., Davies, W. P. 2008. Establishment and production of common sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia Scop.) in the UK. 1. Effects of sowing date and autumn

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management on establishment and yield. Journal Compilation 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Grass and Forage Science, 63, 234–241. [7]. Lugić, Z., Lazarević, D., Erić, P., Mihajlović, V., Vučković, S. 2010. The State of Forage Crops Productions in Serbia. Biotechnology in Animal Housbendry. 26, 29-47. [8]. Radović, J., Lugić, Z., Sokolović, D., Štrbanović, R., Marković J. 2007. Varijabilnost produktivnih osobina i kvaliteta krme odabranih genotipova žutog zvezdana (Lotus corniculatus L.). Institut za ratarstvo i povrtarstvo, Zbornik radova . Vol. 44, No I, 45-50.. [9]. Stevović, V., Đukić, D.,Đurović, D., Đalović, I. 2004. Uticaj kalcifikacije na prinos i kvalitet krme lucerke i crvene dateline. Actae Agriculturae Serbica, Vol. IX, 17 (2004) 295-302. [10]. Stevović, V., Đurović, D.,Đukić, D., Lazarević, B., Tomić, D. 2010. Alfalfa response ro low soil pH and liming. . Biotechnology in Animal Housbendry. 26, 261-268. [11]. Vučkovic, S., Cupina, B., Simic, A., Prodanovic, S., Zivanovic, T. 2005. Effect of nitrogen fertilization and under-sowing on yield and quality of Cynosuretum cristati- type meadows in hilly-mountainous grasslands in Serbia. Journal of Central European Agriculture, 6,4, 515.520.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

D. Bekovic, University of Pristina, Faculty of Agriculture Pristina – Lesak, Kopaonicka bb, 38219 Lesak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

R. Stanisavljevic, Institute for Plant Protection and Environment – Belgrade, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected] V. Stevovic, University of Kragujevac, Faculty of Agronomy – Cacak, Cara Dusana

34, 32000 Cacak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected] M. Biberdzic, University of Pristina, Faculty of Agriculture Pristina – Lesak,

Kopaonicka bb, 38219 Lesak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected] S. Stojkovic, University of Pristina, Faculty of Agriculture Pristina – Lesak,

Kopaonicka bb, 38219 Lesak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected] Jasmina Knezevic, University of Pristina, Faculty of Agriculture Pristina – Lesak,

Kopaonicka bb, 38219, Lesak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

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THE ANALYSIS OF THE FACTORS AFFECTING THE ECONOMIC

EFFICIENCY OF A MISCANTHUS CULTURE

E. Sorica

Abstract: Production of biomass is a resource of renewable energy and a significant opportunity for the sustainable rural development, to achieve independence from fossil fuels on farms and to reduce the greenhouse effect. The economic efficiency of an energy crop is influenced by a number of factors, including: natural factors, economic factors, human factors, cultivation technology, the size and economic size of farms, etc. The paper analyzes these factors and gives some useful information regarding the management of farms.

Key words: Biomass, Miscanthus crop, Efficiency. INTRODUCTION

One of the main sources of renewable energy, available in abundance in Romania, is biomass. Within this category of renewable sources, the best perspectives for bioenergy production are posed by the dedicated crops. Researches on energy plants in Europe have been concentrated on Miscanthus (Miscanthus X giganteus), energy Willow (Salix Viminalis), energy Poplar and Paulownia. For the production of bioethanol, biogas and biomas, among the best crops include Miscanthus culture (fig. 1).

Figure 1. Miscanthus culture

Miscanthus plant, as a renewable resource, produces 15...20 t/ha dry matter, has a

perennial growth of 10-15 years, efficiently uses nitrogen, water and other resources, is disease resistant and require little fertilizer pesticides and other chemicals maintenance [5].

Harvested stems can be used both as biomass for energy production and plant for fibers. When the Miscanthus biomass is used for energy production, the chopped stems are directly burned into stoves or transformed into pellets and briquettes. As a plant for fibers, Miscanthus can be used in various bioproducts, such as: insulation boards, plaster facade, windbreak, packaging materials, garden decorations, support for various crops, flower pots, etc.

The economic efficiency of Miscanthus cultures is well known but, in order to optimize it further, the farmers should know the factors which influence it.

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FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY OF A CULTURE

The economic efficiency of an energy crops is influenced by a number of factors, including: natural factors, economic factors, human factor, cultivation technology, the size and the economic size of farms etc [1, 2, 3].

Natural factors (soil fertility class, rainfall regime in the region, annual average temperatures, plants / varieties / hybrids favorable to this thermal regime, prevailing winds) are not cost carriers factors which transmit itself to the obtained products. By their action, they may favor or disfavor the conduction of the production processes and the efficiency of the economic factors. Knowledge of the natural factors, the likelihood of their occurrence and their way of expression, allows better exploitation of the economic factors.

Economic factors (material needed for the production, the needed quantities of rhizomes, herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, fertilizers, amount of water needed for irrigation) are cost carriers that are transmitted on the obtained production. They have a dynamic character that manifests itself by the transformations that they undergo, partially or fully within the production processes.

Human factor (permanent staffing needs, seasonal labor needs) is the factor aware of all activities on the vegetal farm, the element through that are put into action the means of production and are applied the production technologies. The human factor creates more income than his own cost.

Cultivation technology is a set of methods, procedures and activities performed in a specific sequence, to obtain various products of vegetal nature.

Criteria considered in the optimization of technologies are: technical, economic, energy and ecological, and the main directions are considered the following:

- performing a minimum of works to avoid soil compaction. This reduces the fuel consumption and certain expenses;

- increasing the mechanization of the crop maintenance work to enhance labor productivity;

- choosing the most productive varieties and hybrids, according to the area and destination;

- determining the optimum amount of fertilizer and irrigation norms, using a higher proportion of manure;

- choosing the densities per hectare for each crop, depending on the variety, hybrid zone;

- rational exploitation of machinery systems, reducing specific consumption of materials, fuels, energy;

- choosing the optimal period of performing the agricultural works [4]. Achieving a competitive culture is conditioned by the quality of the biological

material. Although there are regulations regarding the production, processing, quality control and certification, marketing of seeds and propagation material, as well as testing and registration of plant varieties (Romanian Law no. 266/2002 republished), in practice, non certified materials are also used, originated from lower biological categories.

The size and economic size of agricultural farms The size of agricultural farms is given especially by the volume of the main mean of

production (the land), supplemented by the volume of the other resources and operating conditions of the production processes.

The economic size of a farm highlights how its resources were attracted, allocated, combined and used in the production process and is reflected in the obtained results.

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For the classification of farms by the economic size, is used the "standard gross margin" indicator SGM, calculated as the difference between gross product of the farm and related variable expenses (operating costs).

Standard gross margin is expressed in European size units ESU, having the equivalent of EUR 1,200. According to this indicator, the classification of the economic size of a farm is performed as follows:

- Very small farms < 4 UME - Small farms 4-8 UME - Medium farms 8-16 UME - Large farms 16-40 UME - Very large farms > 40 UME TOOLS REQUIRED FOR THE FARM MANAGEMENT

Technological sheet for the crop The technology at the hectare level, for a certain culture, comprises all activities

performed in a agricultural year, to obtain the final product, activities that are grouped by calendaristic months and categories of expenditure: mechanization, manual works and materials and equipment used in the production process.

Technological sheet developed at the hectare level gives to the manager an overview of the activities to be run for each crop, the amount of manual and mechanized works that will be made, the necessary raw materials and tariffs for each work, tariffs which in conjunction with the volume of work, enables it to determine the total expenses that have to do every month to get the final production for the considered culture.

The income and expenditure budget per ha For the development of the budgets for farms specialized in crop production, there

are performed calculations of costs and net profits, the allocation level for production factors etc. The structure of the budget covers all elements related to: the value of production, intermediate consumptions, production cost, net income and net income rate.

Production value (A) is determined by the average production per hectare and estimated prices on the domestic market, for the primary production (A1 = value of the primary production) and the value of the secondary production.

Intermediate consumptions (D) comprise all inputs and services consumed in the production of agricultural products and include: biological material, chemical fertilizers and amendments, pesticides, mechanical works, irrigation, supply, general costs, interest on loans, insurance, amortization and other specific expenditures.

Intermediate consumption for the primary production (D1) do not include expenses incurred to obtain the secondary production.

Intermediate inputs include two groups of expenses: variable and fixed. Taxable income (E) is obtained by subtracting intermediate consumption for the

primary production from the value of the primary production; Net income, results from the reduction of taxable income with the value of the related

tax and addition of the benefits and subsidies granted by the state, in accordance with the law in force;

The rate of taxable income (G) is calculated in percentage, by dividing the taxable income to the consumptions for the primary production;

The rate of net income + subsidies (H) is determined by dividing net income + subsidies to the consumption for the primary production.

The data on the farm budget are enrolled in tables like table 1.

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Table 1. Farm budget

INDICATORS U.M Miscanthus crop

1 ha A. PRODUCTION VALUE Eur A1. From which the main production Eur B (+) SUBSIDIES Eur C (=) GROSS PRODUCT Eur D (-) TOTAL EXPENDITURES Eur D1. From which, for the main production Eur I. VARIABLE EXPENDITURES Eur 1.Expenses with raw materials Eur - Seedlings Eur - Chemical fertilizers Eur - Pesticides Eur - Other materials Eur 2. Expenses with mechanization works Eur 3. Expenses with irrigations Eur 4. Expenses with supply Eur 5. Expenses with temporary labor force (if any) Eur 6. Insurance Eur II. FIXED EXPENDITURES Eur - Expenses with permanent labor force Eur - General expenses Eur - Interest on loans Eur - Amortization Eur E. (=) TAXABLE INCOME Eur (-) Taxes Eur F. (=) NET INCOME + subsidies Eur G. RATE OF TAXABLE INCOME (%) % H. RATE OF NET INCOME + subsidies (%) %

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

Biological particularities of Miscanthus lead us to the identification of a series of economic advantages which lies in the implementation of this culture:

- Being a perennial herbaceous plant, Miscanthus does not enter into rotation, it is planted only in the first year, and will be exploited 15-20 years. In this context, there is the advantage that it reduces the cost of land preparation and planting;

- Miscanthus has a high capacity of capitalize the soil fertility and a very good capacity for recycling of large quantities of fertilizers by rhizomes. Mature rhizomes store more fertilizer than the plants need, so after two vegetative cycles are required only small amounts of fertilizer to be applied additionally;

- In the first year of growing Miscanthus plant, the weeds must be well controlled for a vigorous plant growth, in the coming years not being needed for herbicide treatment;

- Miscanthus has a very good efficiency of water capitalizing, its roots being capable to penetrate and extract water from a depth of approx. 2 m. In order to obtain an uniform emergence and development of plants, the irrigation is recommended only in the first year,

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following that in the remainder time until the end of exploitation period, the irrigation will be applied only when needed;

- The harvesting of dry stems is an operation that need to be done quickly, to release the land from plant debris and to harvest the rhizomes. For this reason it is recommended to harvest the stems directly from the field, with towed combine harvesters endowed with special Miscanthus harvesting equipments. This option has the advantage of not requiring major investment costs, because it has to be purchased only the Miscanthus harvesting equipment, the combine forage harvester being used for the harvesting of other forage crops, also.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This paper has been financially supported within the project entitled „SOCERT. Knowledge society, dynamism through research”, contract number POSDRU/159/1.5/S/132406. This project is co-financed by European Social Fund through Sectoral Operational Programme for Human Resources Development 2007-2013. Investing in people!

REFERENCES

[1]. Alecu I., Cazac V., (2002) – Agricultural management in Romania; Past, present and future, CERES Publishing house, Bucharest, ISBN 973-40-0583-9; [2]. Alexandri C., Davidovici I., Gavrilescu D., (2004) – Treaty of agricultural economy, EXPERT Publishing house, Bucharest, ISBN 973-618-014-X; [3]. Margareta O., (2007) – Management, economic administration and farms strategy, CERES Publishing house, Bucharest, ISBN 978-973-40-0766-0; [4]. Oancea I., (2009) – Advanced agricultural technologies, 3rd Edition, CERES Publishing house, Bucharest, ISBN 978-973-40-0819-3; [5]. Sorică C., Voicu E., Manea D., Karl S., (2009) - Technology for promotion in Romania of energy crop Miscanthus, as renewable resource to increase energy competitiveness in independence purposes, INMATEH - Agricultural Engineering Publishing house, vol. 29, no. 3, page 10-15, Bucharest;

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

E. Sorica, National Institute of Research - Development for Machines and Installations Designed to Agriculture and Food Industry – INMA, Ion Ionescu de la Brad Blv. No. 6, Sector 1, Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: [email protected]

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CLUSTERS IN A FUNCTION OF RURAL ENCLAVES DEVELOPMENT IN KOSOVO

Goran Maksimovic, Bozidar Milosevic, Zvonko Spasic, Sonja Samardzic

Abstract: After the 1999 conflict, the Serbian population stayed segregated in the area north of the

Ibar River or in enclaves throughout Kosovo struggling to survive and maintain their own political, economic and social structures. They stay because, though conditions are harsh, subsistence agriculture makes them relatively self-sufficient, but over the longer term, if there are no opportunities within Kosovo, they will inevitably head for Serbia. The future of Serbs in Kosovo therefore depends upon developing credible alternatives to emigration, such as boosting the productivity of agriculture and creating development opportunities in rural areas. Clusters could be considered as an appropriate approach to achieve these goals.

The aim of this paper analyzes and elaborates development opportunities of Serbian enclaves in Kosovo and focuses on a few key concepts of clusters, characteristics of clusters, the effectiveness and benefits that clusters provide, elements of cluster development, and some examples of cluster development. Obstacles and local potential for cluster activation were analyzed, as well as the proposal of further developments was provided.

As a result, this study concludes that clustering would lower the operating costs of agricultural holdings, through consolidated procurement, joint deliveries and joint appearance on the market. It would lead to linking of production, education, science and fulfillment of the necessary conditions for agricultural development and incentives, joint work on innovation, access to new skills and knowledge, support for partnerships, developing marketing strategies and product branding. The cluster approach could be regarded as a vital development concept of rural enclaves that could address a wide range of social and economical problems faced by its population.

Key words: Clusters, agricultural production, rural development. INTRODUCTION

The population of enclaves lives more or less isolated from the surrounding population under very difficult conditions. Problems in the enclaves are: safety, freedom of movement, access to public services, unemployment, the use of personal property, small average size of holdings, lack of mechanization for carrying out agricultural activities, marketing and sales of agricultural products surplus, lack of expert agricultural services. To overcome these problems it is necessary to undertake a range of organizational, economic and institutional measures in order to achieve strategic objectives.

In operating conditions agricultural holdings in the Serbian enclaves in Kosovo have to find new solutions in order to sustain, survive and increase their competitiveness. In order to improve the competitiveness of the market, the authors propose the solution of strategic clustering, where associated holdings are trying to make up for what they lack; personnel, tools and the new knowledge. Associated in clusters the holdings reduce operational costs through consolidated procurement, joint market entrance, joint participation in the costs of marketing, branding and transportation to the final customer. The local governments in the enclaves together with scientific and technical institutions would have a significant positive, encouraging and constructive role in the establishment of clusters, offering expert advice, by the adoption of appropriate legislation, tax incentives, incentive funds, approval of budget subsidies for members of cluster from the budgets of local governments.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

In this paper, using the method of observation the current state of agricultural production in the Serbian enclaves in Kosovo was considered, using the method of

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analysis the operation of agricultural holdings was examined, and using the method of synthesis the assumptions and possibilities were given for a more successful operation and functioning of agricultural holdings in the Serbian enclaves in Kosovo and Metohija. Sources of data used to achieve the set objectives are materials published by Center for Competitiveness and Cluster Development, Office of Kosovo and Metohija of the Republic of Serbia. The collected data were presented in tables and other expert literature was used as well.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Cluster strategy development In many developing countries, the greatest potential for sustainable growth lies in the

agricultural sector. Small-scale farmers, as a part of the rural communities, are constantly under the preasure of low margins resulting in low risk-taking ability and low investment, which leads to low productivity, low market orientation and low value addition which, in turn, nets low margins [3]. Adoption and implementation of the strategy of cluster development is necessary for the preparation of business entities in underdeveloped regions for competition in the global market, especially when the customs and other protective measures cease to be. Cluster development strategy provides a clear and reasoned approach to the development of less developed regions, which take into account all the regional specificities and development potentials, while upholding internationally recognized standards in this area. Therefore cluster development strategy must be consistent with the objectives of development strategies governing specific fields. Cluster Development Strategy is supported by respecting the key principles on which every successful regional development policy is based today [1]. Clusters are a modern form of cooperation and networking of companies from all sectors of the economic chain. At the economic level a cluster is vertical and horizontal connecting of business entities. In order to function effectively in all of them precisely defined is from what will be produced, in what quantity and the level of quality, through the definition of target customers and target markets, all in order to facilitate the exercise of, on the one hand, objectives of the cluster members, and on the other hand, demands and needs of the target groups [9]. The cooperation includes cooperation in which participants retain independence, meaning that they are not only partners, but also competitors. The necessary preconditions for successful collaboration, i.e. cooperation are trust, flexibility, simultaneous competition and cooperation, finding one’s own interests, as well as many other. In the study of clusters both its horizontal and vertical structure should be analyzed, components vertically - through a chain of companies and institutions, as well as horizontally - through related entities that use the same channels, or that produce complementary products or services, using similar specialized production factors or technologies. On the other hand, the analysis should take into account state and all provincial bodies that may affect the creation, operation, growth and development of cluster. Given that clusters are relatively new model of association, the entrepreneurs in our region have not yet been fully briefed and are not close to the cluster as a form of association, but close to them are cooperatives, conglomerates, farmers' associations and chambers. Clusters alone, as a form of association and organization, can be registered as any of these organizations [7]. The cluster can exist and can function without formal legal standards setting, but most often it is institutionalized. The clustering model "bottom up" can be recommended. This model allows the efficient adaptation of institutional measures to the actual needs of the cluster and in various stages of development.

Clusters are intensively developed where small businesses achieved a higher level of development, as well as in countries with a tradition and experience in developing

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business incubators, with developed relevant institutions, and where there is a highly qualified, trained, educated and technologically trained workforce. The bases of clustering are its entrepreneurs, managers and innovators working in related, interconnected companies [6]. Since the clusters may involve a large number of different subjects, development of successful information systems and connecting the partners in the cluster with clients of the clusters which should be based on innovative IT solutions is of crucial importance. Innovative information systems can also contribute to and facilitate the development of new products and processes within the cluster, access to new markets and to provide better efficiency of cluster management [11].

Associating agricultural households in Serbian enclaves in Kosovo Serbian enclaves have registered 6100 family farms, 6 companies, 2 agricultural

cooperatives, 2 legal entities and 1 research institution. Agriculture has always been the main activity of the inhabitants of Serbian enclaves in dominating in the agricultural sectors are crop farming, livestock raising, and if there are good conditions, fruit growing and viticulture.

Table 1. Summary of registered Serbian agricultural holdings in Kosovo and Metohija

by organizational form: District Farm

worker Company Entreprene

ur Ag.

Coop. Legal

entity

Scientific-research

organizations Oth

er

Kosovski 1.689 1 0 1 1 0 0 Kosovsko Mitrovački

2.262 4 0 1 0 1 0

Kosovsko Pomoravski

1.821 0 0 0 0 0

Pećki 295 0 0 0 0 0 0 Prizrenski 33 1 0 0 0 0 0 Total 6.100 6 0 2 1 0 0

Source: [4] Independent agricultural holdings are not able to independently satisfy the demands

of the market, it is all the more difficult for them to fight and cope with competition from big import companies which today is only provided by the connectivity, clustering and merging into larger organizational forms - clusters. For the establishment of the cluster agricultural farms from all enclaves should be the project holder, the partners at cluster project should be a community of Serbian municipalities, the University of Kosovska Mitrovica with its Faculty of Agriculture and Agricultural cooperatives in enclaves.

Associated into clusters the agricultural holdings fulfill the goals in the development and improvement of their agricultural production, are committed to increase of investment activities in agriculture, they provide constant support to the members of the association, improve the system for the protection of workers. Generally, it is necessary to create a favorable microeconomic environment, which should be in accordance with Porter’s National Diamond framework [8].

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Figure 1. Cluster model for enclaves in Kosovo Numerous studies state a positive link between the degree of associating of firms in

rural areas and income growth in rural areas. Rural clusters have higher income, compared to those of workers who work outside cluster, as a result of higher productivity and strong cluster effects of rapid dissemination of information, accumulation of knowledge, skills, etc. [10].

A very important factor for improving agricultural production is productivity growth and this is more important factor than production growth [5]. Production growth lead to income growth in the agricultural sector, while productivity involves change in the production technology together with a change in the nature and behavior of companies and institutions that are willing to support production (credits, market information, legislation).

Clusters in the Serbian enclaves in Kosovo have other objectives as well in terms of regional development and regional policy, affecting the sustainable development of Serbian communities, investing in the development of human resources, in the education of the population, decrease in migration from Kosovo to Central Serbia, thus contributing to the development of rural areas. Local governments should create an institutional framework that will enable the smooth association of entrepreneurs, but the question of organizing the entrepreneurs’ is anyhow their good will. Entrepreneurs need to find daily new solutions in order to maintain and increase their competitiveness, and thus their opportunities for success in business. The ability of cluster to effectively develop the necessary innovation, increase productivity is reflected in the good cooperation with the university, faculty of agriculture and other scientific and research institutions in Northern Kosovo. For this reason it is necessary to organize professional training programs of the cluster members, and to align programs and plans in agricultural schools with specific requirements and needs of the cluster.

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

By the improvement and development of clusters and their activities goals of the cluster members, farmers, suppliers, and other entrepreneurs and institutions from the enclave are realized, which pool resources and thereby create and increase the competitive ability in the market. Associated into clusters are trying to make up for what

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they lack, such as human resources, finance (access to affordable credit facilities) and the possibility of realization of joint investment, raw materials, new knowledge and technology. Broader economic, social and general social interests of the Serbian community from employment increase in rural areas, stimulation of young people to stay in Kosovo and Metohija, to increase in productivity and improvement of agricultural production and environmental protection as well as other aspects of rural communities are achieved.

REFERENCES

[1]. Arsić,Lj., Cvetković, K., Premović, J. 2012. Klasteri ključ konkurentnosti malih i srednjih preduzeća. Međunarodna naučna konferencija MENADŽMENT 2012. Mladenovac, Srbija, str.31-36 [2]. Centar za konkurentnost i razvoj klastera. 2008. Strategija razvoja klastera. Novi Sad, Srbija. [3]. ITC. 2006. Bringing the Poor into the Export Process: Is Linking Small Producers and Big Exporters a Solution? Agrawal, S.; India Trade Promotion Organization. ITC Executive Forum, International Trade Centre UNCTAD/WTO. Geneva, Switzerland. [4]. Kancelarija za Kosovo i Metohiju, Republika Srbija. 2013. Pregled stanja poljoprivrede na Kosovu i Metohiji. Kosovska Mitrovica, Srbija. [5]. Liefert, W., Swinnen, J. 2002. Changes in agricultural markets in transition economies, Agricultural Economic Report, No. 806, March 2002, Washington. [6]. Mićić,V. 2010. Klasteri-faktor unapređenja konkurentnosti industrije Srbije. Ekonomski horizonti, 12 (2), 57-74. [7]. Pejanović, R. 2013. Ogledi iz agrarne i ruralne ekonomije. Klasteri u ruralnom i lokalnom ekonomskom razvoju. ( str. 363-376 ). Poljoprivredni fakultet Novi Sad, Srbija. [8]. Porter, E. M. 1990. The Competitive Advantage of Nations, the Free Press, NY. [9]. Porter, M. 2000. Location, Competition, and Economic Development: Local Clusters in a Global Economy. Economic Development Quarterly, 14 (1): 15–34, February 2000. [10]. Porter, M. E., Ketels, C., Miller, K., Bryden, R. 2004. Competitiveness in Rural U.S. Regions: Learning and Research Agenda, Institute for Strategy and Competitiveness, Harvard Business School. [11]. Urošević, S. 2011. Koncept klaster-rešenje za opstanak malih i srednjih preduzeća u sektoru tekstila. Zbornik radova Tehnološkog fakulteta u Leskovcu. 20 ( 2011 ), 252-260.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

G. Maksimovic, University of Pristina, Faculty of Agriculture, 38219 Lesak, Kopaonicka B.B., E-mail: [email protected]

B. Milosevic, University of Pristina, Faculty of Agriculture, 38219 Lesak, Kopaonicka B.B., E-mail: [email protected]

Z. Spasic, University of Pristina, Faculty of Agriculture, 38219 Lesak, Kopaonicka B.B., E-mail: [email protected]

S. Samardzic, University of Pristina, Faculty of Agriculture, 38219 Lesak, Kopaonicka B.B., E-mail: [email protected]

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INVESTING IN RASPBERRY PRODUCTION AS FACTOR OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF STRPCE MOUNTAINOUS ENCLAVE

IN KOSOVO

Goran Maksimovic, Bozidar Milosevic, Sonja Samardzic, Ljubisa Djordjevic

Abstract: Strpce is a mountainous municipality in the southern part of Kosovo, and represents one of the largest Serb rural enclaves, with sixteen villages and a small town of Štrpce. The population is around 10000 Serbs with addional 2000 displaced persons from mostly urban areas. The municipality has an area of 247.36 km² on northeast part of the Šar Mountain, and the upper part of Lepenac river valley, which is well known as Sirinić Valley, predominantly oriented in agricultural production and cattle-breading. Agriculture land covers 55% of municipal territory, pastures 38,8% and meadows 25% of total agriculture land. Cultivable soil covers 18%, and small area is under orchards. Livestock production is the main agricultural sector, but there are also good conditions for fruit growing especially for berries (raspberries, blackberries, blueberries).

In Strpce municipality raspberries are grown mainly in small rural estates from 5 to 30 acres in hilly and mountainous areas, with the best yield results. During the past few years raspberry production tend to become main agricultural industry, which will grow rapidly. However, in these small estates there is no effective control over production technology and the final product does not cover the minimum requirements of the customers. It is necessary to foster specialization of those households and to form associations in order to have full cycle raspberries production with mini-coolers that offer frozen raspberries as a final product. It would be important factor of sustainable rural development in the area of Strpce municipality.

In order to achieve this goal, intensive raspberry growing is necessary. This paper presents an economic analysis guide to investments required to increase an area under raspberries plantations. An average calculation is given for raspberries growing in Strpce municipality, as well as the profit and level of economic profitability. It is reasonable to expect that from the projected production, invested assets would be returned after three years that could form the basis for further development of the households, as well as the food processing industry.

Key words: Raspberry, production, costs, economic importance. INTRODUCTION

Strpce is a mountainous municipality in the southern part of Kosovo, and represents one of the largest Serb rural enclaves, with sixteen villages and a small town of Štrpce. The population is around 10000 Serbs with addional 2000 displaced persons from mostly urban areas. The municipality has an area of 247.36 km² on northeast part of the Šar Mountain, and the upper part of Lepenac river valley, which is well known as Sirinić Valley, predominantly oriented in agricultural production and cattle-breading. Agriculture land covers 55% of municipal territory, pastures 38,8% and meadows 25% of total agriculture land. Cultivable soil covers 18%, and small area is under orchards. Livestock production is the main agricultural sector, but there are also good conditions for fruit growing especially for berries (raspberries, blackberries, blueberries).

In Strpce municipality raspberries are grown mainly in small rural estates from 5 to 30 acres in hilly and mountainous areas, with the best yield results. During the past few years raspberry production tend to become main agricultural industry, which will grow rapidly. However, in these small estates there is no effective control over production technology and the final product does not cover the minimum requirements of the customers. It is necessary to foster specialization of those households and to form associations in order to have full cycle raspberries production with mini-coolers that offer frozen raspberries as a final product. It would be important factor of sustainable rural development in the area of Strpce municipality.

Obviously, institutional absence in terms of agricultural support creates an environment, for farmers, that does not provide real opportunities in agricultural production. There is no strategy for sustainable exploitation of natural resources in terms

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of their valorization and direction towards creation of an excellent source of employment for increasing unemployed population. The extension service that has the most important role in such process does not functioning or does not exist. So the goal of this paper is to draw attention on good conditions for fruit growing especially for berries growing, before all in order to actuate a discussion about the need for a systematic approach to model formulation of agricultural development in that mountainous part of Kosovo. Years of experience from many regions in Serbia show that raspberries’ growing (in good agro-ecological conditions) is more profitable than other agricultural productions [4]. Previous experiences show that raspberry growing is profitable and that demand exceeds supply.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Present climatic and soil conditions are good for this cultivar with specific way of growing. Main characteristics of this cultivar are high yield, good quality and resistance to diseases and pests. With Vilamet cultivar spacing should be 2.5 x 0.25 m per hectare with 16000 raspberry seedlings. With Miker cultivar spacing should be 3.0 x 0.33 m with 10600 raspberry seedlings per hectare [1, 2].

In order to achieve good quality growing of raspberries, seedlings should be good quality too, from registered nurseries, seedlings with well-developed root system with lots of small fibers with no symptoms of damage and illness. Planting should be in fall, with best reception, which ensures better growth during the next vegetation. North-South row direction is the best. In that way seedlings are in sunlit during the day [3].

Irrigation is necessary for modern, intensive raspberry growing [5], so it is necessary to incorporate in our investment calculation drop by drop irrigation system.

During the last few years, raspberries production on family agricultural farms in Sirinić District (Strpce enclave) was monitored; on the basis of collected data, planting investment calculation and calculation of raspberries production were made.

By using an economic analysis method, an investment calculation was developed, as well as a planned calculation. Data were obtained during two years of monitoring a group of growers, as a part of a project focused on developing a strategy for local agricultural development. The prices of the materials used in production were obtained from the local dealers who regularly supply raspberries growers. The prices for the raspberries plants were obtained from the local growers while the prices of the output were obtained from the local market. Having in mind that raspberries production in that area is at an early stage of development, the objectives of this study was to estimate the profitability based on present marketing, agroclimatic, and technological conditions with the slightest raspberries yield achieved in the group of growers.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Raspberry production in the Region of Strpce is an important additional source of income for households, where the most of family members participate in the production process, even the youngest ones. So, investment decision about the land area with raspberry needs to be made according to the number of active household members, involved in the production process. Table 1 presents a calculation for raspberry growing on a family farm, 0.30 ha, using Vilamet cultivar with spacing 2.5 x 0.25 m.

Labor costs in the calculation constitute almost 50% of total production costs, which in turn give higher income for the household and increases importance of this kind of agricultural production particularly by increasing the employment rate. Given investment calculation contains predicted costs for growing of 0.30 ha of raspberries and total

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investment will be compared with annual income of raspberry growing in order to show economic viability.

Table 1. Investment calculation for raspberry growing A. Costs of material

No Type of material Unit of measure

Quantity Price per unit Price/Eur

1 Seedling piece 4800 0.25 1200 2 Manure ton 15 20 300 3 Mineral fertilizer a) NPK

b) KAN kg kg

210 90

0.40 0.30

84 27

4 Poles piece 270 1.50 405 5 Supporting poles piece 75 1.00 75 6 Wire and nails kg 120 1.00 120 7 Drip irrigation system

(approximate price) piece

1 450 450

8 Pesticides kg 2 90 180 9 TOTAL 2841

B. Costs of service No Type of service Unit of

measure Quantity Price per unit Price/Eur

1 Soil and agrochemical analysis

sample 2 35 70

2 Land flattening and clearing

hour/tractor 2 15 30

3 Manure transport hour/tractor 3 15 45 4 Plowing hour/tractor 2 25 50 5 Cultivation hour/tractor 2 25 50 6 Furrowing hour/cultivator 3 6 18 7 Seedlings and fertilizers

transportation hour/tractor 1 15 15

8 Poles transportation hour/tractor 2 15 30 9 Spraying hour/tractor 2 20 40 10 Processing between rows hour/cultivator 6 6 36 TOTAL 384

C. Labour costs No Type of service Unit of measure Quantity Price per unit Price/Eur 1 Ground

preparations working day 2 10 20

2 Manure l. and unloading “ 2 15 30 3 Manure spreading “ 2 15 30 4 Raw marking “ 2 10 20 5 Preparation of seedlings

for planting “ 2 10 20

6 Shortening and planting seedlings

“ 3 10 30

7 Watering “ 3 10 30 8 Mineral fertilizer

Spreading “ 2 10 20

9 Weeding and ground breaking

“ 9 10 90

10 Pruning and removal of cut shoots

“ 2 10 20

11 Back setting “ 12 10 120 TOTAL 430

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TOTAL (A+B+C) = (2.841 + 384 + 430) = 3.655 € All the costs for one year of raspberry growing are presented in planned calculation

(Table 2), where an average yield and purchase price is predicted, which served for the calculation of the profit expected.

Table 2. Planned calculation of raspberry growing (0.30 ha, planned yield 4,000 kg). I Costs of material

No Type of material Unit of measure Quantity Price per unit Price/Eur 1 Manure ton 4 20 80 2 Mineral fertilizer a)NPK

b) KAN kg kg

180 90

0.40 0.30

72 27

3 Pesticides kg 2 80 160 4 Binding kg 3 5 15 5 TOTAL 354

II Costs of service No Type of service Unit of measure Quantity Price per unit Price/Eur 1 Manure transportation hour/tractor 2 15 30 2 Fertilizer transportation hour/tractor 2 15 30 3 Cultivation (3x) hour/cultivator 9 6 54 4 Spraying (5-6x) hour/tractor 9 20 180 5 Raspberries transportation hour/tractor 12 15 180 TOTAL 474 III Labour costs No Type of service Unit of measure Quantity Price per unit Price/Eur 1 Manure spreading working day 2 15 30 2 Fertilizer spreading working day 2 10 20 3 Tensioning wires working day 6 10 60 4 Removal of young

shoots (3x) working day 6 10 60

5 Hand-hoeing in row direction (2x)

working day 6 10 60

6 Harvest working day 90 10 900 7 Pruning and removal working day 3 10 30 TOTAL 1160

IV Amortization 200 V Other costs 90 A Total costs (I, II, III, IV, V) 2.278 B Production value (4.000 kg x 1.00 €) 4.000 V Profit (B-A) 1.722

Financial production indicators: profit (p) = production value (pv) - total costs (tc) (€) Fruit cultivar Raspberry Production value 4.000 Total costs 2.278 Profit 1.722

Production economy (E) = production value (V) x 100= 4000 x 100= 175.59%

l costs 2278

Profitability rate = profit (p) x 100 = 1722 x 100 = 47.11% investment (i) 3655

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In the calculation there are also labour costs which are half of total production costs (1.160 €), and they remain in households as their profit. Household income is higher and economic interest is greater given that almost all family members participate and decrease the labor costs going outside.

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

Based on economic analysis results of raspberry growing, it can be concluded that production generates income. Average calculation costs are predicted and production value is planned. Cost-effectiveness in raspberry growing is 175.59%. Depending of investments in raspberry growing, return rate is 47.11%. These calculations show advantages of raspberry growing in the region of Strpce enclave comparing to other fruit. Full yield will be in the 3rd year. With proper use of agro-technical measures, raspberry growing can be cost-effective from 12 until 15 years: growing period lasts for 2 years, full yield period 8 years, decreasing yield period 5 years. Realized production and purchase price in the market directly affect profitability level.

REFERENCES

[1]. Petrovic S., Milosevic T. 2002. Malina – tehnologija i organizacija proizvodnje (Raspberry-technology and management). Agroekonomski fakultet, Cacak. [2]. Petrovic S., Leposavic A. 2005. Savremena proizvodnja maline-gajenje, zastita, prerada. (Contemporary production of raspberries, breeding, protection and processing). Institut za istrazivanje u poljoprivredi-Srbija, Beograd [3]. Petrovic S., Milosevic T., Veljkovic B. Leposavic A. Glisic I. 2003 Analiza proizvodnje maline u R. Srbiji u periodu 1971-2002 godine (An analysis of raspberries production in Serbia in the period 1971-2002). Ekonomika poljoprivrede, L br.3, str.243-253, Beograd [4]. Veljkovic B., Petrovic S., Milosevic T., Leposavic A., 2003. Proizvodi od malina u Evropi i SAD-u (Raspberry products in Europe and the USA). Ekonomika poljoprivrede, L, br. 3 str. 277-285, Beograd [5]. Veljkovic B., Petrovic S., Leposavic A., Glisic I., 2006 Profitabilnost proizvodnje maline na podrucju Srbije (Profitability of raspberry production in Serbia). Ekonomika poljoprivrede, br.4, str. 1013-1021, Beograd

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

G. Maksimovic, University of Pristina, Faculty of Agriculture, 38219 Lesak, Kopaonicka B.B., E-mail: [email protected]

B. Milosevic, University of Pristina, Faculty of Agriculture, 38219 Lesak, Kopaonicka B.B., E-mail: [email protected]

S. Samardzic, University of Pristina, Faculty of Agriculture, 38219 Lesak, Kopaonicka B.B., E-mail: [email protected]

L. Djordjevic, University of Pristina, Faculty of Agriculture, 38219 Lesak, Kopaonicka B.B., E-mail: [email protected]

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INFLUENCE OF MODERN BIOHEMICAL AND BIOPHYSICAL TEST

METODS TO DISTIGUISH THE ANATOMICAL, HISTOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GASTRIC MUCOSA

A Nitovski , Bisa Radović, Dragana Grčak, Valentina Milanović, Milenković M,

Grčak M.

Abstract: Great progress in the understanding of the macroscopic and microscopic structure of the mucous membrane of the stomach is made by introducing electron microscope in histological examination of cells and tissues. In the past, each decade is accompanied by the introduction of new bio-physical and biochemical methods in the examination of histological structure and function of the gastric mucosa, which contributed to in the literature, in each decade occurrence of new knowledge in this field. As standards in analyzing anatomical, histological and physiological characteristics of the gastric mucosa, we took the information that we get from the best textbook, authored by eminent professors in these areas. In addition to these data, we used the results from papers that have studied anatomy, histology and physiology of the gastric mucosa of humans and domestic animals. Given that monitoring of complete anatomical, histological and physiological characteristics of the gastric mucosa falls within the scope of the wider scientific research, we decided that in addition to the anatomical, histological features of the gastric mucosa, we follow the evolution of knowledge about the secretion of hydrochloric acid, with tracking of anatomical and histological features of mucosal gastric fundus.

Key words: Gastric mucosa, cells, examination, histological, structure. MATERIAL AND METHODS

The aim of this paper is to analyze data from the scientific literature, authored by competent professionals in this field, by comparing them with their own research, explain the influence of modern biochemical and bio-physical methods to the evolution of knowledge about the anatomical, histological and physiological characteristics of the gastric mucosa. In doing so, we put the emphasis on the most recent histological, biochemical and biophysical tests stomach of humans and domestic animals.

For a complete insight into the development and evolution of diagnostic methods and obtaining the best possible and accurate data concerning the anatomy, histology and physiology of the stomach of humans and domestic animals, served us a book Medical Encyclopedia from 1970. To make it easier to track all of the sophisticated diagnostic methods and levels of research gastroscopy to molecular biology, we will present the basic anatomical data related to the test methods mucous membrane of the stomach in this time period. In describing the structure of the stomach of people, among other things, that the stomach is built as other tubular bodies of three basic layers: mucosa, muscular layer and serosa. The stomach mucosa (tunica mucosae) thick is about 3 mm and is linked to a well developed submucosa substrate. As with cancer, there has propria mucosa and muscle layer-muscularis mucosae. On mucosa are wrinkles (plicae gastricae) and especially in the area of gastric curvature. They are two on the front and back, plica receives Secunda anterior plica and receives Secunda posterior. It stretches from the cardia to the angular posterior. These four folds delimit three grooves, which together form the sulcus salivaris Waldeyer through which allegedly passing fluid from the esophagus enters the stomach. On the big curve there are folds that anastomoses among themselves and form a network. From sinuses of the fundus to any 3-4 on the front, and the same amount on the rear side, according to a sinus disappear. The lining of the stomach has a small polygonal projection (1-5 mm) area gastricae. Within these polygonal fields are open foveola gastricae, in the bottom of which flows into the glands of the stomach. In propria are lymphoid aggregates foliculi limphatici gastrici. The mucosa has a high cylindrical epithelium. Sails are located

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at the base of the cell, and some cells above the sails meet mukogene granules that produce stomach sluz.Foveole gastricae not glands, but these are only depressions mucosa, because they have analog columnar epithelium as the rest of the stomach lining. In the bottom of the said foveola open only glandulae gastricae. In the area of the cardia are glandulae cardiacae, in the area of the corpus of the stomach are glandulae gastricae propria, and in the area of pyloric work glandulae pyloricae. Glandulae gastricae propria are tubuloalveolar glands that are located in the fundus, corpus and isthmus. They have three types of cells: the principal, coated and mucoid. The main cells (adelomorfs cells) are bright and have sekretic granules. They are located along the lumen of the glandular tubes. In the area of the holdings and the Corps are located at the base of the main large cells lining cells (delomorfs cells) that do not reach the lumen, but in his opening over sekreting capillaries. These cells possess the jacket oxyphil granules which are well is painting eosins. In particular, many of these cells has a jacket on the neck glands and those that protrude into the lumen of the glandular tubes. The third type of cells are found only on the neck glands. These are mucoid cells that produce a particular type of mucus. Since mucous cells are dividing and renewing the main and lining cells.

Newer diagnostic tools, instruments and apparatus ensured that at the cellular level can detect and diagnose changes which greatly facilitated the establishment of the correct diagnosis and appropriate terapy. Modern methods pointed to gastroscopy, newer methods Histological particularly fluorescence microscopy, immunohistochemical, fluorescent situ hybridization (FISH) on paraffin sections and other methods that are applied depending on the level of health care and laboratory equipment. At the tertiary level of services and equipment of laboratories at a much higher level.

Gastroscopy Gastroscopy fibreoptic ezofagogastroduodenoskopom is performed (e.g., Olympus, GIF-Q145), which is equipped with a pair of pliers for taking biopsy samples.

Endoscopic is described with data on the site changes, the size and appearance, and they are labeled terms: hyperemia, erosion, or scar infiltrate.

Hystology The formation of histological preparations done as follows Properly: bioptic and

resecting material is fixed to 10% or in a standard 4% neutral buffered formalin, fits into paraffin and cut into slices of a thickness of 3 to 4 microns. Incisions are routinely both Hemalaun-eosin. If you want to determine the presence and quantity of H. pylori will apply semiquantitative staining in sections modified method - 2% Giemsa.

The presence and density of the infiltrate of lymphocytes and plasma cells, and is estimated to be scaled Wotherspoon-in according to.

Immunohistochemical staining Immunohistochemical staining was performed the primary antibodies (e.g., DAKO, Denmark): CD3 (A 0452), CD20 (M0755), CD5 (M7194), CD23 (V1617) and CD10

(Novocastra Lab, NCL CD10-270) according to the manufacturer's instructions, classical mode or using the automatic immunohistochemical staining "TechMateTM Horizon" (DAKO, Denmark).

Immunohistochemical staining for BCL10 is carried out with a concentrated anti-BCL-10.Monoclonal antibody, clone 151 (ZYMED®Laboratories Inc. USA) indilution of 1:50.

After dewaxing, the unmasking of antigen cells in histological sections is done boiling in a pot under pressure, and 0.01 M citrate buffer pH 6.00. Secondary and tertiary antibody (streptavidin-peroxidase) was used in the set "LSAB + System. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) ON Paraffin sectionsFISH (eng. Fluorescent in situ hybridization) is a cytogenetic method

thatfluorescensijski labeled nucleic probe investigating desired nucleic sequence within the chromosome. After purification of cells and denaturation of the protein deoxyribonucleic

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acid (DNA) occurs labeled hybridization probes and investigated DNA sequence. The color used is labeled probes absorbs one, and misses the second part of the spectrum, the specific DNA sequences on chromosomes under a microscope can be seen as clear signs of red / green / yellow. To make the picture below microscope clearer for stronger contrast is used DAPI staining of nuclei-operation (4.6 - diamidino-2-phenyl-indole). Thus can be seen sharply limited core within which the is color signal which depends on the design itself rehearsals.

They can be used various probe e. CEP (Chromosome Enumeration Probes) DNA FISH Probe for the detection of centromere RESULTS AND DISCUSION

Examination of the stomach implies the application of biophysical and biochemical methods that emerged in the mid-nineteenth century. It started with rentgenoskopics and rentgenografics of gastrointestinal tract, which are completed by testing the function of the stomach and gastric juice.

For examination of the stomach are used to search the first row which test the ability of secretion of the stomach. Thus gastric juice examined in several ways. One way to get their stomach contents stomach test. The first is a gastric tube used Kussmaul 1865. In 1874. Ewald was served a thick soft assay to empty the stomach contents. Katsch and Kalk introduced a caffeine test breakfast. The recently-used Kayove the test. It is actually enhanced histamine test that is based on the principle of maximum stimulation of the parietal cells of the stomach. In recent times, it can be by using the probe endoradio continuously measure pH in the gastrointestinal tract. X-ray exam of the stomach are rentgenoscopy and rentgenography. Rentgenoscopy the method of examination of the digestive tract and thus the stomach using contrast agents (barium) which also reveals patency of the digestive tract and mucous membranes of certain parts of the state. Rentgenography with X-rays had certain parts in order to obtain recordings. Gastroscopy is a method of direct examination of mucous membranes of the stomach using a flexible gastroscope, which are made of glass fiber - fiberscope. The best diagnostic results are achieved by a combination of X-ray examinations with gastroscopy. Gastrobioscopy is a method of excision of tissue is performed by using the "operational gastroscopy". After bioptical obtained tissue performs its histological examinations. For the diagnosis of inflammatory diseases of the mucous membranes is the method of choice aspiration biopsy. The stomach is introduced flexible probe, followed by the negative pressure suction small piece of the mucous membranes (size about 2 mm) in the hollow cylinder, and cut by moving the annular cutter. Excision must go to the tunica muscularis mucosae. Last years takes cytodiagnostics increasing practical significance. Using a special test (Henning, 1949). Get off the stomach lining desquamated cells are examined natively in a phase contrast microscope and then after staining. This method can be in gastrocitograms differentiate normal cellular elements, establish diffuse inflammatory changes and possible finding of tumor cells provide an important addition to the diagnosis karcinoma.Bakteriological overview of gastric juice is particularly important in the diagnosis of tuberculosis in children and in patients who swallow sputum, because the tubercle bacills there much easier to find than in sputum.

Recent literature in this area confirms current knowledge about the structure and function of cells of the gastric mucosa and most importantly at the cellular level describing the structure and function of cells of the gastric mucosa. Here are some examples:

Gastric juice contains water, hydrochlord acid, mucus, intrinsic factor, pepsinogen (an inactive form of pepsin, a proteolytic enzyme), and the enzyme rennin. The regulation of

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gastric juice secretion has three phases, cephalic gastric, and intestinal. Stimulation of gastric secretions during the cephalic phase is in response to the sight, smell or taste of food. These induce a neural response that increases parasympathetic (vagal nerve) stimulation to the stomach, and this stimulates gastric secretions. The gastric phase begins when food enters the stomach (Rowen D. Frandson, Wilke W. Lee, Anna Dee Fails, 2009).

The gastric mucosa contains many different cell types. Each region of the mucosa contains glands with characteristic cell types. Within the parietal area, the glands contain parietal cells. These cells are clustered in the neck, or proximal area of the gland. Their function is to secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl). The glands of the cardiac and pyloric mucosal regions resemble those of the parietal area in structure but contain different cell types. The cardiac glands secrete mucus only. According to most reports, the pyloric glands to secrete pepsinogen (James G. Cunningham and Bradley G. Klein 2007).

Fundus area, the main gastric glands (Ch. Gastricae propria). Fundus glands are long tubular glands which are parallel. Usually, a group of several glands open into the bottom of one foveola. These glands reach to the sheet of muscle membrane and are responsible for the secretion of gastric juice. Gastric glands consist of glandular body and distal narrowing of-doors, which flows into the aforementioned foveols. Fundus gland build the following types of cells:

a) Main cells (zymogen pepsinogen), b) and parietal (marginal, hloragogens), c) and mucosal (cervical), d) Stem cells, e) Enteroendocrine (Vesna Poleksić, from 2003).

Statistical analysis The obtained data are statistically processed and presented in tables and graphs.

Qualitative data are analyzed with methods of analysis to e.g.Fisher exact test, Kaplan - Meier procedure and the potential predictive value of some variables in the assessment of survival can be explored by Cox regression analysis.

CONCLUSION

1.Scientic and technical achievements in the twentieth century led to the development of new diagnostic methods in biophysics and biochemistry, in medicine in general, including the examination of mucous membranes of stomach.In that manner we come from macroscopic to microscopic examination, to the molecular level.

2. Most important test methods gastric mucosa led to: Gastroscopy, Histology, Immunohistochemical, Fluorescentic in situ hybridization (FISH) on paraffin sections, Echosonography, CT computerized tomography, magnetic resonance and others.

REFERENCES

[1]. Carlos A. Rubio, Michael Owston, Abiel Orrego, Edward J. Dick Jr. (2012): A Simple Method to Record parietal cells in the fundic Mucosain Baboons, Southwest National Primate Research Center, Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research, San Antonio. [2]. Aleksandar Kostic (1970): Medical Encyclopedia, Volume VI, Yugoslav Lexicographic Institute, Zagreb. [3]. Poleksić Vesna, Jelena Bogojevic, Zoran Markovic and Zorka Dulic Stojanovic (2003): Zoology, Belgrade, 2003 [4]. James Mr. Cunningham and Mr. Bradley Klein in 2007, Veterinary Physiology, Fifth Edition, p. [5]. A Rowen D. Frandson, Wilke W. Lee, Anna Dee Fails (2009), Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals, seventh edition.

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ABOUTH THE AUTORS

Atanas Nitovski, Prof. Dr. Agriculture Faculty, Lesak, University of Kosovska Mitrovica, Kosovo and Metohy, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected], 00381 63 111 51 63.

Bisa Radovic, Prof. Dr.Agriculture Faculty, Lesak, University of Kosovska Mitrovica, Kosovo and Metohy, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

Dragana Grcak, Prof. Dr. Agriculture Faculty, Lesak, University of Kosovska Mitrovica, Kosovo and Metohy, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

Valentina Milanovic, Ass. Mr. Agriculture Faculty, Lesak, University of Kosovska Mitrovica, Kosovo and Metohy, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected] Milinko Milenkovic, Prof. Dr. Agriculture Faculty, Lesak, University of Kosovska

Mitrovica, Kosovo and Metohy, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected] Grcak M, Expert contributor, Mr. Agriculture Faculty, Lesak, University of Kosovska

Mitrovica, Kosovo and Metohy, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

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THE DYNAMICS OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY PRODUCTS OF

PROTEIN BREAKDOWN DURING RIPENING OF INDUSTRIALLY PRODUCED WHITE CHEESE

Ž.Savić, O.Maćej and M.Milenković

Abstract: Sjenica cheese is one of the best from the group of white cheese in brine in the Republic

of Serbia. It is produced in the area of Sjenica-Pester plateau on individual farms, and lately also in industrial conditions. The raw material for the production is a whole cow's milk and sheep's milk, which process of making cheese starts immediately after milking, without any thermal treatment. A crucial roles, for the maturation of this cheese, have rennet enzymes and indigenous lactic acid bacteria. In a series of changes that occur in cheese during ripening process, changes in proteins and their degradation products are the most important changes. Soluble nitrogen materials have, from the many degradation products, a decisive influence on the formation of sensory characteristics, consistency and other rheological properties of cheese. These include the primary and secondary degradation products of proteins. Considering the importance of these processes , it is necessary to follow the course of their progress and changes during ripening. The results showed, that the cheese on the first day of ripening, contained a certain amount of these products. The amount of primary products in cow`s milk cheese, increased throughout ripening period of 45 days, while the largest increase was recorded in the period of 1-15 day of ripening. Sheep`s milk cheese had the largest increase of primary products, for the period of 1-15 day, and then was recorded a slight reduction by the end of ripening period of 45 days. After 45 days of ripening, the amount of nitrogen primary products, was 0.3340%in cow`s milk cheese and 0.3230% in sheep`s milk cheese . It was recorded an increase of secondary products in cow`s milk cheese for the whole period of maturity, and after 45 days it was 0.062%. The largest increase in sheep`s milk cheese was in the period of 1-15 day. At the end of the ripening period, an average of secondary products content was 0.056%.

Key words: Sjenica cheese ripening, primary, secondary products

INTRODUCTION

Cheese ripening is the longest and the most important operation in the production of cheese. The desired sensory characteristics and adequate quality of the cheese under controlled conditions of temperature and relative humidity depend on the type of cheese, so the ripening time of cheese is different as well. (Milanović and Carić, 2000; Wilkinson, 1990).

During making and ripening of cheese, complex biochemical and physical and chemical processes occur, where comes qualitative transformation of curd in mature cheese, which has the taste, aroma and texture characteristic of a specific type of cheese. The deepest and most important transformations occur in proteins.

Proteolytic changes during ripening include primary and secondary proteolysis. The primary biochemical changes of maturity include transformations of residual amounts of lactose, lactate and citrate, proteolysis or polysis, and they are accompanied by secondary changes: desamination, decarboxylation and esterification. The composition and structure of the curd without characteristic flavor is modified by acquiring the appropriate look, coexistence, color, taste and smell characteristic of each type of cheese (Fox, 1989; Carić et al., 1998).

Primary proteolysis of casein results in the formation of fairly large and well-defined peptide, according that subsequent proteolysis results in further degradation of these peptides to smaller and free amino acids, which can be transformed to the components of the flavoring. The primary proteolysis is a result of the activities of two proteolytic enzymes, one of which is residual rennet and other plasmin, which is considered the most important in the maturation of different types of cheese. Secondary proteolysis is mainly the result of activities of proteinase and peptidase, caused by the starter lactic acid bacteria (Benfeldt et al., 1997; Walstra et al., 1993).

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In a series of changes, that occur in cheese during ripening, proteins changes and their degradation products are the most important, so soluble nitrogen materials have decisive influence on the formation of the sensory characteristics of consistency and other rheological properties of cheese (Jovanović et al. 2004).

Soluble nitrogen materials that occur during ripening are divided into primary and secondary products of decomposition. The primary degradation products are: termocoagulative proteins of albumoza and peptones, and secondary products of the decomposition are compounds of low molecular weight, such as amino acids, the other amino compounds, amides, ammonia, which are formed as a result of deeper changes on the protein.

To determine the importance of primary and secondary breakdown products, and better highlighted differences (Barać et al., 2006) use the terms "breadth and depth" of ripening.

Width of ripening involves the formation of primary products, and the depth of the secondary degradation products.

The ripening process has a great influence on the rheological properties of cheese, because it leads to the degradation of casein and formation of soluble nitrogen compounds, causing soften curd texture, (Maćej et al., 2001; Puđa et al., 1996).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The experiment was occurred in June 2010. All types of cheese were made in industrial conditions of dairy "Pešter" in Sjenica, from raw, whole cow's and sheep's milk. Preparation of milk included drainage and reheating at a temperature of 30-32 0C (the temperature which is used in basic process of making cheese) . The experiments were conducted in five repetitions. The changes during ripening and dynamics of primary and secondary products of breakdown, we followed after manufacture, and then after 15, 30 and 45 days of ripening which is the optimal period when cheese reach full commercial maturity. Cheese analysis were conducted in the chemical laboratory Veterinary specialist institute in Kraljevo by following methods:

-% of nitrogen of primary and secondary degradation products of the protein according to the Djordjević method (Pejić, O. I Djordjević, J., 1963)

-According to this method, the primary products can be calculated if the total soluble nitrogen content is subtracted from the secondary products of protein breakdown.

-Statistic evaluation was performed through the median, as well as the rate of variation (standard deviation SD and coefficient of variation Cv). To test differences of mean values, we used Student's t-test (Stanković et al., 1989).

THE RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The cheese ripening is a typical enzymatic process in which the following agents take part: rennet, milk enzymes, starter bacteria, secondary starters, non-starter bacteria and lactic acid.

In addition to this, the maturation process depends on the physical and chemical conditions in the cheese which are consequence of the manner of making cheese are and related to: water content, salt content in the aqueous phase, acidity, type and quantity of starters, temperature of ripening (Wilkinson, 1990; Lawrence and Gilles 1986 ).

Dynamics of nitrogen primary products of protein breakdown is given in Table 1.

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Table 1. Dynamics of nitrogen primary products of protein breakdown during cheese

ripening in % Cheese type Paramet

ers Period of maturity (days)

1 15 30 45 Cow milk

cheese min 0.090 0.213 0.216 0.288

max 0.133 0.304 0.409 0.480 0.142 0.265 0.321 0.334

Sd 0.030 0.031 0.060 0.082 Cv(%) 21.03 11.41 18.94 24.61

Sheep milk cheese

min 0.174 0.298 0.265 0.270 max 0.246 0.369 0.371 0.350

0.217 0.340 0.336 0.323

Sd 0.024 0.026 0.039 0.029 Cv(%) 11.45 7.77 11.72 9.18

Based on these results it is evident that the primary nitrogen products of protein

decomposition increases in cow milk cheese for the whole period of ripening, with the largest increase in the period of 1-15 days of ripening. At the beginning of ripening, primary products nitrogen in the average was in cow milk cheese 0.142% and in sheep milk cheese 0.217%. Analysis of the data resulted in statistically highly significant differences among both types of cheese.

After 15 days of ripening, average primary products nitrogen was in cow milk cheese 0.265% and in sheep milk cheese 0.340%. Statistical analysis showed that the differences between types of cheese were highly statistically significant.

In the period of 15-30 days of ripening, nitrogen of primary products of proteins degradation in cow milk cheese had a tendency to further increase, although to a lesser intensity. In sheep milk cheese, we had a reduction of 0.003%, which occurred due to the change of a part of soluble nitrogen compounds from cheese in ripening whey .

In the last period of maturity (30-40 days of ripening) in cow milk cheese, it was recorded increase of nitrogen primary products for 0.012% ,which is in line with the increase of soluble nitrogen in the same period. In sheep milk cheese, we had a reduction of 0.013%. At the end of the ripening period, the average nitrogen content of primary products was in cow milk cheese 0.334% and in sheep milk cheese 0.323%. These differences were not statistically significant.

Dynamics of nitrogen secondary products of breakdown proteins is shown in Table 2. Table 2. Dynamics of secondary nitrogen products of protein breakdown during

cheese ripening in %

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Based on the results, it can be seen that is similar to primary products, the biggest

increase in the intensity of secondary degradation products in both types of cheese was in the period of 1-15 days of ripening.

On the first day of ripening, nitrogen content of secondary products of protein decomposition was for milk cheese 0.035% and for sheep milk cheese 0.056%. Analysis of the data showed that the differences between both types of cheese were highly significant.

After 15 days of ripening nitrogen content of secondary products averagely was in cow milk cheese 0.047% and in sheep milk cheese0.067% . Statistical analysis showed that the differences between the types of cheese were very significant.

In the period of 15-30 days of ripening, nitrogen secondary products in cow milk cheese has remained virtually the same, while the sheep milk cheese was reduced for 0.011%. After 30 days of ripening, secondary nitrogen products of protein breakdown was averagely contained 0.048% in cow milk cheese and in sheep milk cheese 0.056% . The differences between the both types of cheese were statistically highly significant.

In the last 15 days of ripening, nitrogen of secondary products of protein breakdown increased in cow milk cheese for 0.014%, while in sheep milk cheese it remained on the same level. After examined ripening period, secondary nitrogen products of protein breakdown, was averagely contained in cow milk cheese 0.062% and in sheep milk cheese 0.056%. Data processing showed that these differences were statistically significant.

If the extent of protein degradation is determined on the basis of the amount of soluble nitrogen compound, then based on the amount of mutual relations between primary and secondary breakdown products of protein, determines the character of cheese ripening.

On the basis of nitrogen participation of primary and secondary products of protein breakdown in soluble nitrogen, it can be seen that in cow milk cheese participation of nitrogen primary products in the soluble nitrogen content was 84.17%, and in sheep milk cheese 85.90%. As can be seen, the participation of primary products in the nitrogen soluble is high above 50%, which indicates that the "width" of maturation in both types of cheese significantly higher than the "depth" of ripening.

The results are consistent with the results obtained by (Maćej, 1989) for white cheese in slices; (Dozet et al., 1996) for Polimsko- Vasojevićki and Pljevlja cheese; (Savić, 2011) for Sjenica cheese and Sjenica type cheese; (Maćej et al., 2006) for Homoljski, Zlatarski and Svrljiški cheese; (Jovanović et al., 2004) for Homoljski cheese.

Cheese type Parameters Period of ripening (days) 1 15 30 45

Cow milk cheese

min 0.028 0.040 0.048 0.057 max 0.039 0.051 0.050 0.068

0.035 0.047 0.048 0.062

Sd 0.003 0.003 0.001 0.003 Cv(%) 10.50 7.71 2.04 5.92

Sheep milk cheese

min 0.038 0.050 0.050 0.052 max 0.069 0.081 0.062 0.058

0.056 0.067 0.056 0.056

Sd 0.010 0.011 0.004 0.002 Cv(%) 18.68 15.39 7.13 4.19

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CONCLUSION -Soluble nitrogen materials, which include primary and secondary breakdown

products of proteins, have a decisive influence on the formation of sensory characteristics, consistency, rheological and other characteristics of cheese.

-Biochemical changes during ripening were intense indicating the presence of primary and secondary product on the first day of ripening. The amount of these products increased the most during the first 15 days of ripening. After this period a slight increase was recorded, and even some reduction, as a transition consequence of a part of soluble nitrogen into the ripening brine.

-Primary proteolysis is a result of the activities of the two proteolytic enzymes, of which one is residual rennet and other is plasmin. Since it is not used in the production of white cheese in brine, enzymes, starter cultures have no influence on the proteolytic changes during their maturation.

-According to the participation of primary and secondary degradation products in soluble nitrogen, cheese is characterized with much greater "breadth" ripening than “depth".

REFERENCES

[1]. Barać, M. Jovanović, S., Maćej, O. 2006. Indigenous white cheese in brine -Monography; Faculty of Agriculture, Belgrade [2]. Barać, M., Jovanović S., Maćej, O. 2006. Proteolytic changes during ripening of indigenous types of white cheese in brine. The monograph "Indigenous white cheese in brine", 66-72 Editors: Dozet, N., Maćej, O., Faculty of Agriculture, Belgrade. [3]. Benfeldt, C., Sorensen, J., Ellegård, K.H. and Petersen, TE 1997. Heat treatment of cheese milk. effect on plasmin activity ant proteolysis during cheese ripening. Int. Dairy J. 7 (11), 723-731 [4]. Carić, M., Milanovic, S. And Vučelja D. 1998. Nutritional properties of cheese and melted cheese. Food industry. Milk and milk products. 9 (1-2), (7-16) [5]. Dozet N., N. Adzić, Stanisić, M., Živić, N. 1996. Indigenous dairy products. Agricultural Institute Podgorica, Silmir Belgrade. [6]. Fox, PF 1989. Proteolysis during cheese manufacture and ripening. J.Dairy Sci. 72 (6), 1379 to 1400. [7]. Jovanović, S., Barać, M., Maćej.O. 2004. Biotechnology in Cattle-breeding 20 (5-6), 157-163. [8]. Jovanović, S., Maćej.O., Barać, M. 2004. Biotechnology in Cattle-breeding 20 (1-2), 131-139 [9]. Lawrence, RC, and Gilles, J. 1986. Cheese coposition and quality. Proceedings of the XXII International Dairy Congress "Milk the vital force," Hague, 111-121. [10]. Maćej, O. 1989. Study of possibilities for making soft cheese based on pasteurized milk protein. Doctoral dissertation, Faculty of Agriculture, Belgrade. [11]. Maćej, O., Dozet, N., Jovanović, S. 2006. Characteristics of indigenous production of Sjenički, Homoljski, Zlatarski and Svrljiški white cheese. The monograph "Indigenous white cheese in brine", 34-60 Editors: Dozet, N., Maćej, O., Faculty of Agriculture, Belgrade. [12]. Maćej, O., Jovanovic, S. and Denin, J. 2001. J. Agricultural Sci. 46 (1): 57-69 [13]. Milanović, S. And Carić, M., 2000. Archives of Agricultural Sciences 61.211 (1-2), 281-293. [14]. Pejić, O., Đorđević, J. 1963. Dairy Laboratory, Scientific books Belgrade

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[15]. Puđa, P., Maćej.O., Dozet, N., Jovanović, S. and Mikuljanac, A. 1996. The effect of milk proteins on the rheological properties of cheese. Biotechnology in Cattle-breeding 12 (1-2) 37-44 [16]. Savić, Ž., 2011. Change of nitrogen compounds during ripening of Sjenica cheese and Sjenica type cheese, Doctoral dissertation, Faculty of Agriculture, Pristina - Lešak [17]. Stanković, J., Ralević, N. Ljubanović-Ralević, I. 1989. Statistics with appliance in agriculture, Modern administration, Belgrade. [18]. Wilkinson, M. G. 1990. 2nd Cheese symposium. Ed. By Cogan, TM, Moorepark, 111-119.

ABOUT THE AUTOHORS

Ž. Savić, PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Pristina, Faculty of Agriculture, Lesak, Kopaonička Street bb 38219, Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

O. Maćej, PhD, Professor, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Agriculture, Belgrade-Zemun, 11080, Serbia. E-mail: [email protected]

M. Milenković, PhD, Professor, University of Pristina, Faculty of Agriculture, Lesak, Kopaonička Street bb 38219, Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

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THE MICROPROPAGATION OF THE STRAWBERRY CULTIVAR ‘CORTINA’

Z. Nikolić, K. Nikolić, S. Janković, A. Selamovska, and A. Krstić

Abstract: This work presents the production technology of the strawberry cultivar ‘Cortina’ by

micropropagation. Meristems of 0.5-1mm size were isolated by the end of May and the beginning of June from the stolons of the strawberry sort ‘Cortina’. After the isolation, meristems were placed on Murashige and Skoog’s medium with phytohormones. Fifty days later meristems were organized into a foliate rosette. After that they were transferred to a nutrient medium for multiplication. Multiplication was achieved on Murashige and Skoog’s substratum with phytohormones BAP and IBA. The plants which came to the size of about 10-20mm were shifted to the nutrient medium for rooting. Rooting was achieved by adding phytohormones to the nutrient medium. After two months, plants with roots were transplanted into the pots and kept in a greenhouse.

Key words: strawberry, meristems, micropropagation, stolons, multiplication INTRODUCTION

The situation for the production of strawberry runner plants in the Republic of Serbia is very bad, because the largest number of the runner plants for the growing of commercial plantings is used from the production plantings. On that occasion, the runner plants are often mixed with seedlings, and very often the real name of the cultivar or degree of infection diseases and pests is unknown, contributing mostly to the low yield and poor quality fruit. I order to improve this situation, it is necessary to introduce newer and more fertile cultivars, and for the production of strawberry runner plants, for obtaining healthy planting material, the micropropagation methods should be used.

The raise of modern plantation of strawberries (Fragaria Vesca L.) gives the emphasis on the use of varietal pure, quality, healthy and virus-free planting material.

Strawberries can be virus-free in vitro growth conditions by using the micropropagation method. This method is based on the ability of plants to regenerate from single cells, tissues or organs into a new plant.

This study was aimed to determine the production technology of the strawberry cultivar ‘Cortina’ by using the micropropagation method.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Stolons of the strawberry cultivar ‘Cortina’ were used in this research, and they were collected by the end of May and the beginning of June, while they were in the air.

Preparation of the starting material and Murashige and Skoog’s medium was performed in the biological laboratory ‘’Zdravlje - Actavis’’ Leskovac. The impacts of different phytohormones in vitro growth conditions were also carried out in these laboratories. Meristems were cultured on Murashige and Skoog’s medium, containing a larger number of macro and micro elements, sucrose, vitamins B1 and B6, nicotinic acid, inositol, agar and growth stimulators.

The explants were kept at a temperature 20 -25 oC, with light intensity of 2000 – 2500 lx and the length of brightness of 16 hours per day and 8 hours per night. Rooted plants were transferred to non-sterile conditions. Adjustment to environmental conditions was carried out in the greenhouses under the ‘’mist’’ system. After the adjustment, plants were planted on the plots for further researches.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

As the starting material for callus induction, organogenesis and regeneration of the strawberry cultivar ‘Cortina’, explants of apical buds were used. Plant materials were collected by the end of May and the beginning of June from the stolons that were in the air. After collecting, stolons are kept in closed plastic boxes in the refrigerator at a temperature of 4oC, until the isolation of the apical buds. Meristems sizes of 0.5-1mm were isolated in the laboratory from the stolons of strawberries. The isolated strawberry meristems were cultured on Murashige and Skoog’s medium containing macro and micro elements and phytohormones at various concentrations (Table 1).

Table 1. The influence of hormone concentrations of initiation of culture of the strawberry sort ‘Cortina’

Hormones mg/l Number of isolated

meristems

Uninfected cultures

Initiated cultures

Success rate

No. % No. % %0.0 30 19 63.33 - - -

0.1BAP+0.1IBA+0.1GA3 30 21 70.00 9 52.86 30.000.1BAP 30 24 80.00 2 8.33 13.33

0.5BAP+0.1IBA+0.1GA3 30 22 73.33 14 63.64 46.670.5BAP 30 20 66.67 3 15.00 10.00

1BAP+0.1IBA+0.1GA3 30 25 83.33 18 72.00 60.001BAP 30 21 70.00 5 23.81 16.67

Using the applied treatments, optimal hormone balance for the culture of primary

explants of the strawberry cultivar ‘Cortina’ is 1.00 mg/l BAP, 0.1 mg/l IBA and 0.1 mg/l GA3. Changes in explants were already observed after five or six days, and after three weeks formed callus and growth are noticed. After six weeks the average number of surviving plants was 28.33% at the optimal concentration of hormones 60%.

At the optimal combination of hormones, the average number of surviving plants for the cultivar ‘Selena’ is 70%, for the cultivar ‘Cortina’ is 50% and for the cultivar ‘Sena’ is 10% [1].

At this concentration of hormones survival rate for the cultivar ‘Senga sengana’ is 73.33%, for the cultivar ‘Idea’ is 56.67% and for the cultivar ‘Marmolada’ is 60% [2].

The analysis of variance showed that the F value of the hormones concentration for the initiation of culture of the strawberry sort 'Cortina' is higher than the corresponding tabular values.

In order to determine differences between the treatments, LSD test was performed (Table 2).

Table 2. The least significant difference of the influence of hormone concentrations for the initiation of culture of the strawberry sort ‘Cortina’

Hormone concentration mg/l

x x-2 x-3 x-5 x-9 x-14

1BAP+0.1IBA+0.1GA3 18 16** 15** 13** 9** 40.5BAP+0.1IBA+0.1GA3 14 12** 11** 9** 0.1BAP+0.1IBA+0.1GA3 9 7* 6

1BAP 5 3 0.5BAP 3 1 0.1BAP 2

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LSD (0.05) =6.44; LSD(0.01)=8.90; *significant difference at the level 0.05; **significant difference at the level 0.01

The difference of optimal hormones concentration compared to the other hormone concentrations is at 0.01 level, except compared to 0.5 mg/l BAP, 0.1 mg/l IBA and 0.1mg/l GA3 hormone concentrations, with no significant difference.

After six weeks of cultivation in a culture, formed scions size 10-20mm were transferred to the medium for multiplication. The multiplication of isolated buds was achieved at Murashige and Skoog’s medium with phytohormones BAP and IBA (Table 3).

Table 3. The influence of different hormone concentrations on multiplication of the strawberry sort ‘Cortina’

Hormone combinations mg/l

Number of plants in a culture

Number of produced plants per

row

Multiplication index

0.0 BAP+1.0 IBA 20 - -0.1 BAP+1.0 IBA 20 59 2.950.5 BAP+1.0 IBA 20 96 4.801.0 BAP+1.0 IBA 18 111 6.171.5 BAP+1.0 IBA 20 118 5.902.0 BAP+1.0 IBA 20 112 5.601.0 BAP+0.0 IBA 20 109 5.45

The highest multiplication index of the scions for the strawberry sort ‘Cortina’ was

6.17 and it was achieved by using hormones at concentrations of 1.0 mg/l BAP and 1.0 mg/l IBA. The highest Index multiplication is achieved by using hormones 1mg/l at concentrations of 1 mg/l IBA. Without the presence of BAP hormones in the nutrient medium there was no multiplication, and the omission IBA hormone has led to a reduction in the multiplication index.

For the cultivar ‘Careca’ achieved multiplication index is 6.00, for the cultivar ‘Sena’ 4.00 and for the cultivar ‘Cortina 5.80 [1].

The achieved multiplication index for the cultivar ‘Senga sengana’ is 8.77, for the cultivar ‘Marmolada’ 5.42 and for the cultivar ‘Idea’ 5.65 [2].

The significance of the influence of BAP hormone on multiplication of the strawberry sort ‘Cortina’ was determined by LSD test (Table 4).

Table 4. The least significant difference of the influence of different concentrations of BAP hormones on multiplication of the strawberry sort ‘Cortina’

Hormone combination mg/l

x x-2.95 x-4.80 x-5.45 x-5.60 x-5.90

1.0 BAP+1.0 IBA 6.13 3.18** 1.33** 0.68* 0.53 0.231.5 BAP+1.0 IBA 5.90 2.59** 1.10** 0.45 0.30 2.0 BAP+1.0 IBA 5.60 2.65** 0.80* 0.15 1.0 BAP+0.0 IBA 5.45 2.50** 0.65* 0.5 BAP+1.0 IBA 4.80 1.85** 0.1 BAP+1.0 IBA 2.95

LSD (0.05) =0.58; LSD(0.01)=0.89; *significant difference at the level 0.05; **significant difference at the level 0.01

Between the optimal concentration of hormones and other hormones combinations, there are significant differences at 0.05 and 0.01 levels.

At the optimal concentration of hormones, multiplication Index was higher than 1:5 and it was approximately 1:5-8 (in some passages even 9). Omission of IBA hormone leads to the reduction the multiplication, but not to the omission of multiplication.

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When the plantlets reached a height of 10-20 mm, they were transferred to the rooting medium. Hormone IBA was added to the composition of the nutrient medium, at different concentrations.

The influence of different concentrations of IBA hormone on rooting of the strawberry sort ‘Cortina’ is shown in Table 5.

Table 5. The influence of IBA hormone concentration on rooting of the strawberry sort ‘Cortina’ after 30 days

Hormone combination IBA

mg/l

Number of plants in a

culture

Number of rooted plants

Percentage of rooted plants

The average number of

roots0.0 30 15 50.00 3.070.1 30 22 73.33 5.040.5 30 27 90.00 6.041.0 30 18 60.00 4.11

The optimal concentration of IBA hormone for the rooting of the cultivar ‘Cortina’ is

0.5 mg/l. At a higher concentration of IBA hormone the larger mass of callus was formed at the basal part of the scion, but at a lower concentration of hormone, the number of rooted scions was lower.

At the optimal concentration of IBA hormone – 0.5 mg/l, the rooting percentage was 90%.

A high percentage of rooting was achieved with the following strawberry cultivars: ‘Senga sengana’ - 80% [3], ‘Marmolada’ - 83.33%, ‘Idea’ – 73.33% [2].

The analysis of variance and F-test showed that there were very significant differences of the influence of IBA hormone concentrations on rooting of the strawberry sort ‘Cortina’.

In order to determine the significant differences between different IBA hormone concentrations, LSD test was performed (Table 6).

Table 6. The least significant difference of the influence of different concentrations of IBA hormones on rooting of the strawberry sort ‘Cortina’ after 30 days

IBA hormone concentration

mg/l

x x-15 x-18 x-22

0.5 27 10** 9** 5*0.1 22 7** 4 1.0 18 3 0.0 15

LSD (0.05) =4.776; LSD(0.01)=6.696; *significant difference at the level 0.05; **significant difference at the level 0.01

After rooting the most convenient moment for transplanting the obtained plantlets is after two months of incubation of scions on agrarian 1/2 Murashige and Skoog’s medium when the rootlets have reached the length of 30-50 mm. Then the roots of young plants were carefully rinsed with water to remove the agar, in order to avoid harmful settled microflora. Thus washed, young plants were placed into sterile plastic dishes with a sterile mixture of vermiculite, peat, and sand, in a ratio of 1:1:1. 1/2 Murashige and Skoog’s mineral solution was added to this mixture. The courts were placed in plastic tubs with water and covered with jar. Thus planted plants were kept for a month under plastic sheets, and after that they were transplanted into pots with soil and taken out. By the end

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of the critical period of 30 days, the plants were transplanted to the open field. Percentage of adapted plants with the strawberry cultivar ‘Cortina’ is 85.55%.

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

Considering the conducted analyses, we can conclude that multiplication of the strawberry sort ‘Cortina’ is possible by using the micropropagation method.

Good organogenesis and regeneration in vitro are achieved when apical buds are used as initial explants. The best results are achieved when the explants are taken in May or June from stolons that are in the air.

The optimal phytohormones concentration for the initiation of cultures is: 1 mg/l BAP, 0.1 mg/l IBA and 0.1 mg/l GA3.

The best multiplication of strawberries is achieved by the combination of hormones: 1.0 mg / l BAP and 1.0 mg / l IBA.

On the medium without BAP hormone, multiplication does not occur. Phytohormone BAP improves reproduction and reduces apical dominance of the strawberry sort ‘Cortina’.

The optimal concentration of IBA hormone for the rooting of the strawberry cultivar ‘Cortina’ is 0.5 mg/l.

During the adaptation to external conditions the number of adapted plants for the strawberry cultivar ‘Cortina’ is 85.55%.

The results presented in this study indicate that micropropagation can significantly speed up the process of obtaining high-quality and healthy plant material.

. REFERENCES

[1]. Milosavljević S. 1999. Razmnožavanje novih sorti jagoda metodom kulture meristema in vitro. Nauka u praksi 20, 11-18.

[2]. Nikolić Z. 2006. Mikrorazmnožavanje i njegov uticaj na agrobiološke I tehnološke osobine kod nekih sorti jagoda. PhD thesis. University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture Lešak.

[3]. Petrović D. 1990. Razmnožavanje jagode cv. Senga sengana metodom culture meristema in vitro. Nauka u praksi, 20(1): 11-18.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Z. Nikolić, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Priština, Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

K. Nikolić, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Priština, Lešak, Serbia

S. Janković, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Priština, Lešak, Serbia

A. Selamovska, JNU Zemjodelski institut, Skopje, Macedonia

A. Krstić, Primary school Radoje Domanović, Bošnjace, Serbia

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THE INFLUENCE OF LIMING AND FERTILIZATION ON YIELD AND

NITROGEN AND PHOSPHORUS USE IN WINTER TRITICALE PLANTS AT PSEUDOGLEY TYPE SOIL

M.Jelic, J. Milivojevic, V. Djekic, O. Nikolic, N. Deletic, M. Biberdzic

Abstract: Results about the influence of liming and fertilization on yield and nitrogen and phosphorus use in winter triticale cultivars planted on extremely acid soil pseudogley type are presented in the paper. The investigation was carried out on property of the Dr Djordje Radic Secondary School of Agriculture and Chemistry in Kraljevo. Obtained results showed that combined application of NPK, lime and manure (N80P100K80 + 5.0 t ha-1 CaCO3 + 20 t ha-1 manure) has made the greatest impact on yield and coefficient of utilization N and P2O5 from fertilizers. On the base of studied indicators, Odisej cv expressed higher tolerance to adverse chemical soil properties (low pH, low P2O5 content and high content of mobile aluminum), while triticale cultivar Kg-20 expressed better efficiency of N and P utilization from fertilizers. Integrated application of pedomeliorative treatments and mineral fertilizers, combined with cultivars tolerant to low soil pH values, is optimal recommendation for increasing and obtaining yield stability at acid soil of Central Serbia.

Key words: fertilization, liming, nitrogen, phosphorus, pseudogley, triticale. INTRODUCTION

Pseudogley is acid soil type with low productive ability because of unsuitable physical, chemical and microbiological traits. The most important problems are low pH value and increased content of mobile aluminum. The low fertility of this soil type is result of unsuitable physical – mechanical, temperature and water – air traits (Jovanovic et al., 2004; Dugalic et al., 2005). So, cereal production is low and unstability at pseudogley soil type.

Investigation and definition optimal amount and relations among nitrogen, phosphorus and other necessary nutrients in small grains nutrition, especially at acid soil, are very important. Value and intensity N and P apsorption and asimilation depend on soil supply by other elements as well as their interrelationships in soil and plants (Mengel and Kirkby, 2001; Jelic et al., 2007). Lack of phosphorus often makes difficuilts through adoption and assimilation of nitrogen and causes decreasing of efficiency of N fertlizers use. Importance of optimal plant nutrition with P is based on fact that acid soils, like pseudogley, are unsufficiently supplied by easy – available phosphorus forms. Researchs on acid soils have showed that phosphorus applied without nitrogen has not significant influence on triticale yield while their together apllication leads to significant yield increase. Effects of phosphorus are almost the same as nitrogen effects in unsuitable years and wheather conditions, too (Jelic et al., 2007).

Conducting chemical meliorative treatments (liming, phosphate, humization) causes improvement of fertility of acid soils what is followed by increase of use efficiency of nutritients from soil and applied fertilizers. The final result is significant increase of yield and grain quality of triticale (Jelic et al., 2011).

The aim of this investigation is to study influence of liming and fertilization on grain and straw yield of winter triticale and efficient of use of nitrogen and phosphorus from soil and applied fertilizers at extremely acid soil pseudogley type. On the base of analized parameters, the mark of adaptibility of studied genotypes and choice of the most tolerant one on low soil pH values and high mobile aluminum content will be made.

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MATERIAL AND METHODS

The investigation was done on field trial with fertilization, on property of the Dr Djordje Radic Secondary School of Agriculture and Chemistry in Kraljevo, during three years period (2009-2011). Beside control (1), experiment included nine various fertilization variants: N60P60K60 (2), N80P100K80 (3), N80P120K80 (4), N60P60K60 + 2.5 tha-1 CaCO3 (5), N80P100K80 + 5 tha-1 CaCO3 (6), N80P120K80 + 5 tha-1 CaCO3 (7), N60P60K60 + 2.5 tha-1 CaCO3 + 20 t ha-1 manure (8), N80P100K80 + 5 tha-1 CaCO3 + 20 t ha-1 manure (9), N80P120K80 + 5 tha-1 CaCO3 +20 t ha-1 manure (10). The trial was set up as randomized block system, in three replications. The area of elementary plot was 10 m – 2. There were used complex mineral NPK fertilizer (8:24:16), superphosphate (17% P2O5) and amonium – nitrate as nitrogen fertilizer (34%N). Lime (CaO) was used for soil liming and manure as organic fertilizer. The entire amount of phosphorus and potassuim, together with half an amount of nitrogen were used in prior - sowing soil preparation, but the rest of nitrogen was added at the end of winter, in tillering phase.

Studied trticale cultivars were Kg – 20 and Odisej, planted in rotation with corn. Sowing was done in optimal period, with 700 germinated grains per m – 2. Growing technology was standard. Harvest was done in phase of full maturity. The measured yield was corrected up to 14% vlage. Samples for determining N and P content (10 plants per replication for each cutivars) were taken immediately before harvest. Plant sample preparation was done as follow: heads cutting, heads threshing, drying up to air dried mass and measuring mass of underground plants parts (grain and straw). After that, grains were grinded at electrical mill and get ready for chemical analysis.

Content of studied elements in plants samples were determined by standard procedures: Kjeldahl micromethod for N concentration and colorimethichs Mo – Va method for P concentration

Obtained dates were processed by mathematics – statistically methods, apllying variatione idicators of descriptive statistic, average values, error of aritmetics mean and standard deviation. Statistic analysis were done according to model Analyst Program SAS/STAT (SAS Institute, 2000).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Soil where investigation was done is tight and has very bad physical traits like high share of silt and cley and low water permeability. Analyzing chemical properties there were found out extremely acid soil reaction (pH < 4.5 in surface layer), low humus (2.19%) and easy – available phosphorus content (7.0-8.0 mg 100 g-1 soil), medium K2O content (13.0-18.0 mg 100 g-1 soil) and high content of mobile Al (>10 mg 100 g-1 soil) (Dugalic, 1998).

As Table 1. shows, there are significant differences of grain and straw yield among applied fertilization variants. The lowest grain yield was obtained in control variant (1.880 t ha-1, Kg – 20 and 2.090 t ha-1, Odisej). Use of NPK fertilizer caused significant increase of grain yield in both studied cultivars (Kg-20 - 3.280 t ha-1 and Odisej - 3.620 t ha-1). Averagely, the highest grain yield in both triticale cultivars was obtained in combined use of NPK, lime and manure (variants 9 and 10). Achivied increase of grain yield was significant in relate to control, NPK and combined NPK and lower dose of lime (2.5 t ha-1) variants. Odisej cv. was more yielding than Kg – 20 cv. and showed better adaptibility to low pH soil values. Significant influence of meliorative application of lime, manure and phosphorus fertilizers on soil acidity decrease, increased adoption of nutrients (N, P, K, Ca, Mg) and increase cereals grain yield was noticed in research from several authors (Jelic et al., 2007; Kovacevic et al., 2010; Jelic et al., 2011).

Straw yield varied in dependence on applied treatment (Table 1). As it can be seen, straw yield in both cultivars significantly varied and showed similar trend as grain yield. It is

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clear, too, that straw had higher share in total biological yield than grain in Kg – 20 in relate to Odisej cv.

Table. 1. Average values of of the grain and straw yield of winter triticale

Variants Grain yield (t ha-1) Straw yield (t ha-1) Kg-20 Odisej Kg-20 Odisej

x S x S x S x S

1 1.880 0.111 2.090 0.075 2.250 0.053 2.640 0.035 2 3.280 0.485 3.620 0.301 5.640 0.036 6.150 0.304 3 4.380 0.082 3.970 0.061 6.680 0.040 6.290 0.046 4 4.573 0.197 4.343 0.203 6.730 0.035 6.410 0.095 5 5.080 0.044 4.520 0.035 6.720 0.026 6.480 0.035 6 5.360 0.062 5.160 0.087 6.960 0.035 6.760 0.046 7 5.660 0.044 5.940 0.017 7.493 0.055 5.840 0.035 8 5.840 0.035 5.920 0.053 7.170 0.017 7.310 0.141 9 6.360 0.020 6.260 0.174 7.550 0.020 7.240 0.078

10 6.680 0.036 6.760 0.030 8.200 0.035 8.240 0.173

Coefficient of utilization N from fertilizers ranged from 46.60% to 83.00% in Odisej cv. and Kg-20 cv. respectively (Table 2). Odisej cv. had higher coefficient of utilization N in control variant (76.13%) than Kg – 20 cv., while Kg – 20 cv. showed better N use in combined application of greater amounts of mineral and lime fertilizers (variants 9 and 10). Almost the same results were obtained in earlier researches (Jelic and Kostic, 1994; Nikolić et al., 2011; Jelić et al., 2014).

Table 2. Average values of the coefficient of utilization of N and P from fertilizers

Variants Coefficient of use N (%) Coefficient of use P (%) Kg-20 Odisej Kg-20 Odisej

x S x S x S x S

1 - - - - - - - - 2 63.37 2.02 76.13 2.90 13.47 0.38 11.83 0.45 3 59.23 6.40 57.40 1.20 13.70 0.60 7.37 0.47 4 64.67 3.48 48.23 0.50 12.97 0.61 6.60 0.30 5 66.00 3.34 46.60 3.22 14.20 0.46 14.60 0.50 6 72.60 3.37 65.76 0.35 13.30 1.48 12.20 0.20 7 65.93 0.76 63.10 0.56 15.73 0.75 10.20 0.36 8 73.93 3.66 75.46 1.96 23.93 0.61 18.67 0.32 9 79.70 0.20 75.10 0.36 19.07 1.65 12.70 0.96 10 83.00 0.20 79.27 2.12 13.77 0.89 16.43 0.45

Taking into consideration efficiency of use P2O5 from NPK fertilizers (Table 2.) we

can notice its decrease in variants with only NPK fertilizers. Higher coefficients of utilization P2O5 from fertilizers and soil were registered variants with together application of mineral fertilizer, lime and manure, especially in 8, 9 and 10 ones. Triticale cultivar Kg – 20 had averagely higher P2O5 usage coefficient than Odisej cv. (Table 2). These increases varied from 1.10 to 6.33 absolute %, in dependence of fertilization variants. So, Kg-20 cv.

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showed ability of more efficient use N and P2O5 from fertilizers than Odisej cv., although it was less productive. Such remark is important in efforts to reduce and rationalize fertilizers amounts in production of triticale grain, especially on acid soils.

Analysis of variance (Table 3) clearly expressed significant influence of planted cultivars on P2O5 usage coefficient indicating it as cultivar,s specify. Obtained differences of N and P2O5 utilization efficiency caused by various fertlization variants and interactions cultivar x fertilization variants were highly significant. These facts are in accordiance with results of many authors (Jelić et al. 2012; Jelić et al., 2014).

Table 3. Analysis of variance of N and P2O5 usage coefficient ( %) from fertilizers

Effect of cultivars on the traits analyed

Traits Mean sqr

Effect Mean sqr

Error F(df1,2)

1, 58 p-level

N usage coefficient ( %) 256.6802 518.5768 0.494970 0.484533 P2O5 usage coefficient ( %) 130.8327 30.6429 4.269595* 0.043276

Effect of fertilization on the traits analyed

Traits Mean sqr

Effect Mean sqr

Error F(df1,2)

9, 50 p-level

N usage coefficient ( %) 3192.256 32.07657 99.51988*** 0.000000 P2O5 usage coefficient ( %) 178.030 6.11707 29.10375*** 0.000000

The cultivars x fertilization interaction

Traits Mean sqr

Effect Mean sqr

Error F(df1,2)

9, 40 p-level

N usage coefficient ( %) 122.3024 6.160666 19.85213*** 0.000000 P2O5 usage coefficient ( %) 17.2438 0.495667 34.78906*** 0.000000

*Statisticaly significant difference (P<0.05) **Statisticaly high significant difference (P<0.01)

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

Grain and straw yield of studied winter triticale cultivars significantly varied on dependence on applied pedomeliorative treatments and fertilization variants. Great effect on yield and N and P2O5 usage coefficients was done by combined application of NPK, lime and manure fertilizers. Tested Odisej cv. was better adapted to extreme soil acidity in term of yield, while Kg – 20 cv. showed better efficiency of utilization N and P2O5 from fertilizers. Therefore, integrated application of pedomeliorative treatments and mineral fertilizers, in combination with cultivars tolerant on low pH soil values is optimal solution for increase and improvement of yield stability of triticale on acid soils in Central Serbia.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank the Serbian Ministry of Education, Science and Technology Development for supporting this work through project No. TR 31054.

REFERENCES

[1]. Dugalic, G. et al. 2005. Agrochemical characteristics of pseudogley in the Kraljevo base. Proceedings. XL. Croatian Symposium on Agriculture, 15-18. February, Croatia, pp. 415-416. [2]. Jelic, M. and Kostic, M. 1994. Iskoriscavanje i bilans azota, fosfora i kalijuma na visegodisnjem ogledu sa djubrenjem. Savremena poljoprivreda, 42 (1-2), pp. 27-31(in Serbian).

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[3]. Jelic, M. et al. 2007. Optimalna tehnologija gajenja kao preduslov povecanja prinosa I kvaliteta zrna strnih zita. Tematski zbornik radova. Multifunkcionalna poljoprivreda i ruralni razvoj u Republici Srpskoj. Jahorina, pp. 337-346 (in Serbian). [4]. Jelic, M. et al. 2011. Amelioration of pseudogley soil using different ameliorant and fertilizers. Proceedings, 46thCroatian and 6th International Symposium on Agriculture, Opatia, Croatia, pp. 98-101. [5]. Jelic, M. et al. 2012. Response of some winter wheat genotypes to soil acidity and high mobile aluminium content. Research Journal of Agricultural Science. 44 (1), pp. 80-85. [6]. Jelic, M. et al. 2014. Impact of liming and fertilization on grain yield and utilization of nitrogen and phosphorus in wheat plant grown on soil type pseudogley. Proceedings of XXVIII Conference of Agronomists, Veterinarias, Technologists and Agricultural Economists. Beograd, Serbia, 20 (1-4), pp49-56 (in Serbian). [7]. Jovanovic, Z. et al. 2004. Uticaj mera hemijske popravke pseudogleja na prinos ZP hibridakukuruza za silazu. Acta Agriculturae Serbica. IX (17), pp. 343-348. [8]. Kovacevic, V. et al. 2010. Impact of liming on maize and soil status. Novenytermeles, 59, pp. 61-64. [9]. Mengel, K. and Kirkby, E. 2001. Principles of plant nutrition. Kluwer Acad. Pub. Dordrecht, Boston, London. [10]. Nikolić, O. et al. 2011. Interaction between indicators of dry matter status and nitrogen nutrition efficiency in the winter wheat. Proceedings. International Conference Soil. Plant and Food Interaction. Brno, Slovakia, pp. 316-323. [11]. SAS/STAT. 2000. User's Guide, Version 9.1.3. SAS Institute Inc.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

M Jelic, University of Pristina-Kosovska Mitrovica, Faculty of Agriculture, Kopaonicka bb, 38219 Lesak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

J Milivojevic, Small Grains Research Center Kragujevac, S. Kovacevica 31, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

V Djekic, Small Grains Research Center Kragujevac, S. Kovacevica 31, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

O. Nikolic, University of EDUCONS, Faculty of Ecological Agriculture, Svetog Save 60, 35210 Svilajnac, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

N Deletic, University of Pristina-Kosovska Mitrovica, Faculty of Agriculture, Kopaonicka bb, 38219 Lesak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

M Biberdzic, University of Pristina-Kosovska Mitrovica, Faculty of Agriculture, Kopaonicka bb, 38219 Lesak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

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YIELD OF WINTER BARLEY DEPENDING ON FERTILIZING SISTEM

OF ACID SOILS M. Biberdžić, M. Jelić, S. Barać, S. Stojković, D. Beković, Z. Jovovic, Dragana Lalević

Abstract:The goal of this paper was to investigate the effect of applying of the mineral fertilizer, lime

and manure on pseudogley (pH 4.34) and yield of winter barley on it. In the experiment, beside two varieties of barley (NS-565 and Rekord), 10 variants of various combinations of fertilizations were included (3 variants of mineral feeds, 4 variants of mineral feeds with lime added, as well as 3 variants of mineral and lime fertilizers combined with a manure). Results of the investigations shows that fertilization caused multiple increasing of yield in regard to control variant. Considering it is about of acid soils, the effect of applying of fertilizers, especially combination of mineral and lime fertilizers combined with a manure, was very apparent in increasing of winter barley yield. There was no statistical significance in grain yield difference at any of investigated varieties, no matter what variant of fertilization was used. The biggest yield (4520 kg ha-1) gave variety Rekord with using of combination of mineral fertilizers with higher dose of manure and lime fertilisers. The lowest yield (2180 kg ha-1) gave variety NS 565 with using of the lowest dose of mineral fertiliser.

Key words: Winter barley, Manure, Mineral and lime fertilisers,Yield.

INTRODUCTION

Barley has a great economic importance due to its versatile use. However, the presence of a larger number of degraded and acid soils affect the limitations of crop production, both in the world and in our country.

The acid reaction of these soils, low humus content, a relatively poor supply in terms of crucial plant nutrients and adverse physical, especially water-air properties, are the limiting factors in achieving higher yields of cultivated plants. Sumner and Noble (2003) point out that acidity can lead to acidification of groundwater if it is not neutralized.

Narro et al (2001) and Sumner (2004) point out that the main reason for the weak acid soil fertility is the decreased solubility of some elements (P, Mo, B) as well as the increased presence of some toxic elements, first of all Al. Nitrogen has the greatest role in increasing the yield of cultivated plants (Malesevic et al, 1994.,Kastori et al, 2005). Nitrogen shows the greatest effect when used together with phosphorus and potassium, while these two elements used without nitrogen often reduce the yield (Saric i Jocic,1993.)

According to Aniol and Madej (1996) rye shows the greatest tolerance to acidic soils, then triticale and wheat, while barley is the most sensitive. Numerous studies at home and abroad indicate that the full implementation of lime fertilizers in combination with organic and mineral is the most effective way of eliminating the unfavourable production characteristics of acid soils and affect multiple increase of yield (Jovanovic et al. 2006; Kovacevic et al. 2006; Jelic et al. 2006).

The aim of this study was to examine the effects of a larger number of combinations of mineral, lime and organic fertilizers on the yield of two varieties of winter barley cultivated on pseudogley type of soil (acid reaction).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The research was conducted in the vicinity of Kraljevo during the 2011-2013. The trial, in addition to two varieties of winter barley (NS-565 and Rekord), included nine fertilization variants of different combinations. So there were 3 variants of only mineral fertilizers (V1-N70 P60 K60; V2-N80 P80 K80 i V3-N80 P100 K100), 4 variants of both mineral and lime fertilizers (V4-N70 P60 K60 + 2.5 t ha-1 CaC03; V5- N70 P60 K60 + 5 t ha-1 CaC03; V6-N80 P80 K80 + 5 t ha-1 CaC03i V7- N80 P100 K100 + 5 t ha-1 CaC03), and finally 3 variants consisted of mineral, lime and manure fertilizers (V8-N70 P60 K60 + 5 t

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ha-1 CaC03 + 20 t ha-1 manure; V9-N80 P80 K80 + 5 t ha-1 CaC03 + 20 t ha-1 manureand V10-N80 P100 K100 + 5 t ha-1 CaC03 + 20 t ha-1manure). Mineral fertilizers were represented with NPK fertilizer, lime with CaCO3 and organic with manure.

The trial was set according to a block system in three repetitions. Before the basic land cultivation, mineral, lime and manure fertilizers were distributed on the soil surface, and then ploughed in. Other half of nitrogen fertilizer was used in top dressing in a form of ammoniacal nitrogen. Basic land cultivation was carried out in a classic way, on 25 cm depth. Sowing was carried out in October. Harvest was carried out in the phase of dead ripe, and yield was corrected on 14% of moisture. Results were presented as an average of two years experiment and anlysed with ANOVA.

Soil and climatic conditions In the following table you can see the chemical properties of the soil.

Table 1. Chemical properties of the soil

Depth (cm)

pH

Humus

Available (mg/100g of soil)

H2O nKCl P2O5 K2O

0-20 5.24 4.34 0.12 6.70 7.80

20-40 5.55 4.48 0.05 6.90 9.80 The Soil at Kraljevo location belongs to the pseudogley soil type. This soil has very

bad physical properties (compacted, having high content of silt and clay particles, with slow water percolation) and extremely acid pH value (pH<4.5). Its total humus content is relatively fair, but microbiological activity is low, because of its poor physical properties. That causes low mineralization of organic nitrogen, and so nitrogen fertilizers show a great effect on such soils. It is characterized by low content of available phosphorus (6.70-6.90 mg/100g of soil) and potassium (7.80-9.80 mg/100g of soil).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Production of barley on acid soils, such as pseudogley, is quite unstable and insecure. Therefore, it is necessary to start repairing primarily chemical properties of such soils, in order to get satisfactory yields on them. The table 2. presents the realized yields of two varieties of winter barley depending on the fertilization with mineral, lime and organic fertilizers, as well as with their combinations. Research results show that there were no statistically significan differences in grain yield between varieties, in any of the variants of fertilization. Both varieties, in all fertilization variants, had significantly higher yield compared to the control. With the application of mineral fertilizers, the average yield increased with increasing doses of nutrients, so that in variants V2 and V3 a significantly higher yield was achieved than in variant V1, while there were no significan differences between variants V2 and V3. Using a combination of mineral and lime fertilizers, yield increased with increasing doses of nutrients, but these differences were not statistically significant.

The average yield in all variants with a combination of mineral and lime fertilizers, except variant V4 (lower doses of limestone) were significantly higher than in the variant with only mineral fertilizers. A combination of mineral, lime and organic fertilizers gave an average yield that is statistically very significantly higher than the one achieved with only mineral or a combination of mineral and lime fertilizers with lower doses of nutrients. Also,

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the application of this combination showed no statistically significant differences between variants with increasing doses of nutrients (V8 – V10). Table 2. Winter barley yield (kg ha-1) depending on the mineral fertilizer, lime and organic fertilizers

A.Variants of fertilizing B. Varieties Average A NS 565 Rekord

K-control 1510 1700 1605 V1-N70 P60 K60 2180 2320 2250 V2-N80 P80 K80 2650 2716 2683 V3-N80 P100 K100 2930 3150 3040 V4-N70 P60 K60 + 2.5 t ha-1 CaC03 3290 3500 3395 V5-N70P60 K60 + 5 t ha-1 CaC03 3415 3650 3533 V6-N80 P80 K80 + 5 t ha-1 CaC03 3490 3740 3615 V7-N80 P100 K100 + 5 t ha-1 CaC03 3540 3820 3680 V8-N70 P60 K60 + 5 t ha-1 CaC03 + 20 t ha-1manure

3960 4105 4033

V9-N80 P80 K80 + 5 t ha-1 CaC03 + 20 t ha-1manure

4170 4330 4250

V10-N80 P100 K100 + 5 t ha-1 CaC03 + 20 t ha-1manure

4290 4520 4405

Average B 3220.5 3413.7 LSD A B A x B 5 % 429.5 478.6 588.5 1 % 596.7 620.4 745.2

The highest average yield (4405 kg ha-1) was achieved in the variant V10 and it was significantly higher compared to all other variants, except variants V8 and V9. The highest yield (4520 kg ha-1) was recorded for the variety Rekord, using a combination of mineral fertilizers (with high dose), limestone (higher dose) and manure. The lowest yield (2180 kg ha-1) was recorded for the variety NS565, using the lowest dose of mineral fertilizers (variant V1). In all variants, where there is a higher dose of nitrogen, an increase of yield happens, which once again demonstrates the importance of this element in plant nutrition. However, it is interesting to point out that the application of the increasing doses of phosphorus, and at the same time the same content of nitrogen, limestone and manure, increased the yield of barley. Phosphorus manifests this effect particularly in acid soils. Samuel A.D. (2009), Domuta C. (2006) and Domuta C. and Brejea R. (2010) suggest that inorganic fertilizers, when used appropriately, have a positive influence on plant growth, accumulation of organic matter and biological activity of the soil and prevent the damage of the soil.

The positive effects of increasing doses of phosphorus fertilizer on grain yield were given earlier by other authors (Jelic et al., 1998; Jovanovic et al., 2006; Kovacevic et al., 2006).

Arshad and Gill (1996) and Vildey (2003) point out that limestone increases the pH of the soil, reducing the presence of Al, improves crop growth and has positive influence on the yield of cultivated plants.

Numerous previous studies have shown that in acid soils the complete application of NPK, lime fertilizer and manure has a positive effect on grain yield (Jelic et al., 1995; Jelic et al., 2004), and our results are in agreement with that.

The average yield of barley achieved by using mineral fertilizers amounted to 2658 kg ha-1, by using a combination of mineral and lime fertilizers to 3556 kg ha-1, and by using

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a combination of mineral, lime and manure to 4229 kg ha-1 . This is another example of the necessary application of lime and organic fertilizers on acid soils.

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

Based on the study of the influence of mineral, lime and organic fertilizers and variety on grain yield of barley, the following can be concluded:

Among the varieties there were no statistically significant differences in grain yield in any of the variants of fertilization.

The application of mineral fertilizers significantly increased the average yield from the lowest to the highest dose.

By using a combination of mineral and lime fertilizers the yield increased with increasing doses of nutrients, but these differences were not statistically significant.

The combination of mineral, lime and organic fertilizers gave an average yield that is statistically very significantly higher than that achieved with only mineral fertilizers.

The combination of mineral, lime and organic fertilizers, but only with an increased dose of mineral fertilizers (especially phosphorus and potassium), achieved very significantly higher yield than by using a combination of mineral and lime fertilizers.

The highest yield (4520 kg ha-1) was recorded for the variety Rekord by using a combination of mineral fertilizers (with higher dose), limestone (higher dose) and manure.

The lowest yield (2180 kg ha-1) was recorded for the variety NS565 by using the lowest doses of mineral fertilizers.

The average yield of wheat achieved by using mineral fertilizers was 2658 kg ha-1, by using a combination of mineral and lime fertilizers 3556 kg ha-1 and by using a combination of mineral, lime and manure 4229 kg ha-1.

These results indicate the necessity of application of lime and organic fertilizers on acid soils.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The study published in this paper is a part of the project “The development of new technologies of small grains cultivation on acid soils using contemporary biotechnology” financed by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Serbia, grant No TR-31054.

REFERENCES

[1]. Aniol A., Madej J. 1996: Genetic variation for aluminium tolerance in rye. Vortr. Pflanzenz, 35, 201-211.

[2]. Arshad, M.A., and K.S. Gill. (1996): Field pea response to liming of an acid soil under two tillage systems. Can. J. Soil Sci. 76:549–555.

[3]. Domuţa, C. (2006): Agrotehnică diferenţiată. Ed. Universităţii din Oradea, pp 140 - 157.

[4]. Domuţa, C., Brejea, R. (2010): Monitoringul mediului. Ed. Universităţii din Oradea, pp.132 - 143.

[5]. Jelić, M., Ognjanović, R., Lomović, S., Milivojević, J. (1995): Promena nekih pokazatelja plodnosti zemljišta tipa vertisol posle višegodišnje primene "Njival Ca". Zbornik radova sa Savetovanja "Popravka kiselih zemljišta Srbije primenom krečnog đubriva "Njival Ca", Paraćin, 138-145.

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[6]. Jelić M., Milovanović M., Stojanović J. (1998): Proučavanje nekih agrotehničkih mera neophodnih u proizvodnji zrna jarog tritikalea, Zimska škola za agronome, Čačak, vol.2., br.2.:29-32.

[7]. Jelić, M., Živanović- Katić, S., Dugalić, G., Milivojević, J. (2004): Kalcifikacija kiselih zemljišta kao faktor povećanja plodnosti zemljišta i prinosa strnih žita. Tematski zbornik radova "Poljoprivreda između suša i poplava", Novi Sad, 52-59.

[8]. Jelić, M., Milivojević, J., Dugalić, G. (2006): Dosadašnji rezultati i perspektive primene krečnog đubriva "Njival Ca" u popravci kiselih zemljišta na području Šumadije. In: Ž. Gajić (ed.). U Monografiji "Prirodne mineralne sirovine i mogućnosti njihove upotrebe u poljoprivrednoj proizvodnji i prehrambenoj industriji". Društvo poljoprivrednih inženjera i tehničara Srbije, Beograd, str. 125-133.

[9]. Jovanović, Ž., Đalović, I., Komljenović, I., Kovačević, V., Cvijović, M.(2006): Influences of liming on vertisol properties and yields of the field crops. Cereal Research Communations 34 (1), 517-520.

[10]. Kastori, R. i saradnici (2005): Azot – agrohemijski, agrotehnički, fiziološki i ekološki aspekti, Monografija, urednik R. Kastori, Naučni institut za ratarstvo i povrtarstvo, Novi Sad, 2005, 1-419.

[11]. Kovačević, V., Banaj, D., Kovačević, J., Lalić, A., Jurković, Z., Krizmanić, M. (2006): Influences of liming on maize, sunflower and barley. Cereal Research Communations, 34, (1), 553-556.

[12]. Malešević, M., Starčević, Lj., Milošev, D., (1994): Uslovi gajenja i tehnologija proizvodnje strnih žita. Poglavlje monografije "Mehanizovana proizvodnja strnih žita", (Ed. T. Furman), Institut za polj. tehniku, Poljoprivrednifakultet Novi Sad, 1-17.

[13]. Narro, L.A., Perez, C.J., Pandey,S., Crossa, J., Salazar, F., Arias, P.M. (2001): Impliction of soil-acidity tolerant maize cultivars to increase production in developing countries. P. 447-467. In: N. Ae et al. (ed). Plant nutrient acquisition: New perspectives. NIAES series 4. Springer Verlag, Japan.

[14]. Samuel, Alina, Dora (2009): Biologia solului din Câmpia de Vest a României. Ed.Universităţii din Oradea, pp. 91 - 106.Vuşcan Adrian Nicolae, 2014.

[15]. Sarić, M., Jocić, B. (1993): Biološki potencijal gajenih biljaka u agrofitocenozi u zavisnosti od mineralne ishrane. Srpska akademija nauka i umetnosti, posebna izdanja, Beograd, knjiga 68, 1-135.

[16]. Sumner, M.E. (2004): Food production on acid soils in the developing world: problems and solutions. Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Plant-Soil Interactions at Low pH. (Editors: Matsumoto H. et al.). p. 2-3. August, 1-5, Sendai, Japan.

[17]. Sumner, M.E., and A.D. Noble (2003): Soil acidifi cation: The world story. p. 1–28. In Z. Rengel (ed.) Handbook of soil acidity. Marcel Dekker, New York.

[18]. Wildey, T.I. (2003): The infl uence of seed placed lime to reduce the acidifying effects of nitrogen fertilizers in direct seeding systems. M.S. thesis.Washington State Univ. Pullman.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

M. Biberdžić, Associate Professor, University in Prishtina, Faculty of Agriculture, Kopaonička bb, 38232 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

S. Barać, Associate Professor, University in Prishtina, Faculty of Agriculture, Kopaonička bb, 38232 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

M. Jelić, Associate Professor, University in Prishtina, Faculty of Agriculture, Kopaonička bb, 38232 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

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S. Stojković, Associate Professor, University in Prishtina, Faculty of Agriculture, Kopaonička bb, 38232 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

D. Beković, Associate Professor, University in Prishtina, Faculty of Agriculture, Kopaonička bb, 38232 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

Z. Jovovic, Associate Professor, Biotehnical faculty, University of Montenegro, Mihhaila Lalica 1, 81000 Podgorica, Montenegro, E-mail: [email protected]

D. Lalević, Teaching Assistent, University in Prishtina, Faculty of Agriculture, Kopaonička bb, 38232 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

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ANGIOGRAPHY OF A. OVARICA IN CALIFORNIAN RABBIT

(ORYCTOLAGUS CUNICULUS)

Valentina Milanovic, Verica Mrvic, A. Nitovski, Bisa Radovic, Bozidar Milosevic

Abstract: Reproduction and genetic are technologies that have been changed in great deal, over the decade, in comparison with another technologies in modern husbandry. Breeders use a new approach in animal breeding, such as artificial insemination and embryo transfer, to get genetic superior animals, where anatomy of the reproductive system is a main point of that research field.

The study were taken on unpaired, sex-matured female Californian rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus domesticus), at the age of 4-6 months and body weight about 3,5 kg-4,2 kg, which were housed in individual cage system. After the sacrificing the animals and bleeding out, gelatin with 33% minium was applied into Aorta abdominalis to initiate the blood vessels of the reproductive organs. Prepared blood vessels were photographed and examined by roentgen technique, also. The results about blood supplying of reproductive organs and distribution of regional blood vessels are considered to be of assistance in clinical work about reproductive physiology and pathology.

Key words: Oryctolagus cuniculus domesticus, vascularization, A.ovarica INTRODUCTION

The results, generated from morphological studies of female reproductive system in domestic species, possess direct applicability and economic importance in field of commercial breeding. Morphological studies in Californian rabbit take even more prominent role, as it‘s shown as a good animal mammal model in vary areas of science research, within the EU [8]. The Californian rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) taxonomically belongs to the mammalian order Lagomorpha, family Leporidae, species Oryctolagus [6, 7]. As a very common species used in reproductive biology, rabbits’re also used in studies of vascularization of reproductive organs, which is connected with follicular growth and hormonal balance.

The main arterial supply of mammalian ovary derives from a. ovarica, which arises from Aorta abdominalis, or a.renalis. [15, 17] There’re anastomosis between branches of the ovarian and uterine arteries, so any surgical methods, such as complete or unilateral hysterectomy, tubal ligation or total salpingectomy can destroy different part of tube and consequently block the correlation between the uterus and ovary [12], with reduction in ovarian blood supply and ovulation rate [1]. In rabbits, the ovaries possess a dual blood supply [16], including the ovarian and uterine arteries. Utero-ovarian branch, which is created of the bifurcation of the uterine artery, supplies the tip of the uterine horns and oviduct, and forms an anastomosis with a primary branch of a. ovarica [1,11]. That anastomosis creates a link between uterus and ovaries, by vascular junction [13]. Branch of the ovarian artery as also the principal route of the oviductal supply [2]. After leaving Aorta abdominalis, at almost 90�, angle, a. ovarica divides into two branches: one runs directly to the hilus ovarii, while the second is directed caudally in lig.lata uteri and gives several branches toward the oviduct. Those branches of a. ovarica divide, interconnect, ramify and recombine over the oviductal surface. The main oviductal branch of a. ovarica merges the cranial part of a. uterina and forms the genital vascular circle [5].

MATERIAL AND METHODS

This investigation was taken at 15 virgin female Californian rabbits, at the age of 4-6 months and body weight about 3500-4200g. Animals were housed in individual cage system, under the same environmental conditions, with free access to water and feeding ad libitum. Females were immobilized mechanically and anaesthetized, after loss of consciousness and absence of response to stimuli, animals were sacrificed by

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exsanguination of the jugular vein. After median incision of torax and abdomen, gelatin with 33% minium was applied into Aorta abdominalis and blood vessels prepared with standard anatomic technique were photographed with Canon digital camera, 12, 1 mgpxl and with Phillips-Muller Da 701 roentgen, in latero-lateralis and ventro-medialis position.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A.ovarica arises from Aorta abdominalis, and as a paired vessel, a. ovarica dextra et a. ovarica sinistra arise asimetrically, at the level of IV to V lumbal vertebra, under the right angle and run caudo-lateral, between the mesoovarium, toward to the regional ovary (Figure 1). A. ovarica gives cranial branch- ramus ovaricus a. ovaricae and caudal branch- ramus uterinus a. ovaricae. Ramus ovaricus a. ovaricae runs to cranial top of ovary and makes a spiral curls, which’re more eminent at the hilus ovarii. After this branching, ramus ovaricus runs as ramus tubarius, which wraps cranial top of ovary and goes over the dorso-medial and dorso-latelas side of oviduct, to infundibulum, which is enclosed with this blood vessel (Figure 2.). Ramus uterinus a. ovaricae runs ventro-caudal to the tip of uterine horn and gives a brances for mesoovarium and lig.lata uteri. A ovarica ramifies at the tip of the uterine horn and makes anastomosis with a. uterine which forms utero-ovarial anastomosis. A ovarica supplies ovary, oviduct, ovarial bursa and uterus.

Figure 1. Roentgenogram of Aorta abdominalis

Legend: A- Aorta abdominalis, B- aa. intervertebrales, C- a. ovarica dextra, D –a. ovarica sinistra

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Figure 2. A. ovarica

�Legend: Ramus ovaricus a. ovaricae i ramus uterinus a. ovaricae, A-rami ovarici enter to hilus ovarii, B- ramus ovaricus a. ovaricae (white), ramus ovaricus v. ovaricae (red) , C- ramus uterinus a. ovaricae (white), ramus uterinus v. ovaricae (red), D- rami tubarii distalis v. ovaricae

According to findings of other researches [3, 9].arterial vascularization of ovaries in bitch (Canis familiaris) origins from paired aa. ovaricae, branched from Aorta abdomianalis at the level of III to IV lumbal vertebra [10], with a. ovarica dextra more cranial than a.ovarica sinistra. This blood vessel divides into three brances: ramus ovaricus, ramus tubarius and ramus uterinus. Ramus ovaricus supplies cranial part of ovary, ramus tubarius runs to cranial part of oviduct, bursa ovarii, medial part of ovary and mesosalpinx, while ramus uterinus makes anastomosis with cranial branch of a. uterine and gives two branches for ventral and dorsal wall of uterus [9]. A. ovarica in cat (Felis catus) arises from Aorta abdominalis and gives one branch for oviduct in more cases, or two branches- for uterine horn and for oviduct in some cases [14]. In chinchilla (Chinchilla lanigera) a. ovarica has a branch, which runs caudal and then divides into two branches, one supplies mesoovarium and another makes anastomosis with a. circumflexa ilium profunda, and after a.ovarica gives ramus tubarius and ramus uterinus. The first mentioned ramifies to branch for ovary and branch for infundibulum tubae uterinae and fimbriae tubae uterinae [4]. A. ovarica differs in its origin, but a. ovarica dextra has more cranial position, in this species, as in rabbits. Utero-ovarian anastomosis exists in studies in other animals models, as in this study, taken in Californian rabbit.

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CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

Although a. ovarica is principal blood vessel that supplies ovary, it also derives blood to the oviduct and uterus, forming an utero-ovarian anastomosis, important for vascular junction between those reproductive organs, which realizes a balance of reproductive hormones. A degree and pathways of that influence should be target field for future work.

REFERENCES

[1].  Aktahari K., Razi M., Malekinejad H., 2012. Uterine artery interruption: Evidence for Follicular Growth and Histochemical and Biochemical Changes. J. Reprod. Infertil., 13(4), 193-203 [2]. Burr H., Davies I., 1951. The vascular system in rabbit ovary and its relationship to ovulation. Anat. Rec., 111, 273-297 [3]. Cespedes R., Pradere J., Bermudez V., Diaz T., Perozo E., Riera M., 2006. Arterial and Venous Supply of the Uterus and Ovaries in the Bitch (Canis familiaris) and its Relationship with Ovarian activity. Revista Cientifica, FCV-LUZ/vol. XVI, No 4, 353/363 [4]. Cevik-Demirkan A., Ozdemir V., Demirkan I., 2010. The ovarian and uterine arteries in the chinchilla (Chinchilla lanigera). Tydskr. Afr. Vet. Ver., 81 (1), 54-57 [5]. Dickson W.M., Waldhalm S.J., Amend N., 1974. Blood flow to the oviduct of the nonpregnant rabbit. Biol. Reprod., 10, 335-345 [6]. Dorit R., Walker W., Barnes R. 1991. Zoology. Saunders College Publishing, Mammals, 909-955 [7]. Hickman C., Roberts L., Larson A., I’Anson Helen. 2004. Integrated principles of Zoology. Twelfth Edition, McGraw-Hill Companies, New York, Mammals, 582-609 [8]. EU report 2010. http://www.ncbi.nim.nih.gov/projects/genome/guide/rabbit [9]. Freitas P.M.C., Santos A.L.Q., Ferreira F.A., Mota F.C.D., 2002. Comportamento das arteras extramurais do utero de caes sem raca definida (Canis familiaris- Linnaeus, 1758). Braz. J. Vet. Res. Anim. Sci., Sao Paulo, vol. 39, No 2, 81-86 [10]. Janković Ž., Stanojević Dragojla, Miladinović Živka, 2001. Anatomija domaćih životinja sisara, Angiologija. Veterinarski fakultet, Univerzitet u Beogradu, Beograd [11]. Jaraquemada J.M.P., Monaco R.G., Barbosa N.E., Luciana Ferle, Iriante H., Conesa H.A., 2007. Lower uterine blood supply: extrauterine anastomotic system and itsapplication in surgical devascularisation techniques. Acta Obsetrica et Gynecologica, 86, 228-234 [12]. Kim H.S., Thonse V.R., Judson K., Vang R., 2007. Utero-ovarian anastomosis histopatologic correlation after uterine artery embolization with or without ovarian artery embolization. J. Vasc. Interv. Radiol., 18, 31-39 [13]. Kuscu E., Duran H.E., Zeyneloglu H.B., Demirhan B., Bagis T., Saygili E., 2002. The effect of surgical sterilization on ovarian function, a rat model. Eur. J. Ostet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol., 100(2), 204-207 [14]. Miglino Maria Angelica, Silva Rosana Marques, Machado Marcia Rita Fernandes, 2001. Arterias destinadas ao utero e tuba uterine em gatas (Felis catus). Braz. J. Vet. Res. Anim. Sci., Sao Paulo, vol. 38, No 2, 55-61 [15]. Mossman H.W., Duke K.L., 1973. Comparative Morphology of the Mammalian Ovary. Madison, Wisconsin, University of Wisconsin, Press. [16]. Razi M., Akhtari K., Najafpour A.R., Abdi K., Shahrooz R., Shahmohamadlo S., Feyzi S., Cheragi H., 2010. Effect of bilateral uterine artery ligation on follicular atresia in ovaries of mature female rabbits; histomorphometric and histochemical study. I. J. Reprod. Med., vol. 8, 3, 101-110

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[17]. Reynolds S.R.M., 1973. Blood and lymph vascular systems of the ovary: Handbook of Physiology. vol.II, part I, Washington D.C., American Physiological Society

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Valentina Milanovic, Faculty of Agriculture-University of Pristina, Kopaonička bb, 28273 Lešak, Serbia: E-mail: [email protected]

Verica Mrvic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine-University of Belgrade, Bulevar Oslobodjenja 14, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia: E-mail: [email protected]

Atanas Nitovski, Faculty of Agriculture-University of Pristina, Kopaonička bb, 28273 Lešak, Serbia. E-mail: [email protected] Bisa Radovic, Faculty of Agriculture-University of Pristina, Kopaonička bb, 28273 Lešak, Serbia. E-mail: [email protected] Bozidar Milosevic, Faculty of Agriculture-University of Pristina, Kopaonička bb, 28273 Lešak, Serbia. E-mail: [email protected]

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EFFECT OF PREBIOTIC BIO-MOS ON SERUM PROTEINS IN SUCKLING

CALVES

Nikola Stolić1, Bratislav Pesic1 ,Božidar Milosević2, Zvonko Spasić2, Zoran Ilic2

Abstract: The effect of prebiotic preparation BIO-MOS („Altech", USA), based on mannan-oligosacharide, on growing of suckling calves was investigated. In general, the results of the experiments showed that this prebiotic preparation for 1-3 month aged calves had stimulating effect on growth, improved the digestibility of nutririents and had positive effect on the immunological status of the animals. In this work the results of the change in serum proteins in the calves are presented. The level of albumins and globulins in the serum was analysed after 30, 60 and 75 days of calves growth, both in the experimental and control group. The total albumins were 31.51±3.597 g/l, 30.12±2.748 g/l and 30.97±3.473 g/l at day 30, 60 and 75 respectively. The level of globulins was 18.88±3.684 g/l at day 30, 18.19±3.59 at day 60 and 23.1±5.4 g/l at day 75.

Key words: Prebiotic, calves, blood serum, albumins, globulins

INTRODUCTION

It is well documented that dairy calves are extremely susceptible to to many pathogens and nutritional problems during the first few weeks of life. For several years antibiotics have been used to overcome these problems also to obtain economic benefits in terms of improved calves performance and reduced medication costs. However, the use of antibiotics in animal husbandry can cause antibiotic resistance of pathogen bacteria. Thus, there is increasing interest in replacement of antibiotics with natural alternatives, such as probiotics, prebiotics and symbiothics in order to enhance animal performance and health [1, 2, 3]. Probiotics are used to balance the host intestinal microbial eco-system and restore its resistance to diseases, by intake of viable probiotic microorganisams. On the other hand, prebiotics are non-digestible food ingredients that selectively stimulate the growth and/or activity of certain bacterial genera such as bifidobacteria and lactobacilli in the colon. Prebiotics have been shown to have many beneficial function, including protecting animal against enteropathic disorders, increasing feed efficiency and weight gain. Also, prebiotics have been shown to have immune-enhancing properties [3, 4, 5].

Among prebiotics mainly non-digestible oligosaccharides are ranked, such as mannanooligosaccharides (MOS) – complex carbohydrates derived from cell walls of Saccharomyces spp. yeast. Manno-oligosaccharides have high resistance toward acidity and human gastrointestinal enzymes, and thus can rich the colon undigested where act as substrates for beneficial intestinal bacteria. On the other hand, mannanoligo-saccharides can reduce pathogen bacteria due to specific molecular features. Pathogen bacteria's fimbriae are rich in lectins and it is essential for their adherence to the mannose-containing cells in the intestinal tract. Mannanoligosaccharide provide a mannose-rich source for bacteria attachment, instead of being attached to the gut wall and cause disease. The selectivity of mannan-oligosaccharides is based on that some beneficial bacteria (Bifidobacterium longum, Lactobacillus casei, L. acidophitus, L delbruckii) produce the enzyme mannanase which targets its hydrolysis and therefore do not enable formation of complexes, unlike to those undesirable pathogen strains lacking the ernzyme [6, 7]. Due to its beneficial effects, dietary intake of mannan-oligosaccharide can contribute to increased vitality of animals, affecting both the digestive and immune system that further leads to optimum production and economic benefits.

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The aim of this work to present the effect of prebiotic preparation BIO-MOS, based on mannan-oligosaccharide, which has been suggested as an effective prebiotic preparation [8], on serum proteins in growing of suckling calves.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The experiment was organized at the farm Lazar, Blace (Serbia) as a group control system, with calves of domestic spotted cattle in the type of Simmental. Calves were healthy, progressive, and vital without shortcomings and defects. Calves were housed in facilities for the calves, where they were located after the separation from their mothers. The first 5 days after receipt of colostrum they started receiving the mother's milk, and later consumed the cumulative milk. Calves were marked with tattoo stamps and numbered ear tags. Microclimatic conditions in the facilities during the experiments, keeping, and care, feeding and watering were identical for all calves. Two groups of calves were formed, a control group that was fed without added manan-oligosaccharide (C), and the treatment (T) group, which received in milk the mentioned prebiotic. Each group of calves was comprised of 16 calves so that in total experiment was conducted with 32 calves.

At the beginning the calves were fed fresh colostrums. After the fifth day they were fed with 6 l of the cumulative milk produced on the farm. Treatment group was supplemented with 4 g prebiotic Bio-Mos/calf/day. The calves were fed via nipple bottle feeder, signed for each calf. After the day 15 a mixture was included in the daily diet according to the calves' physiological requirements and regulations on quality of animal food and feed in Serbia (Sl.List 20/2000, 38/2001). To avoid imprecise estimates, alfalfa flour was used up to 15 % in the mixture instead of hay. The blood samples were collected at the farm at defined time (day 30, 60 and 75) and analysed at the Institut of Veterinary of Serbia in Belgarade. The methods are described by Stolic, 2007 [9]. Data were expressed as mean ± standard deviation for triplicate determinations and the statistical analysis was carried out using Install Prism4.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The level of albumins and globulins in the serum was analysed after 30, 60 and 75 days of calves growth, both in the experimental and control group. Figure 1 shows the total proteins in the serum of the calves. There was no statistically significant difference between the experimental and the control group. The results showed that the level of the total proteins decreased during the first period to the day 60, and then significantly increased from 48.32 to 54.3 g/l at day 75.

Figure 1. Level of total serum proteins.

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The total albumins in the experimental group were 31.51±3.597 g/l, 30.12±2.748 g/l and 30.97±3.473 g/l at day 30, 60 and 75 respectively (Figure 2). Albumins did not change neither in comparison of the experimental and the control group nor during the investigated time period.

Figure 2. Level of serum albumins in calves.

Figure 3 shows the level of globulins the calves’ serum. The level of globulins was

18.88±3.684 g/l at day 30, 18.19±3.59 at day 60 and 23.1±5.4 g/l at day 75. There were no significant difference between the experimental and control group.

Figure 3. Level of serum globulins in calves.

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CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

These result shows that the addition of the prebiotic Bio-Mos had no effect of the level of albumins and globulins in the serum samples. However, the results of the all experiments showed that this prebiotic preparation for 1-3 month aged calves had stimulating effect on growth, improved the digestibility of nutririents and had positive effect on the immunological status of the animals.

Therefore, in future work it would be of interest to evaluate the effect of the Bio–Mos on serum immunoglobulin and certain immune responses during feeding the calves.

REFERENCES

[1]. Ballou, M. A. 2011. Case Study: Effects of a blend of prebiotics, probiotics, and hyperimmune dried egg protein on the performance, health, and innate immune responses of Holstein calves. The Professional Animal Scientist 27: 262–268.

[2]. Król, B. 2011. Effect of mannanooligosaccharides, inulin and yeast nucleotides added to calf milkreplacers on rumen microflora, level of serum immunoglobulin and health condition of calves. Electronic Journal of Polish Agricultural Universities 14: #18.

[3]. Roodposhti, P. M., Dabiri, N. 2012. Effects of Probiotic and Prebiotic on Average Daily Gain, Fecal Shedding of Escherichia Coli, and Immune System Status in Newborn Female Calves. Asian-Aust. J. Anim. Sci. 25: 1255 – 126.

[4]. Stolić, N., et al. 2013. The influence of mannan oligosaccharides on the utilization of nutrients in simmental calves. Presented at Research People and Actual Tasks on Multidisciplinary Sciences, 2013, Lozenec, Bulgaria.

[5]. Lazarević M. 2003. Mannan oligosaccharides enhace absortion of colostral igG in newborn calves and piglets. Poster presented at Alltech s 19th Annual Nutritional Biotehnology in the Feed & food Industries Symposium, Lexington, Kentacky.

[6]. Sharon, N., Lis, H. 1993. Carbohydrates in cell recognition. Scientific American, 1: 5-7.

[7]. Ferket, et al. 2002. Benefits of dietary antibiotics and mananoligosaccharides supplementation for poultry. Multi-State Poultry Meeting.

[8]. Chuquilin J. C. 1999. Bio-mos improves performance and health of heifer calves, Technical update, bio-mos-26 engRT

[9]. Stolić, N. 2007. Impact investigation of added mannan-oligosaccharides (BIO-MOS) on growing of suckling calves. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Priština.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Dr Nikola Stolic, professor, College of Agriculture, Prokuplje, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected] , +38163669410 Dr Bratislav Pesic professor , College of Agriculture, Prokuplje, Serbia, E-mail:[email protected], +381631218022 Dr Bozidar Milosevic, associate professor, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Pristina, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected], +381641505274 Dr Zvonko Spasic, associate professor, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Pristina, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected], +381658765678 Dr Zoran Ilic, full professor, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Pristina, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected], +38163271021

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THE IMPACT OF BIOLOGICAL PREPARATIONS ON THE

FUSARIUM MONILIFORME WHEAT GRAIN

Stancic, I., Petrovic, S., Zivic, J. Abstract: The paper examines the impact of Guapsin and Trichophyte biological preparations on the

appearance of Fusarium moniliforme wheat grain. The experiment was conducted during 2014 in the municipality of Aleksinac, in the village of Dobrujevac. The soil at the experimental plot produced a slightly acidic reaction, with 3% of humus, poorly secured with available phosphorus and well secured with potassium. The applied microbiological fertilisers were Guapsin, in the amount of 5l/t of seed, and Trichophyte, in the amount of 2l/t of seed immediately before planting, while for the purposes of the experiment the Balaton variety of wheat was used. By means of a random selection, 40 ears of wheat from each repetition had been analysed and it has been ascertained that Fusarium monilifone wheat grain was present in a certain percentage. The results of the research have shown that the examined biological preparations have a positive impact on a wheat grain health status. The percentage of infected wheat grain among untreated seeds was from 12% to 17%, while among treated seeds this percentage was between 4% and 8%. The use of Guapsin and Trichophyte preparations as an additional measure the aim of which was to increase yields and protect the wheat has significantly influenced the reduction of Fusarium monilifone. During those years in which the conditions are favourable for the development of this pathogen it is necessary to apply other chemicals in order to secure the full protection of the wheat crop.

Key words: biological preparations, wheat, Fusarium

INTRODUCTION

The process of crop protection is dominated by chemical measures, i.e. by the use of chemicals and pesticides. Increasing global demand for the reduction of chemicals and pesticides which are considered harmful to consumers call for the development of harmless and sustainable strategies in the process of crop protection such as biopesticides, which imply the use of useful microorganisms or their metabolites for the purposes of crop protection as an alternative to synthetic chemical compounds. Biofungicides are useful fungi and bacteria which attack and control the development of plant pathogens.

The application of biological preparations which contain multiple populations of microorganisms can improve the supply of necessary nutrients to crop plants while simultaneously protecting the environment and producing safe food. In addition, microorganisms have the ability to synthesise plant hormones, which further stimulates plant growth and their resistance. Biofungicides can be based on useful fungi, bacteria, and yeast, which control the development of plant pathogens, as well as on essential oils and plant extracts. The ability of biofungicides to protect the host from pathogens is the basis of their commercial success [1].

Environmental conditions in Serbia are suitable for the development of pathogenic and toxigenic Fusarium species at a large scale, which in some years can cause significant reduction in yield [2], as well as increased contamination of maize and wheat grain with microtoxins [3]. The genus Fusarium contains a larger number of species which can cause a disease of seeds, seedlings, roots, stems, cobs, ears and grain. Fusarium spp is a fungus transmitted from a seed to plants and back to the seed [4]. It has been established that Fusarium species, which originate from the maize and wheat grain, are potentially significant producers of microtoxin [5].

In years favourable for the development of parasites, a blight can cause a reduction in yield up to 80%. At tillering, the percent of disease is somewhat lower. Thus, Fusarium

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graminearum was the most frequently isolated species on the wheat seed (66,06%), followed by Fusarium moniliforme (11,90%)[6].

The awareness of applying certain insecticides and fungicides at the risk of various operators, consumers, and the environment, a failure to deal with certain diseases of underground and overground plant organs, a fast development of resistant types in the population of certain harmful species, the prohibition of synthetic pesticides in the period of ripening and harvesting led to the introduction of alternative measures in the process of plant protection within which the deserved place has been taken by biological preparations and other non-pesticide measures. There is, without a doubt, a need for the development of alternative systems of protection in the future which should be implemented as an addition to or substitution for conventional pesticides. [7].

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The paper examines the impact of Guapsin and Trichophyte biological preparations on the appearance of Fusarium moniliforme wheat grain. The experiment was conducted during 2014 in the municipality of Aleksinac, in the village of Dobrujevac. The soil at the experimental plot produced a slightly acidic reaction, with 3% of humus, poorly secured with available phosphorus and well secured with potassium. The applied microbiological fertilisers were Guapsin, in the amount of 5l/t of seed, and Trichophyte, in the amount of 2l/t of seed immediately before planting, while for the purposes of the experiment the Balaton variety of wheat was used. In the course of growing season a treatment for weed, disease and pest was provided by using the Decis Expert preparations in the amount of 0,25 l/ha, the Impact preparations in the amount of 0,3 l/ha, the Sector preparation in the amount of 0,15 l/ha and the Cikosel preparation in the amount of 0,5 l/ha. In the part of the lot where seed treatment was provided this mixture was supplemented with Guapsin (6 l/ha) and Trichophyte (3 l/ha). In the flowering stage, in the third decade of May, there was the second treatment with the Fastak preparation in the amount of 0,2 l/ha. The experiment was performed within six repetitions. By means of random selection we analysed 10 samples out of 40 ears from every repetition within which we established the presence of Fusarium moniliforme.

On the basis of the action of bacterial strains Pseudomonas aureofaciens B-306 i B-111, biopreparation Guapsin protects the plants from pests and disease,and spurs their growth and development. The results of scientific research indicate that these bacteria are modifiers of poorly soluble soil compounds and impellers of an increased physiological activity of the plant.

Biopreparation Trichophyte – an aqueous suspension of soil spores and mycelia and the fungus Trichoderma lignorum – provides one with successful results in dealing with fungal diseases. Biologically active supstances secreted by Trichoderma lignorum stimulate the growth and development of plants and increase their resistance to diseases.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The suppression of Fusarium spp. with biological means is not widely applied in practice at a commercial level, but there are numerous experiments which testify to their potential. [8]. Bacillus subtilis is an alternative to applying efficient fungicides when dealing wiht the suppression of F. graminearum, and it causes cob rot of maize and fusariosis of wheat grain. [9]. By treating corn seed with a bacteria (Bacillus subtillus), or some other fungus (Trichoderma spp.) it decreases the seed infection with fungus F. Verticillioides, as well as the production of fumonisin [4].

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In the period between 2002 and 2008 the authors analysed the presence of Fusarium species in 208 samples of wheat, maize, soy and peas grains. The contamination with Fusarium species, expressed through the percentage of seeds with Fusarium spp colonies, went from 5 % to 69 % in wheat and from 25 % to 100 % in maize. Average contamination with Fusarium species in different years varies from 10 % to 46 % in wheat, and from 50 % to 91 % in maize [10].

The bacteria from the genus Pseudomonas belong to soil microorganisms which perform one of the most significant processes in the soil – the process of denitrification. However, owing to the production of antimicrobial agents, these bacteria show a distinctive antibiosis against pathogenic microorganisms – the cause of diseases in cultivated plants, impeding their growth and reproduction [11]. For this reason, the inoculation of seeds with the bacteria which show antagonism towards pathogenic fungi is an acceptable alternative to using chemicals [12].

The isolate of Pseudomonas aureofaciens (IB 51) is a rhizosphere plant, i.e. an active substance of the Elena preparation which is applied for the purposes of protection of the winter and spring barley from root rot and seed mustiness. The seed of winter barley was treated with Elena preparation in the amount of 1 l/t two days before sowing, while Fitosporin preparation (Bacillus subtilis, isolate 26 D) in the amount of 0,5 kg/t was used as a standard. Biological efficiency of the examined and standard preparation against the infection in the seed was at the level of 48,5%, with the controlled infection of 37%. The examined preparation also acted positively with respect to germination energy (86%) and seed germination (87%). The efficiency against root rot in the tillering phase, in autumn, was 79,4%, while the development of disease in the control was 6,3%, and in spring 61,2%, with the infection in control of 15,7%. The preparation secured a better overwintering of the plants and improved the quality and quantity of the yield of winter barley [13].

Table 1. The number of healthy and infected wheat ear with F. Moniliforme fungus

Sample label Nº of healthy samples

Nº of infected samples

% of infected

ears

Grain weight per ear (g)

N1 334 66 16,50 1,012 N2 335 65 16,25 0,971 N3 338 62 15,50 1,005 N4 341 59 14,75 1,032 N5 334 66 16,50 1,013 N6 326 74 18,50 0,879

Prosek 334,66 65,33 16,33 0,985 T1 375 25 6,25 1,173 T2 370 30 7,50 1,132 T3 380 20 5,00 1,235 T4 368 32 8,00 1,115 T5 373 27 6,75 1,193 T6 369 31 5,17 1,093

Prosek 372,66 27,50 6,45 1,156 LSD 005

001 35,8

40,5 0,112

0,154 Cv 9,36

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N- untreated; T- treated

Trichoderma spp. has proved its great efficiency with respect to combating all those pathogenic fungi to which it had been applied with the purposes of controlling them. Nevertheless, certain types are highly efficient with regards to specific pathogenic fungi, while in the case of some others they can turn out to be completely useless. A recent discovery relating to the fact that these fungi activate defense mechanisms of plants speaks in favour of the fact that Trichoderma spp can be appplied to control other pathogens than those of fungi.

Table 1 presents differences between treated and untreated varieties, whereby it can be concluded that in all examined indicators a positive effect was achieved as result of the treatment. On the basis of the analysis of 400 ears and 6 repetitions, in one repetitions we have recorded significant and in five repetitions extremely significant impact of the treatment of seeds with biological preparations Guapsin and Trichophyte. Average number of infected ears was between 65,33 in untreated to 27,50 in treated wheat seeds. Expressed in percentages, the share of infected ears in untreated seeds was 16,33%, and 6,45% in treated seeds.

Grain weight per ear was from 0,879 g in the sixth repetition of the untreated seed to 1,235 g in the third repetition of the treated seed. Average weight of the grain per ear was from 0,985 g in the untreated seed to 1,156 g in the treated seed. Between the measured values of grains per repetition and treatment significant and extremely significant differences have been established.

In the course of perennial research, [14] provides one with the data on alterations in pathogenic complex which cause cereals to rot, especially in the last 10 years, as well as on disease prophylactics by applying preparations on the basis of microorganisms – antagonists (bacteria and fungi) which live in rhyzosphere, or at the root of a plant. Trichoderma preparation (T. harzianum) applied to the seed of winter wheat, with the development of dry rot 29, 7-57, 4% (three year period), in the amount of 10kg/t of seed, has achieved average efficiency 37,7%, while in the amount of 20kg/t of seed the efficiency was 53,9%. By means of seed treatment and foliar application the preparation has reduced the development of pathogen for 57,2%. By applying biopreparation once in the growing period the development of dry rot decreased for 41,1%. The efficiency of the preparation regarding the cause of dry rot per year depended on the types of present pathogens and climatic conditions, while it was much more stable when applying Trichoderma (E=55,6%). During 1996 and 1997 the influence of T. harzianum, T. lignorum and T. viride was examined regarding the reduction of dry rot development in winter (E=55,5; 58,0; 50,9%) and spring wheat (50,0; 45,5; 47,4% respectively).

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

On the basis of the obtained results we can conclude that the inocluation of wheat seed with biological preparations of Guapsin (bacteria Pseudomonas aureofaciens) and Trichophyte (fungus Trichoderma lignorum) significantly contributes to the prevention of the development of a pathogenic fungus Fusarium moniliforme. The occurence of infected ears was either significant or extremely significant in seeds untreated with the examined biological preparations. It is necessary to continue with the research towards the introduction of a third treatment which would be performed midway between the treatments included in this experiment.

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REFERENCES

[1]. Klokočar-Šmit, Z., Lević, J., Maširević, S., Gvozdenović-Varga, J., Vasić, M. and Aleksić, S.: Fusarium rot of onion and possible use of bioproducts. Matica Srpska Proceedings for Natural Sciences, 114: 135-148, 2008. [2]. Lević, J.: Vrste roda Fusarium. Institut za kukuruz Zemun Polje i Društvo genetičara Srbije, Beograd, 2008, str.1-1226. [3]. Stanković, S., Lević, J., Tančić, S., Kovačević, T. and Bočarov-Stančić, A.: Učestalost toksikogenih vrsta roda Fusarium i fuzariotoksina u zrnu pšenice. Zbornik rezimea III simpozijuma o zaštiti bilja u BiH, Neum, BiH, 2006, str. 64-65. [4]. Bacon, C.W., Yates, I.E., Hinton, D.M. and Meredith,F.: Biological control of Fusarium moniliforme in maize. Enveronmental Health Perspectives, 109: 325-332, 2001. [5]. Bočarov-Stančić, S.A, Lević, J.T., Stanković, S.Ž., Stanišić, M.M. and Bilek, S.O.: Dynamics of deoxynivalenol and zearalenone production by Fusarium graminearum under laboratory conditions. Matica Srpska Proceedings for Natural Sciences, 2009, 116:15-24. [6]. Tančić, S., Stanković, S., Lević, J.: Varijabilnost patogenih svojstava Fusarium spp. poreklom iz zrna kukuruza i pšenice. Pestic. fitomed. (Beograd), 24(4), 2009, 259-269 [7]. Grahovac, M., Inđić, D., Lazić, S., Vuković, S.: Pestic. fitomed. (Beograd), 24(4), 2009, 245-258 [8]. Bressan, W.: Biological control of maize seed pathogenicity fungi by use of actinomycetes. BioControl, 2003, 48: 233-240. [9]. Chan, Y.K., Savard, M.E., Reid, L.M., Wayne, T.C., McCormick, W.A. and Seguin, C.: Identification of lipopeptide antibiotics of a Bacillus subtilis isolate and their control of Fusarium graminearum diseases in maize and wheat. BioControl, 2009, 54: 567-574. [10]. Ivić D, et al. FUSARIUM SPP. ON WHEAT, MAIZE, SOYBEAN AND PEA Arh Hig Rada Toksikol 2009, 60:435-442 [11]. Whipps, J.M.: Microbial interactions and biocontrol in the rhizosphere. Journal of Experimental Botany, 2001, 52:487-511. [12]. Andersen, J.B., Koch, B., Nielsen, T.H., Sørensen, D., Hansen, M., Nybroe, O., Christophersen, C., Sørensen, J., Molin, S. and M. Giskov (2003.): Surface motility in Pseudomonas sp. DSS73 is required for efficient biological containment of the root – pathogenic microfungi Rhizoctonia solani and Pythium ultimum. Microbiology 149: 37-46. [13]. Koршунова, Т.Ю., Силищев, Н.Н., Галимзянова, Н.Ф., Бойко Т.Ф. и Логинов, О.Н.: Биофунгицид елена на озимом ячмене. Защита и карантин растений, 2009, 5: 28-29. [14]. Жалиева, Л.Д.: Грибы р. Trichoderma - регуляторы численности возбудителей корневых гнилей пшеницы. Защита и карантин растений, 2008, 11: 17.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Dr Ivica Stancic, professor, College of Agriculture, Prokuplje, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected] , +381(0)647010777 Dr Sasa Petrovic, professor, College of Agriculture, Prokuplje, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected], +381(0)698702565 Dr Jelica Zivic, professor, College of Agriculture, Prokuplje, Serbia. E-mail: [email protected], +381(0)698702554

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RADICAL SCAVEGING ACTIVITY IN WATER-SOLUBLE EXTRACTS

FROM SERBIAN CHEESES

Ž. Stolić, Lj. Popović, and S. Popović

Abstract: Water-soluble extracts from cheeses produced in Serbia were evaluated for their antioxidant potential. In total eight, four hard cheeses and four soft type cheeses were selected. The antioxidant testing included the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH) radical and 2,2’-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) radical cation scavenging activity. In general, all tested extracts had higher ABTS radical cation than DPPH radical scavenging activity. The DPPH radical activity was in the range of 10 to 36%, while the ABTS of 37 to 81%. All extracts showed significant radical scavenging capacity indicating that theses cheeses are sources of antioxidant components, such as antioxidative peptides.

Key words: Cheese,water-soluble extract, antioxidantive potential. INTRODUCTION

In recent years, extensive scientific evidences have emerged on food derived bioactive peptides (BAP), which may have beneficial effects upon human health. Peptides exerting a vast number of bioactivities have been reported, including antioxidant, anti-hypertensive (by inhibiting the Angiotensin I Converting Enzyme, ACE), antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, immune-modulatory, etc. Thus, BAP are subject of great interest as health promoting and therapeutic ingredients in functional foods or nutraceuticals.

It is well known that milk proteins are rich precursors of BAP, which can be released by proteases during fermentation, gastrointestinal digestion or in vitro hydrolysis [1,2]. Recently, there is a strong interest, both industrial and academic, to develop innovative functional foods, or enhance the bioactive potential of already used products. Therefore, fermented milk products, such as cheese and yoghurt, have been the focus of much research in order to evaluate their bioactive potential [3,4,5].

This study is aimed at on an investigation of bioactive potential of cheeses, produced in Serbia and available on the market. In total eight, four hard cheeses and four soft type cheeses were selected. Beneficial effects of milk derived are majorly linked to their antioxidant properties and abilities to modulate the activity of key enzymes in metabolic pathways. To date, the exact mechanism underlying the antioxidant activity of BAP has not fully been understood, yet various studies have showed that they are scavengers of free ROS or model radicals, inhibitors of lipid peroxidation and chelators of metal ions [6,7]. The antioxidant potential of the cheeses was evaluated by two methods using 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH) radical and 2,2’-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzo-thiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) radical cation.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

This study analyzed samples of cheeses produced and available on the market in Serbia. The cheeses differ for starter culture, technological aspects and time of ripening. The cheeses were collected in a supermarket and two categories were chosen; hard type with commercial name Pivnički, Edamer, Trapist and Kačkavalj, and soft type Somborska, Mladi, Beli and Balans. The water-soluble extracts preparation

30 g of cheese was suspended in 60 mL of distillated water, homogenized and kept at 40 °C for 1 h under gentle stirring. After centrifugation (+4ºC), the upper fat layer was discarded and the pH of the water extract was adjusted to 4.0 using 1 M HCl. The

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precipitated casein was recovered by centrifugation (+4ºC) and the water-soluble extracts were collected for further analysis. The protein content of each analysed sample was determined by method of Lowry et al. [8]. Antioxidant activity testing

The free radical scavenging activity (RSA) of protein extracts was evaluated using the DPPH scavenging activity assay as described by Morales and Jimenez-Perez [9]. The ABTS assay decolourisation assay was performed as described by Re et al [10]. Both methods are described in more details in Hrnjez et al [5].

Statistical analysis

Data were expressed as mean ± standard deviation for triplicate determinations and a least significant difference test with a confidence interval of 95% was used to compare the means.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Figure 1. shows the DPPH radical scavenging activity measured in the WSE of cheeses. In general there was no observed difference between the soft and hard type of cheeses. It was concluded that the activity depended on the cheese type itself. The highest activity was determined in the Trapist hard cheese 36.26±5.79%, while the other hard type cheeses had activity lower than 20%. Among the soft type cheeses the cheese Balans had the highest activity 23.22±3.24%, followed by feta type cheese 21.57±2.14%. The lowest activity was obtained for Mladi soft cheese 11.65±0.3% and Kačkavalj hard type cheese 13.69±1.28%.

Figure 1. DPPH radical scavenging activity of the water-soluble extracts of cheeses.

The ABTS radical cation scavenging activity is presented in Figure 2. It shows that all

WSE exerted higher ABTS than DPPH radical scavenging activity. This is not an unexpected result, since in our previous studies we demonstrated that due to the reaction conditions in these two tests, the value of ABTS antiradical activity is usually higher when protein/peptide samples are examined [5].

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The hard type cheeses had similar activity, in the range of 69 to 81% (Figure 2). The highest activity was observed in Trapist cheese (81.34±2.03%), as it was for the DPPH activity. Among soft type cheeses the Probiotic cheese had the highest, while the Mladi the lowest activity (76.32±3.82% and 37.876±1.89%, respectively).

Figure 2. ABTS radical cation scavenging activity of the water-soluble extracts of

cheeses. In order to evaluate whether the antioxidant activity is due to presence of BAP in the

WSE, the correlation between the level of total proteins and 12% TCA soluble index was analysed. The protein content in the WSE is presented in Figure 3.

Figure 3. The total and 12% TCA soluble proteins in the water-soluble extract of

Cheeses. There was significant correlation between the ABTS radical cation scavenging activity

and the proteins in the WSE. Namely, the Pearons coefficient of correlation between the activity and total proteins was 0.987 for soft, and 0.442 for hard type cheeses. The r value for activity and 12% TCA soluble index was for soft and hard type cheeses 0.92 and

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0.867, respectively. The correlation between the DPPH radical scavenging activity and protein content was not significant.

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

The results of this work showed that the WSE in analysed cheeses types exert antiradical activity, possibly due to presence of low molecular weight peptides with bioactive properties. However, peptides may not be the only component responsible for the detected activities. Thus more detailed examination is needed in order to specify all bioactive components in the extracts.

REFERENCES

[1]. Hartmann, R., Meisel, H. 2007. Food-derived peptides with biological activities: from research to food application. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 18, pp 163–169. [2]. Korhonen, H. 2009. Milk-derived bioactive peptides: From science to application. Journal of Functional Foods, 1, pp 177–187. [3]. Gonzales-Gonzales C.R. et al. 2011.Production of angiotensin-I-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory activity in milk fermented with probiotic strains: Effects of calcium,pH and peptides on the ACE-inhibitory activity. International Dairy Journal 21, pp 615-622. [4]. Meira, S.M.M. et al. 2012. Bioactive peptides in water-soluble extracts of ovine cheeses from Southern Braziland Uruguay. Food Research International 48, pp 322-329. [5]. Hrnjez, D. et al. 2014. The biological activity of fermented dairy products obtained by kombucha and conventional starter cultures during storage. Journal of Functional Foods 10, pp 225-245. [6]. Moure, A., Sineiroet al. 2006b. Funcionality of oilseed protein products: A review. Food Research International 39, pp 945–963. [7]. Samaranayaka, A. G. P., Li-Chan, E. C. Y. 2011. Food-derived peptidic antioxidants: A review of their production, assessment, and potential applications. Journal of Functional Foods 3, pp 229-254. [8]. Lowry, O., et al. 1951. Protein measurement with the Folin–phenol reagent. Journal of Biological Chemistry 193, pp. 265-275. [9]. Morales, F. J., Jimenez-Perez S., 2001, Free radical scavenging capacity of Maillard reaction products as related to colour and fluorescence. Food Chemistry 72, pp 119-125. [10]. Re, R., et al. 1999. Antioxidant activity applying an improved ABTS radical cation decolorization assay. Free Radical Biology & Medicine 26, pp 1231–1237.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Žužana Stolić, Ph. D., Faculty of Technology, University of Novi Sad, Bulevar Cara Lazara 1, Novi Sad, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected],

Ljiljana Popović, Ph. D., Faculty of Technology, University of Novi Sad, Bulevar Cara Lazara 1, Novi Sad, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected],

Senka Popović, Ph. D., Faculty of Technology, University of Novi Sad, Bulevar Cara Lazara 1, Novi Sad, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected].

Acknowledgements This work was supported by grant number 46010 from Ministry of Education and

Science of Republic of Serbia.

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EFFECT OF PREBIOTIC ON PERFORMANCE OF BROILER CHICKENS

FED LOW PROTEIN DIETS

Izeta Omerovic, Božidar Milosevic, Slavica Ciric, Goran Maksimovic, Sonja Samardzic

Abstract: The goal of this research was to investigate the influence of a prebiotic added into the low

protein diet of fattening chickens. A prebiotic known as TechnoMos (Sacharomyces cerevisiae) has been added at the level of 0.1% as a constituent of a feeding mixture given to the experimental group of day old chickens, with 2% lower protein content (19%) in comparison with the mixture for the second group of chickens, that contained recommended level of proteins (21%) which served as a positive control. An additional group of chickens received a mixture of lower protein content and served as a negative control group.

During the trial body weight, daily weight gain, feed consumption and conversion were recorded. Body weight in the negative control group was 590.59 (daily weight gain 26.06) grams, prebiotic group 620 (daily weight gain 27.51) grams, and in the positive control group 670,78 (daily weight gain 29.91) grams. Feed conversion ratio in the positive control group was 2.07 kg, prebiotic group 2.30 and in the negative control group of chickens 2.30 kg.

Prebiotic showed positive effect on body weight, daily weight gain and feed conversion without statistically justified confirmation (P>0.05) in comparison with the negative control. The results indicate that prebiotics could be a fine solution for alleviating problems connected with variable environmental conditions within a farm, as in regard to feeding mixtures quality, so in regard to the control of intestinal disorders.

Key words: Fattening chickens, prebiotic, low protein diet INTRODUCTION

An intensive production of healthy and high value food of animal origin, sets the high recommendation for animal husbandry and industry of animal food. The ban of European Union for use of antibiotics, as growth promoters, from the 1st January, 2006, onwards, provoked many investigations to find alternatives without antibiotic’s sides’ effects, such as resistance, genotoxic effects, and presence of residua in food of animal origin. The most used so called “alternatives to antibiotics”, at last decade, became probiotics and prebiotics.

The quality and proportion of microorganism in the gut are relatively constant and typical for the particular periods of life and part of the intestine [7], depending on animal species, environment, consumed feeds [12] or feed additives. Prebiotics can be classified as Prebiotics are defined as non-digestible food ingredients that affect the host beneficially by the modification of bacterial composition in the colon, where oligosacharides and polysacharades were mostly investigated in different animal specie [3, 4, 9].

Numerous investigations towards estimation of possible influence on production abilities of poultry showed effectiveness of probiotics and prebiotics especially in regard to higher body weight, daily weight gains, better feed conversion [1, 10, 14]. Having in mind potentially positive effects of prebiotics, the aim of this research was to examine the effects of the prebiotic Techno Mos on the production abilities of fattening chickens during the first three weeks of age.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The experiment covered 156 one day old Cobb hybrid chickens divided into three groups with 52 animals. A prebiotic known as TechnoMos (Sacharomyces cerevisiae) has been added at the level of 0.1% (EP group) as a constituent of a feeding mixture (Table 1) given to the experimental group of day old chickens, with 2% lower protein content (19%)

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in comparison with the mixture for the second group of chickens, that contained recommended level of proteins (21%) which served as a positive control (KP group). An additional group of chickens received a mixture of lower protein content and served as a negative control group (KN group).

During the experiment, that lasted until 21 day of life, all neccesary housing conditions were provided and were identicall for all animals. Chicken weight was measured every seven days during the trial together with group feed consumption.

Obtained results were analysed by using Anova and differences treated with Tukey HSD test marking the differnce of 0.5% significant.

Table 1. Diet composition used during the trial

Group КP KN EP

Corn 34.25 33.70 33.70 Wheat 10.00 15.00 15.00 Corn meal 10.00 10.00 10.00 Soybean meal 22.50 13.00 13.00 Sunflower meal - 7.00 7.00 Soybean gritz 18.60 15.00 15.00 Corn sprouts 2.00 3.00 3.00 Premix 1.00 1.00 1.00 Salt 0.50 0.30 0.30 Grit 0.25 1.00 1.00 MCP 0.90 1.00 1.00 УКУПНО 100 100 100

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Average values of chicken body weights are presented in table 2.

Table2. Average values of 21 days old chicken body weights (g)

Group Mean SD SE Min Max Index

KP 670.78 204.00 28.57 395.00 1255.00 100.00

KN 590.59 190.11 26.62 270.00 1110 88.04

EP 620.00 187.90 26.31 305.00 1170.00 92.42

At the beginning of the trial chickens were uniform regarding the body weight in all

experimental groups (P>0.05). At the end of the experiment it is obvious that experimental groups of chickens achieved lower body weight for 7.58% with added prebiotic (EP) and 11.58% without an addition of prebiotic (KN). Difference between group is statistically insignificant (P>0.05).

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Table 3. Average values of chicken daily weight gain (g)

Group Mean SD SE Min Max Index

KP 29.91 9.76 1.37 16.90 57.86 100.00

KN 26.06 9.06 1.27 10.95 50.95 87.12

EP 27.51 8.94 1.25 12.86 53.57 91.97

Effect of protein levels on body weight gain was significant in starter period. Commercial diet caused heavier body weights than other low protein diets (KN and KP groups), however, addition of prebiotic to low protein diet improved body weight and weight gain during the experiment.

Low protein diets caused differences that were expected because lower protein and amino acids content (lysine, methionine and threonine) influenced weight gain and performance. Yet, prebiotic in low protein diets expressed positive effect because these diets (EP and KN) were formulated to supply the same amount of protein and amino acids. By comparing the low protein diets we can determine 4.97% increase in body weight and 5.56% increase in body weight gain. Prebiotic increased feed consumption in low protein diet, which explains difference in body weight gain.

Table 4. Average values of daily feed consumption (g) and feed conversion (kg)

Group Feed consumption (g) Feed conversion (kg)

KP 62.01 100 2.07 100

KN 59.92 96.63 2.3 111.11

EP 63.7 102.72 2.32 112.07

Similar results of prebiotic dietary influence on performance of chickens in a similarly designed experiment were achieved by using a prebiotic called Fermacto [6]. The results of that experiment showed that addition of prebiotic to broiler diets containing 90% of NRC protein recommendation had same effect with control diet on performance of broiler chicks. Additionally, Zhang [17] another study with 0.2 or 0.4% prebiotic Isomaltooligosaccharide could improve broiler performance in the starter period. Improved body weight gain when broilers are fed diet supplemented with prebiotics can be found in other studies [1, 16]. Generally, supplementation of prebiotics in the diet of broilers, layers and pigs leads to improved performance through improving gut microflora [11, 13, 15].

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

During the trial body weight, daily weight gain, feed consumption and conversion were recorded. Body weight in the negative control group was 590.59 (daily weight gain 26.06) grams, prebiotic group 620 (daily weight gain 27.51) grams, and in the positive control group 670,78 (daily weight gain 29.91) grams. Feed conversion ratio in the positive control group was 2.07 kg, prebiotic group 2.30 and in the negative control group of chickens 2.30 kg.

Prebiotic showed positive effect on body weight, daily weight gain and feed conversion without statistically justified confirmation (P>0.05) in comparison with the negative control. The results indicate that prebiotics could be a fine solution for alleviating

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problems connected with variable environmental conditions within a farm, as in regard to feeding mixtures quality, so in regard to the control of intestinal disorders.

Further research is necessary in order to define proper dose and period of application of prebiotics, according the management solutions at the farm level.

REFERENCES

[1]. Ammerman, E., C. Quarles and P.V. Twining, 1989. Evaluation of fructooligosaccharides on performance and carcass yield of male broiler. Poult. Sci., 68 (Suppl.), 167. [2]. Awad, W. A. Ghareeb, K. Abdel-Raheem, S.and BоhmJ. 2009. Effects of dietary inclusion of probiotic and synbiotic on growth performance, organ weights, and intestinal histomorphology of broiler chickens, Poultry Science 88:49–56 [3]. Baurhoo, B., L. Phillip, and C. A. Ruiz-Feria. 2007. Effects of purified lignin and mannan oligosaccharides on intestinal integrity and microbial populations in the ceca and litter of broiler chickens. Poult. Sci. 86:1070–1078. [4]. Canibe, N., O. Højberg, J. H. Badsberg, and B. B. Jensen. 2007. Effect of feeding fermented liquid feed and fermented grain on gastrointestinal ecology and growth performance in piglets. J. Anim. Sci. 85:2959–2971. [5]. Fuller R. 2004) Probiotics in man and animals. J Appl Bacteriol 66: 365–378 [6]. Ghiyasi M., Rezaei M., Sayyahzadeh H. 2007. Effect of Prebiotic (Fermacto) in Low Protein Diet on Performance and Carcass Characteristics of Broiler Chicks. International Journal of Poultry Science 6 (9): 661-665, 2007. [7]. Jensen B. B. 1998. The impact of feed additives on microbial ecology in young pigs, Journal of Animal and Feed Science, 7, 45-46 [8]. Jensen B. B. (1998): The impact of feed additives on microbial ecology in young pigs, Journal of Animal and Feed Science, 7, 45-46 [9]. Liu, P., X. S. Piao, S. W. Kim, L. Wang, Y. B. Shen, H. S. Lee, and S. Y. Li. 2007. Effects of chito-oligosaccharide supplementation on the growth performance, nutrient digestibility, intestinal morphology, and fecal shedding of Escherichia coli and lactobacilli in weaning pigs. J. Anim. Sci. 86:2609–2618. [10]. Midilli, M. Alp, M. Kocabağlı, N.. Muğlalı, Ö.H Turan, N. YılmazH.and Çakır,S. 2008. Effects of dietary probiotic and prebiotic supplementation on growth performance and serum IgG concentration of broilers, South African Journal of Animal Science , 38 1, 21-27 [11]. Pelicano, E.R.L., P.A. De Souza, H.B.A. De Souza, F.R. Leonel, N.M.B.L. Zeola and M.M. Boiago, 2004.Productive traits of broiler chickens fed diets containing different growth promoters. In: Asian Tec. Conf. Brazil, pp: 18. [12]. Pluske J. R., Williams I. H., Aherne F. X. 1995. Nutritional of the Neonatal Pig. The Neonatal Pig Development and survival, 7 187-235, CAB International [13]. Spring, P., C. Wenk, K.A. Dawson and K.E. Newman, 2000. The effects of dietary mannan oligosaccharides on cecal parameters and the concentrations of enteric bacteria in the caeca of Salmonella-challenged broiler chicks. Poult. Sci.,79: 205-211. [14]. Tokic Vesna, Lazarević Miodrag, Sinovec Z, Tokić A. 2007. The influence of different feed additives to performances and immune response in broiler chicken, Acta veterinaria,572-3. 217-229 [15]. Xu, Z.R., C.H. Hu, M.S. Xia, X.A. Zhan and M.Q. Wang, 2003. Effects of dietary fructo oligosaccharide on digestive enzyme activities. Intestinal Microflora and morphology of male broilers. J. Anim. Sci., 82: 1030-1036.

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[16]. Yusrizal and T.C. Chen, 2003. Effect of adding chicory fructons in feed on broiler growth performance, serum cholesterol and intestinal length. Int. J. Poult.Sci., 2: 214-219. [17]. Zhang, C., 2000. Research on the application effects and the mechanism of isomalto-oligosaccharides in diet for broilers and piglets. Treatise. China Agricultural University, Beijing.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Izeta Omerovic, State University of Novi Pazar, 36300 Novi Pazar, Vuka Karadzica B.B., E-mail: [email protected]

Bozidar Milosevic, University of Pristina, Faculty of Agriculture, 38219 Lesak, Kopaonicka B.B., E-mail: [email protected]

Slavica Ciric, University of Pristina, Faculty of Agriculture, 38219 Lesak, Kopaonicka B.B., E-mail: [email protected]

Goran Maksimovic, University of Pristina, Faculty of Agriculture, 38219 Lesak, Kopaonicka B.B., E-mail: [email protected]

Sonja Samardzic, University of Pristina, Faculty of Agriculture, 38219 Lesak, Kopaonicka B.B., E-mail: [email protected]

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THE EFFECT OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ON REPRODUCTIVE

TRAITS OF SIMMENTAL COWS

Nebojsa Lalic, Božidar Milosevic, Zvonko Spasic , Goran Maksimovic

Abstract: The objective of this research was to study some factors affecting reproductive performance of locally raised first calving cows. Data of reproductive records representing Simmental cows raised in two districts born between 2004-2010 were utilized to study the effects of year and season of birth on age at first conception (AFC), age at first calving (AFCC), pregnancy duration (PD), service period duration (SPD) and inter calving period (ICP).

The least squares analysis of variance indicated that the overall least squares means of AFC, AFCC, PD, SPD, and ICP were 575.34, 859.9, 284.56, 119.225, 405.875 days respectively.

Season of birth was not significant factor affecting investigated reproductive traits (P>0.05), while year of birth significantly affected all parameters under the investigation (P<0.05), except the service period and the duration of pregnancy (P>0.05).

Key words: cows, reproductive traits, year of birth, season of birth

INTRODUCTION

Reproduction is a complex trait with many components. As a selection criteria measures of reproductive performance are used, such as service period, inter-birth interval, pregnancy duration, age at insemination, age at first calving, and so on [4, 5, 7, 11]. Fertility in domestic animals is at first place very important biological trait with high economic importance, thus in livestock production farmers are paying great attention to this sequence during the production cycle. Fertility traits are under influence of many genetic factors, but at the same time environmental factors are of great importance. Simmental cattle is a dual-purpose breed, but in most of the farmers want to utilize these animals for milk production.

Cow fertility traits are under the influence of environmental factors with different degree with possible interactions. The knowledge of the effects of these factors on reproductive traits is very important for improving the fertility of the cows [10].

Duration of pregnancy in Simmental cows was reported [1] to be 282,5 days, age at first calving, 805 days, and the service period 154 days. Spasić [8] reported that age of simmental cows in the first three conceptions was 698; 1.228; 1.691 days respectively. Service period lasted 226,43 days, while the interval between two calvings was 510,91 days.

Season of calving can have significant effect on age at first conception of cows [6], as well as on age at first conception and duration of service period. It this research season of calving had no significant effect on duration of pregnancy.

Trifunović et al. [9] concluded that season of calving expressed significant effect on duration of pregnancy (P<0,05) while service period and interval between calving stayed outside that effect.

The aim of this paper was to define reproduction parameters in a population of Simmental cows, and to estimate the effect of year and season of birth on fertility traits of first calving Simmental cows.

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MATERIAL AND METHODS

The research was conducted on 200 animals of simmental breed, born between 2003 and 2010. The data of fertility traits have been collected from the farms and processed using Microsoft excel software, which is adapted for this type of research.

Fertility traits included in the research were:

age at first conception (AFC),

pregnancy duration (PD),

age at first calving (AFCC),

service period duration (SPD) and

intercalving period (ICP).

Distribution of cows was carried out in 8 groups according to year of calving, and in 4 groups according to season of calving. Calving seasons, or in other words beginning of lactations, were following: I - winter (January, February, March); II - spring (April, May, June); III - summer (July, August, September); IV - fall (October, November, December).

Data were analysed by least squares analysis of variance (fixed model) using the year of birth and season as fixed factors.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results regarding the average values and variability of fertility traits aregiven in table 1.

Table 1. Average values and variability of fertility traits

Trait X SD xS CV

Service period 119.2 82.86 5.859 69.50% Intercalving period 405.9 84.18 5.952 20.74% Age at first calving 859.9 226.8 16.04 26.38% Gestation length 284.6 15.62 1.104 5.49% Age at first conception 575.3 225.8 15.97 39.25%

Average duration of service period was 119,2 days, with standard deviation of 82.86

days. Variability of service period was high, actually it lasted about 1,3 times longer in regard to the upper value of the optimal level, which illustrate the low level of management.

That had a significant influence to duration of the first inter-birth interval which averaged 405,9 days. Average duration of pregnancy was 284,6 days and age at first calving 859,9 days, with high variation coefficient of 26,38%. Given results are in accordance with other authors treated this subject in cows [1, 8, 9, 11].

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Table 2. Least square means and their errors for reproductive traits AFC AFCC PD SPD ICP

Calving year LSM SE LSM SE LSM SE LSM SE LSM SE

Average 575.34 859.9 284.56 119.22 405.87 2003 604.00 124.87 887.92 125.30 283.92 9.21 193.39 46.97 470.08 47.34 2004 573.77 50.18 863.73 50.35 289.95 3.70 146.45 18.87 451.15 19.02 2005 570.04 39.17 856.18 39.31 286.14 2.89 154.29 14.74 436.80 14.85 2006 518.27 28.78 800.33 28.88 282.06 2.12 109.53 10.83 397.45 10.91 2007 663.98 46.94 946.57 47.10 282.59 3.46 105.29 17.66 388.69 17.79 2008 689.62 39.85 973.84 39.98 284.22 2.94 88.85 14.99 374.67 15.11 2009 519.89 43.08 803.42 43.23 283.53 3.18 99.55 16.20 384.43 16.33 2010 384.27 60.13 668.02 60.34 283.75 4.44 96.69 22.62 380.85 22.80 F-test F=4.047*** F=4.057*** F=0.582ns F=2.495ns F=2.836*

Calving season

I 622.34 29.23 908.46 29.33 286.12 2.16 146.33 10.99 431.061 11.08 II 535.41 37.60 818.22 37.73 282.81 2.77 124.79 14.14 418.875 14.254 III 545.16 39.69 827.81 39.82 282.65 2.93 108.50 14.93 390.413 15.045 IV 559.02 35.16 845.52 35.29 286.50 2.59 117.41 13.23 401.71 13.331

F-test F=1.857ns F=1.968ns F=0.742ns F=2.140ns F=2.372ns

NS-P>0.05; *-P<0.05; ***-P<0.001

The least squares analysis of variance indicated that the overall least squares means of AFC, AFCC, PD, SPD, and ICP were 575.34, 859.9, 284.56, 119.225, 405.875 days respectively.

Season of birth was not significant factor affecting investigated reproductive traits (P>0.05), while year of birth significantly affected all parameters under the investigation (P<0.05), except the service period and the duration of pregnancy (P>0.05).

Year of calving significantly influenced fertility traits in other studies [3], except the duration of pregnancy [7, 3]. Some published data are different in regard to the pregnancy duration, where significant effect of birth year on pregnancy duration was found [10]. Season was not a factor influencing the pregnancy duration which is in accordance with other authors [5, 7, 10].

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

In this paper we present the results of a study of the effects of year and season of birth on age at first conception (AFC), age at first calving (AFCC), pregnancy duration (PD), service period duration (SPD) and inter calving period (ICP).

The least squares analysis of variance indicated that the overall least squares means of AFC, AFCC, PD, SPD, and ICP were 575.34, 859.9, 284.56, 119.225, 405.875 days respectively.

Season of birth was not significant factor affecting investigated reproductive traits (P>0.05), while year of birth significantly affected all parameters under the investigation (P<0.05), except the service period and the duration of pregnancy (P>0.05).

It can be concluded presence of high variability of reproductive traits in simmental cows during the 10 years period. The results show an improving tendency, which could explained by introduction of cows with enhanced genetic potential, and better management practice.

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REFERENCES

[1]. Janzekovic M., Skorjanc D., Smolinger J. 2004. The influence of various origins of first calving Simmental and Black-White cows on production and content of milk. Mljekarstvo 54 (4) 275-283. [2]. Lazarević, R., Romčević, Lj., Vasović, S., Nikitović, N., Mihajlov, B. 1985. Varijabilnost proizvodnih i reproduktivnih osobina krava simentalske rase. Savremena poljoprivreda, vol. 33, (1-2) str. 5-16. [3]. Pantelić, V., Petrović, M.M, Aleksić, S., Sretenović, LJ., Ostojić Andrić, D., Novaković, Ž. 2008.Varijabilnost uzrasta pri telenju i servis perioda prvotelki simentalske rase. Savremena poljoprivreda, vol. 57, (3-4), p. 131-136. [4]. Pantelić,V.2004. Fenotipska varijabilnost proizvodnih i reproduktivnih osobina bikovskih majki simentalske rase.Magistarska teza.Poljoprivredni fakultet, Beograd, [5]. Petrović, M. 2000. Ispitivanje dugovečnosti, proizvodnje mleka i mlečne masti krava simentalske rase. Magistarski rad. Poljoprivredni fakultet, Beograd. [6]. Rege, J.E.O. & Famula, T.R., 1993. Factors affecting calving date and its relationship with production traits of Hereford dams. Anim. Prod. 57, 385. [7]. Skalicki, Z., Latinović, D., Lazarević, Lj., Stojic, P. 1991. Fenotipske karakteristike reproduktivnih osobina crno belih goveda sa različitom proporcijom gena holštajn-frizijske rase. Zbornik radova Poljoprivrednog fakulteta, Radovi sa 7. naučnog skupa zootehničara Jugoslavije, Beograd, str. 33-39. [8]. Spasic Z 1996. Varijabilnost I povezanost osobina mlecnosti i plodnosti tri generacije domacih sarenih goveda. Magistarska teza. Poljoprivredni fakultet. Beograd-Zemun. [9]. Spasić, Z. Milosević, B. Milenković M., Stolić N. and Ilić Z. 2009. Phenotypic correlation of production and reproduction traits of cows in the population of dommestic spotted cattle. Research people and actual tasks on multidisciplinary sciences, Lozenec, Bulgaria.Proccedings, 155-161. [10]. Trifunović, G., Latinović, D., Đedović Radica, Skalicki, Z., Perišić, P., Mekić, C. 2003. Uticaj određenih paragenetskih faktora na osobine plodnosti populacije crno-belih goveda. Savremenapoljoprivreda, vol.52 (3-4) str. 311-316. [11]. Van der Merwe, P.S. & Schoeman, S.J., 1995. Effect of early calving of Simmentaler heifers under an extensive management system. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci. 25, 36.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We thank the Serbian Ministry of Science for support. Project TR-31001

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Nebojsa Lalic, Faculty of Agriculture-University of Pristina, Kopaonička bb, 38219 Lešak, Serbia. E-mail: [email protected]

Bozidar Milosevic, Faculty of Agriculture-University of Pristina, Kopaonička bb, 38219 Lešak, Serbia. E-mail: [email protected]

Zvonko Spasic, Faculty of Agriculture-University of Pristina, Kopaonička bb, 38219 Lešak, Serbia. E-mail: [email protected]

Goran Maksimovic, Faculty of Agriculture-University of Pristina, Kopaonička bb, 38219 Lešak, Serbia. E-mail: [email protected]

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COMPARISON OF ECONOMICALLY IMPORTANT TRAITS OF DOMESTIC AND IMPORTED FLECKVIEH CATTLE

Božidar Milosevic, Slavica Ciric, Zvonko Spasic, Zoran Ilic, Goran Maksimovic

Abstract: The basic scientific goal of this investigation was to make a complex view and study of

fertility traits of two Simmental cow groups in the production conditions of Southern Serbia. A total of 200 Simmental Flecvieh first calving heifers, domestic and imported, were investigated. The first calving heifers originally arrived from Germany and their comparison with a group of first calving heifers produced in our production conditions, regarding the reproductive abilities has been performed.

Derived data regarding the cows fertility traits were collected and incorporated into a database created in Microsoft Access for Windows software and then processed using the software GraphPadInstat for windows. Statistical difference has been determined using the T test.

At first conception imported cows aged 589.54 and domestic cows aged 481.64 days. The average service period length of the imported cows was 161.4 days, while in domestic population this value was 104.7 days. That had a significant influence on the duration of the first intercalving interval which averaged 455.1 days in imported and 389.3 days in the domestic population. Average duration of pregnancy of 285.06 was registered in imported population, while in the population of domestic cows pregnancy lasted 283.78 days.

Obtained results disclose the problem of acclimatization of imported heads and confirm that import of more expensive animals with better genetic potential is economically justified for the breeder only when is able to provide best breeding practice and quality voluminous fodder.

Key words: cows, reproductive traits, Fleckvieh

INTRODUCTION

Fertility in domestic animals is at first place very important biological trait with high economic importance, thus in livestock production farmers are paying great attention to this sequence during the production cycle. Fertility traits are under influence of many genetic factors, but at the same time environmental factors are of great importance. Fleckvieh cattle are a dual-purpose breed, but most of the farmers, in our conditions, want to utilize these animals for milk production. Thus it is very important to know what fertility parameters are and how they influence animal’s performance and profitability of the production cycle. The reproductive efficiency decline with increased milk yield, some studies have shown, concluding a negative association between fertility and milk yield in cattle [1].

Nowadays, the import of breeding cattle has increased in Serbia, especially import of first calving Simmentall-Fleckvieh cows. Breeders are trying to improve the quality of their herds and increase milk production. However, often there are no high benefits from imported animals since high genetic potential can be expressed only if adequate measures such as good housing conditions, feeding regime and selection are introduced [8].

Milk production is the basic goal of production and the most important source of income for the breeder. Thus, some investigators conducting experiments in order to compare production abilities of imported and domestic heifers in order to make right conclusions regarding the quality and arrange their production technology according to results obtained [3, 9]. Of course, it is important to examine the fertility traits, in order to be able to balance the production. Fertility traits are under the influence of genetic and paragenetic factors. For higher milk and calves production during the life, and consequently better cows’ utilization, it is necessary, besides other factors, to examine the potential of animals of different origins regarding the fertility traits [5].

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The basic goal of our investigation was to compare fertility traits of Fleckvieh first calving cows born in Serbia and their peers imported from Germany.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A total of 200 first calving cows, under the control of veterinary station Zovet-Kraljevo, were subject of our investigation. Conditions and housing were similar for both groups and with the same feeding regime and feedstuffs quality. The information of the fertililty were collected and incorporated into a database created in Microsoft Access for Windows software and then processed using the software GraphPad Instat for windows. Statistical difference has been determined using the T test.

The following traits were subject of investigation:

age at first conception (AFC), gestation length (GL), age at first calving (AC), service period (SP) and intercalving period (IP).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results regarding the average values and variability of fertility traits, together with the defined statistical difference are presented in table 1.

Domestic heifers at first conception aged 481.64 days and they were younger than imported at this point for approximately 108 days. Average duration of service period was 161.4 days, with standard deviation of 105.9 days in imported group, while in the group of domestic heifers that value was 104.7 days with standard deviation of 79.96 days. Variability of service period was too high; actually it lasted almost two times longer in regard to the upper value of the optimal level, in imported group of heifers, which illustrate the low level of management and acclimatization problem. That expressed a significant influence on duration of the first inter-calving interval which averaged 455.1 days in the group of imported heifers and 389.3 days in the group of domestic heads.

Average duration of pregnancy was 285.06 days and age at first calving 874,6 days in imported, as well as, 283.78 and 765.4 days in the group of domestic heifers respectively. It can be concluded that imported cows with high genetic potential need a proper housing and feeding management, thus their fertility abilities were not as those recorded in the group of their peers.

Statistical difference was not determined only by comparing the pregnancy duration between two examined group of cows (P>0.05), whereas in all other cases high significant differences were obtained (P<0.001). Generally, average results regarding fertility traits are not as good as it is necessary for achieving the optimal production.

Presented results are in accordance with other authors treated this subject in cows [2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10].

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Table 1: Fertility traits of domestic and imported first calving heifers

TRAITS IMPORTED DOMESTIC SIGNIFICANCE

Age at first conception 589.54±69.81 481.64±95.62 P<0.001**

Gestation length 285.06±25.90 283.78±17.02 P>0.05ns

Age at first calving 874.6±76.36 765.4±97.63 P<0.001**

Service period 161.4±105.90 104.7±79.96 P<0.001**

Intercalving period 455.1±105.89 389.3±80.47 P<0.001**

Other authors have reported the acclimatization problem of imported cows in both

Simmental and Black&White breed in our production conditions as well [7], and in other countries [12]. Better results were determined in generation of imported cows’ daughters, produced in our conditions, in first lactation. Both, productive and reproductive traits were worse in imported group of cows, but subsequently their production potential, after an adaptation to the housing and breeding conditions, they expressed better results and finally, in some cases, exceeded their domestic peers. Our conclusion that before an import of animals, necessary housing, feeding and other conditions, must be provided can be supported by results of investigation in Slovenia [2]. In conditions where there are similar breeding cultures, differences between imported and domestic Simmental first calving cows were not recorded. Simply, in our conditions adaptation of animals lasts longer due to improper management. Our preliminary results are in accordance with previously mentioned conclusions given by Spasic [7, 8, 9] that after a period, genetic potential of imported animals can be fully expressed. This genetic potential is undoubtedly very valuable and at the end incorporates a new quality in domestic population, which justifies import process [4].

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

Obtained results emphasize the problem of acclimatization of cattle imported from other areas. Results confirm that import of more expensive animals with better genetic potential is economically justified for the breeder only when is able to provide best breeding practice and quality voluminous fodder. Overall, imports of animals is necessary, since latter productivity provides better income for farmers and, in turn, gives the possibility for better selection and improving the potential of domestic Simmental Fleckvieh population.

REFERENCES

[1]. De Vries A., Risco C. (2005): Trends and seasonality of reproductive performance in Florida and Georgia dairy herds from. J. Dairy Sci., 88: 3155-3165. [2]. Janzekovic M., Skorjanc D., Smolinger J. (2004): The influence of various origins of first calving Simmental and Black-White cows on production and content of milk. Mljekarstvo 54 (4) 275-283, 2004.

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[3]. Lalić N., Spasić Z., Milošević B., Milenkovič M., Stolić N.,: THE INFLUENCE OF DIFFERENT ORIGINS ON FERTILITY TRAITS OF FIRST CALVING SIMMENTAL COWS. Agroznanje, vol. 11., no. 4. 2010, pp 185-190. [4]. Medic D., Veselinovic S., Veselinovic Snezana, Ivancev Anica, Cupic Z. (2006): Uporedna ispitivanja osobina mlecnosti simentalskih krava domace i austrijske provenijence. Simpozijum stocarstvo i agroekonomija u trnzicionim procesima. Herceg Novi. [5]. Milosevic B., Ciric S., Spasic Z., Zoran I., Lalic N., Stolic N. 2013. Comparison of productive abilities of imported and domestic first calving simmental cows. Fourth International Conference ’’Research people and actual task on multidisciplinary sciences’’, 12-16 june 2013, Lozenec-Bulgaria, Volume 1, pp 147-150. [6]. Rege, J.E.O. & Famula, T.R., 1993. Factors affecting calving date and its relationship with production traits of Hereford dams. Anim. Prod. 57, 385. [7]. Spasic Z (1996): Varijabilnost I povezanost osobina mlecnosti i plodnosti tri generacije domacih sarenih goveda. Magistarska teza. Poljoprivredni fakultet. Beograd-Zemun. [8]. Spasic Z. (2000): Kvantitativno genetska analiza proizvodnih i reproduktivnih osobina krava u populaciji crno belih goveda. Doktorska disertacija. Poljoprivredni fakultet.Krusevac. [9]. Spasić, Z. Milosević, B. Milenković M., Stolić N. and Ilić Z. (2009): Phenotypic correlation of production and reproduction traits of cows in the population of dommestic spotted cattle. Research people and actual tasks on multidisciplinary sciences, Lozenec, Bulgaria.Proccedings, 155-161. [10]. Stojic, P. (1996): Faktori korekcije osobina mlecnosti i njihov doprinos oceni priplodne vrednosti bikova i krava. Doktorska disertacija. Poljoprivredni fakultet, Beograd. [11]. Van der Merwe, P.S. & Schoeman, S.J., (1995): Effect of early calving of Simmentaler heifers under an extensive management system. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci. 25, 36. [12]. Vasile Bă, Vasile M., Cătălin E., Livia V., Sergiu S. 2014. Research regarding reproduction parameters of cows from Simmental and Friesian body. Romanian Biotechnological Letters, Vol.19, No3, 2014.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We thank the Serbian Ministry of Science for support. Project TR-31001

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Bozidar Milosevic, Faculty of Agriculture-University of Pristina, Kopaonička bb, 38219 Lešak, Serbia. E-mail: [email protected]

Slavica Ciric, Faculty of Agriculture-University of Pristina, Kopaonička bb, 38219 Lešak, Serbia. E-mail: [email protected]

Zvonko Spasic, Faculty of Agriculture-University of Pristina, Kopaonička bb, 38219 Lešak, Serbia. E-mail: [email protected]

Zoran Ilic, Faculty of Agriculture-University of Pristina, Kopaonička bb, 38219 Lešak, Serbia. E-mail: [email protected]

Goran Maksimovic, Faculty of Agriculture-University of Pristina, Kopaonička bb, 38219 Lešak, Serbia. E-mail: [email protected]

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PROBIOTIC EFFECT ON BROILER CHICKENS PERFORMANCE

Sonja Samardzic, Božidar Milosevic, Goran Maksimovic, Slavica Ciric, Izeta

Omerovic

Abstract: Probiotics are widely considered as an alternative to in-feed antibiotics in monogastric animal’s nutrition. The paper presents results of an experiment using a probiotic preparation supplemented to the diet of fattening chickens. Chickens were divided into three groups of 50 chicks and fed diets that were balanced and differed only in the level of the probiotic.

The control group of chickens received standard diet mixture free of probiotic, while in diets of the next two groups of chickens probiotic was added and its concentration in the first mixture was 0.2% and in the second 0.4%. During the 21 days of experiment data of daily weight gain and feed consumption were collected.

Ending results of that experiment showed 3.13% and 6.23% (P<0.05) increased weight gain of two experimental groups of chickens, respectively, comparing them to the control group. Feed conversion ratio improvement of 4.14% in the first group of chickens and 5.39% in the second group, was recorded.

By summarizing the results of investigation, it is possible to determine positive effect of probiotic on the production results in fattening chickens as well as reasonableness of using it, particularly insight demand of reduction and discontinuance of using antibiotics in livestock feed.

Key words: probiotic, fattening chickens, daily weight gain, feed conversion ratio. INTRODUCTION

Probiotics are defined as a live microbial supplement, which beneficially affects the host organism by balancing its intestinal microbial ecosystem, supporting a kind of preferred balance called eubiosis [12]. Probiotic concept has been recognized for many years but there are still unclear points regarding the mode of action. Authors say that competition for adhesion receptors on the gut epithelium and production of antibacterial substances are the main mechanism of probiotic action, but in practice we can expect a very complex interaction [12]. Patogens must be able to infiltrate, remain stable, and multiply in the epithelial cells of the small intestine in order to be able for causing pathogenic effect on the host. Lactobacteria may slow down or prevent this effect by blocking epithelial binding sites, which physically protects the epithelial cells against enteropathogenic bacteria and viruses [gedek]. Moreover, probiotic microorganisms are thought to secrete amylolytic, proteolytic, lipolytic, cellulolytic and hemicellulolytic enzymes that together with the endogenous enzymes could speed up and improve digestion of nutrients, which in turn, could cause improvement in the overall performance of the birds [1].

The removal of growth-promoting antibiotics from farm animal feeds increased attention on the use of live microbial cultures as growth promoting agents So far, the frequently used microorganisms in probiotics are strains of lactic acid producing bacteria having specificity of adhering to the intestinal epithelium. In addition to lactic acid bacteria, other microbial products that contain Bacillus, yeasts, Aspergillus oryzae, and other constituents are also introduced as probiotics [11].

There are many scientific papers presenting a positive effect of probiotics on growth rate and feed conversion [6, 8, 9, 10, 14, 20, 21]. Other authors presented an enhanced immune response and better health of animals fed probiotic supplemented diets [8, 16, 22, 23, 24].

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The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of added probiotic preparation Paciflor C-10, applied in three different dosages, on production results of piglets in the period after weaning during the first days of weaning and its effect of later performances.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The research was conducted on 150 Hybro broiler chickens. The influence of probiotic added to comercial mixtures was determined on the basis of body weight, daily weight gain, and feed consumption for kg growth. On the first day of the experiment animals were weighed and divided into three groups. Throughout the 21 days of the experiment animals were kept on floor under identical microclimatic condition, suited to that category of animals. Composition of experimental mixture is given in Table1.

Table 1. Composition of feed mixtures used in the trial Feed constituent AmountMaize 57.30Soybean meal 21.00Sunflower buckshot 8.00Fish meal 4.00Alfa alfa meal 3.00Bone meal 1.00Limestone 1.00 Yeast 1.00Oil 1.50Dicalcium phosphate 1. 00Salt 0. 20Premix 1.00

During the trial all groups consumed one standard feed mixture of identical chemical

composition and nutritive value with differences only in addition of probiotic. Diet mixtures of experimental groups contained probiotic Acid Pak 4 Way in concentration 0,2% and 0,4%. Data were obtained as average values and given in the table. Results of body weight and daily weight gain were subjected to statistical analysis [4]. The mean values were processed with analysis of variances. The significance of differences was assessed by Tukey test.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The body weight of all chickens was checked 1st day of the trial, and after 21 days (termination of the trial). Table 2 presents observed parameters.

Body weight of chickens at the end of the experiment was higher in groups fed diet enriched with probiotic. In comparison with the control group, addition of probiotic 0,2% increased body weight for 5.67%, while in the second group fed diet with 0,4% of probiotic body weight has been increased for 6,34%.

Difference was not statistically significant (P>0,05). Weight gain was numerically increased, as well, and it was better for 3,13 and 6,23%, respectively, but without significance in the first group of chickens (P>0,05), and significance in the second group (P<0,05). Feed consumption was higher in the experimental group; nevertheless at the end of experiment feed conversion coefficient was better in experimental groups for 4,14 and 5,39%.

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Table 2. Average values of body weight, daily weight gain, feed consumption and conversion

GROUP CONTROL O1 O2 Probiotik - 0.05% 0,01%

Starting body weight, kg 45.22±2.05 44.96±2.03 45.51±1.88 F=0.955Index, % 100 99.42 100.64 P=0.387

Final body weight, kg 655.6±67.41 *692.8±61.60 *697.2±70.71 F=5.873Index, % 100 105.67 106.34 P=0.004

Daily weight gain, kg 30.01±3.03 30.95±3.45 *31.88±3.19 F=4.185Indeks, % 100 103.13 106.23 P=0.017

Daily consumption, kg 52.83 52.35 53.13 Index, % 100 99.09 100.57 Feed conversion, kg 1.763 1.690 1.668 Index, % 100 95.86 94.61 *Statistically significant P<0.05

Our previous investigations at the same farm, with application of the same probiotic in

two different concentrations [17, 18], but applied for 42 days, showed lower response of chickens regarding the weight gain and feed conversion in the period between 21 and 42 days. In these trials increased amount of probiotic in diets did not exert better influence on production abilities in the second period of the trial.

Our results showed positive effect of the probiotic on the production results of fattening chickens that was in accordance with the results of other authors [6, 8, 9, 10, 14, 20, 21]. Obviously, during the time and period of crisis with variable feed quality and poorer breeding conditions, it was noticeable better animal response to probiotic addition. Observing elaborated results and considering the production costs and efficiency we can conclude that probiotic application in shorter period can be a good choice for prevention of enteric diseases and stimulating growth of chickens during the high stress periods, such as temperature stress or bad hygienic conditions. However, we confirmed [17, 18, 19] Hillman’s statement [15] of the need for right adaptation of probiotics to the specific conditions on the farm in order to achieve the best response.

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

Probiotics as an alternative to antibiotics in animal diets are subject of intensive investigation worldwide. Increased awareness regarding problems associated with antibiotics, animal protein sources and environmental pollution are the main reason for alternative, environmentally friendly approach. Probiotics as live microbial cultures offer good choice for antibiotic substitution in animal feeds, especially non-ruminants usually subject of intensive production. The research showed positive effect of probiotic Acid Pack 4 Way on production results of broiler chickens and can be considered for application for shorter periods, especially during the stress periods.

REFERENCES

[1]. Altaf-ur-Rahman, Mohsin Ali, Shoaib Sultan, Nazir Ahmad. 2007. Effect of dietary probiotic supplementation on performance of broilers. Sarhad J. Agric. Vol. 23, No. 2, 2007.

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[2]. Alvares, L. C., E. M. Barrera and E. A. Gonzales, 1994. Evaluation of growth promoters for broiler chickens. Veterinary (Mexico), 25: 141-144. [3]. Apajalahti, J., A. Kettunen, and H. Graham, 2004. Characteristics of the gastrointestinal microbial communities, with special reference to the chicken. World's Poultry Science Journal, 60: 223-232. [4]. Ayed, M.H., Z. Laamari, and B. Rekik, 2004. Effects of incorporating an antibiotic "Avilamycin" and a probiotic "Activis" in broiler diets. Proceedings, Western Section, American Society of Animal Science, 55: 237-240. [5]. Baidya, N., L. Mandal, and G. C. Banerjee, 1993. Efficiency of feeding antibiotics and probiotics in broilers. Journal of Veterinary and Animal Science, 24: 120-124. [6]. Chiang, S. H. and W. M. Hsien, 1995. Effect of direct-fed microorganisms on broiler growth performance and litter ammonia level. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences, 8: 159-162. [7]. Denev, S. A., 1997. Probiotics - Present and Future. In: S.A. Denev (Editor). Proceedings of the First Alltech's Research Seminar "Biotechnology in the Feed Industry", 4th March, Sofia, Bulgaria, pp. 67-78. [8]. Denev, S. A., 2000: Role of Lactobacilli in Human and Animal Health. Animal Science Journal, 71 (6): 549-562. (Jp). [9]. Denev, S. A., 2003. Role of Lactobacilli in Gastrointestinal Ecosystem. In: A. Galabov (Editor). Proceedings of Tenth Congress of the Bulgarian Microbiologists, Plovdiv, October 9-12, Bulgaria, pp. 75-76. [10]. Edens, F. W. 2003. An alternative for antibiotic use in poultry: probiotics. Revista Brasiliera de Ciencia Avicola, 5 (2): 56-80. [11]. Fox M. Steven. Probiotics Intestinal inoculants for productions animals. Veterynary medicine, august, 806-820. [12]. Fuller R. 1992. Probiotics. The scientific basis. Chapman&Hall, London. [13]. Gedek Brigite 1987. Probiotics in Animals Feeding-Efects on Performance and Animal Health. Feed Magazine Inetrnational, November. [14]. Georgieva, V., S. A. Denev, and B. Marinov, 2000: Effect of some probiotic and nutritive means on chicken broiler productivity. Animal Science, 3: 19-23 (Bg). [15]. Hillman, K., Murdoch, TA, Spencer, RJ. And Stewart, C.S. 1995. Inhibition of enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli by the microflora of the porcine ileum, in an in vitro semicontiimous kulture system, Journal of Applied Bacteriology 76; 294-300. [16]. Maassen, C. B., C. Van Holten-Neelen, F. Balk, M.J. Glashouwer, L.J. Leer, J. D. Laman, W. J. Boersma, and E. Claassen, 2000. Strain-dependent induction of cytokine profiles in the gut by orally administered Lactobacillus strains. Vaccine, 18: 2613-2623. [17]. Milošević B., Milenković M., Radovanović T., Ilić Z., Spasić Z. 2005: Efekat dodatog probiotika obrocima tovnih pilića na njihove proizvodne sposobnosti. Agroznanje, vol. 6., br. 2 str. 59.-66. (2005) [18]. Milošević B., Milenković M., Stolić N., Radovanović T., Jašović B. 2002. Alternatives to antibiotics in the nutrition of nonruminants. An International Symposium on Agriculture and the Development. Proceedings, 82-86, Vrnjačka Banja, 2002. [19]. Milošević B., Milenković M., Stolić N., RadovanovićT. 2002. The effect of probiotic addition in the meals of weaned piglets on their producing abilities. Scientific Symposium of Agronomists of the R.S. with international participation. Teslić, 2002. Agroznanje, Vol. 4, nr.1, 30-38. Banja Luka, 2003. [20]. Simon, O., 2003. Probiotics in poultry production. Proceedings of International Seminar "Role of Probiotics in Animal Nutrition and their Link to the Demands of European Consumers, February 11, Lelystad, The Netherlands, pp. 1-6.

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[21]. Skinner, J., 2003. Raising poultry without antibiotics. Proceedings of Midwest Poultry Federation Convention, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA, March 18-20, pp. 1-4. [22]. Sotirov, L., S. A. Denev, I. Tsachev, M. Lalev, M. Oblakova, 2001. Effect of different growth promoters on lysozyme and compliment activity. II. Studing in turkeys. Revue de Medicine Veterinary, 152, (1): 67-70. [23]. Sotirov, L., S. A. Denev, V. Georgieva, 2000. Effect of different growth promoters on lysozyme and compliment activity of broiler Chicks. Bulgarian Journal of Agriculture Science, 6: 75-82. [24]. Vitini, E., S. Alvares, M. Medina, M. Medici, M. V. Budeguer, and G. Perdigon, 2000. Gut mucosal immunostimulation by lactic acid bacteria. Biocell, 24:223-232.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Sonja Samardzic, University of Pristina, Faculty of Agriculture, 38219 Lesak, Kopaonicka B.B., E-mail: [email protected]

Bozidar Milosevic, University of Pristina, Faculty of Agriculture, 38219 Lesak, Kopaonicka B.B., E-mail: [email protected]

Goran Maksimovic, University of Pristina, Faculty of Agriculture, 38219 Lesak, Kopaonicka B.B., E-mail: [email protected]

Slavica Ciric, University of Pristina, Faculty of Agriculture, 38219 Lesak, Kopaonicka B.B., E-mail: [email protected]

Izeta Omerovic, State University of Novi Pazar, 36300 Novi Pazar, Vuka Karadzica B.B., E-mail: [email protected]

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THE EFFECTS OF ENZYME SUPPLEMENTATION ON ECONOMICALLY

IMPORTANT CARCASS TRAITS OF BROILERS FED ON CORN-SOYBEAN MEAL DIETS

Sonja Samardzic, Bozidar Milosevic, Goran Maksimovic, Ljubisa Djordjevic

Abstract: Two hundred Cobb 500 chickens were used as a material in the study. Animals were

divided into four groups, control and three experimental groups fed with three different levels of enzyme cocktail (0,05, 0,1 и 0,15%) for 42 days. Diets were formulated to meet nutrient requirements of this chicken category with no differences regarding the content of energy and proteins.

At the end of the experimental feeding period 10 broilers from each group were taken for analysis of slaughter carcass parameters. Cutting and determination of the dressing percentage was done according to present regulations on determination of the carcass quality. From each carcass breast part, drumstick, thighs and abdominal fat were separated, weighed and statistically evaluated as a percent of carcass.

As a result, it was concluded that the supplementation of an enzyme cocktail in all concentrations applied did not significantly influence the composition of broiler carcasses in the trial. Higher concentrations of 0.1 and 0.15% of the cocktail increased the amount of abdominal fat, while the rest of examined parts stayed within the range of average values.

Key words: broiler, enzymes, carcass, breast, drumstick, abdominal fat. INTRODUCTION

The purpose of enzymes incorporation into the mixtures for broiler chickens nutrition is to increase the efficiency of production of poultry meat. The most common application of exogenous enzymes is in the feeding of the broiler chickens [15].

This is particularly important when enzymes are used in order to better utilize feeds of lower nutritive value. Feed enzymes are produced from microorganisms by a process of fermentation and extraction. The enzyme products often express multiple effects.

Effects of enzymes incorporation into the feed mixtures include digestion of feed components that cannot be hydrolyzed by endogenous enzymes, removal of anti-nutritional factors and improvement in utilization of the feed [1, 3, 16, 7].

Numerous authors have established that by application of enzymes production performances can be improved [6, 7], while some other researchers have not [12,14,10]. It can be concluded that effect of additives depends on the level and feed components quality included into the mixture, level and type of enzymes, as well as on farm conditions [11].

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Two hundred Cobb 500 chickens were used as a material in the study. Animals were divided into four groups, control (K) and three experimental groups (E1, E2 and E3) fed with three different levels of an enzyme cocktail called Allzyme Vegpro, a mixture of protease, cellulase, pentosanase, alpha galactosidase and amylase (0,05, 0,1 и 0,15%) for 42 days.

Diets were formulated to meet nutrient requirements of this chicken category with no differences regarding the content of energy and proteins (Table 1).

At the end of the experimental feeding period 10 broilers from each group were taken for analysis of slaughter carcass parameters. Cutting and determination of the dressing percentage was done according to present regulations on determination of the carcass quality. From each carcass breast part, drumstick, thighs and abdominal fat were separated, weighed and statistically evaluated as a percent of carcass.

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Table 1. Content of diet mixtures used in the experiment

Component

DIET MIXTURES

Starter %

Finisher %

Corn 62,00 68.5 Soybean meal 19,00 10,00 Fish meal 6,00 6,00 Sunflower meal 9,00 12,00 Limestone 1,50 1,00 Dicalcium phosphate 1,00 1,00 Salt 0,50 0,50 Premix 1,00 1,00 Total 100 100

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In general, enzyme supplementation improved productive performance of birds fed corn-soybean based diets. At the end of the trial, birds fed the enzyme-supplemented diets expressed better productive results, but regarding the dressing percentage (Table 2) significant differences were not found (P>0.05). Values of dressing percentage ranged from 68.07 to 69.01.

Table 2. Share of breasts in carcass (%)

GROUP DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

Sd Sg C.V. Index %

K 68.867 1.556 0.492 2.260 100.000

E1 69.013 1.919 0.607 2.781 100.212

E2 68.073 1.435 0.454 2.108 98.847

E3 68.539 1.507 0.476 2.198 99.523

The inclusion of the enzyme did not (P>0.05) affect the relative weights of the

drumsticks and thighs of all experimental birds, no matter of enzyme concentration in diets.

Inclusion of enzyme in broiler diets at three levels had no significant effect on dressed percentage, breast, drumsticks and thighs relative share, which was in agreement with findings of Biswas et al. [4] and Arash [2] reported that carcass yield was similar among enzyme treated and non-treated diets.

However, Hajati [9] reported that enzyme supplementation increased carcass percentage and thighs percentage did not affect breast, wings, heart, liver, proventriculus and gizzard percentages.

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Table 3. Share of drumsticks and thighs in carcass (%)

GROUP DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

Sd Sg C.V. Index %

K 30.30 2.13 0.67 7.02 100.00

E1 29.05 1.48 0.47 5.10 95.88

E2 29.95 1.44 0.46 4.81 98.85

E3 29.36 1.55 0.49 5.28 96.90

Irrespective of enzyme supplementation, no differences were found in the abdominal fat percentage. Analysis showed that the highest content of abdominal fat was measured in birds fed the enzyme-supplemented diet in the all experimental groups. The highest abdominal fat content, significantly different in comparison with the control group of chickens, was recorded in the group of chickens consuming diet with an enzyme supplementation at the level of 0.15% (P=0.017).

Table 4. Share of abdominal fat in carcass (%)

GROUP DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

Sd Sg C.V. Index %

K 2.94 0.07 0.02 2.44 100.00

E1 2.98 0.10 0.03 3.19 101.56

E2 3.01 0.09 0.03 2.82 102.65

E3 3.07* 0.10 0.03 3.25 104.42

* P<0.05

The use of feed enzymes has in some experiments improved broiler performance [13, 18]. Similarly, Saleh et al. [15], found significant relationship between enzyme supplementation of broiler diets and meat composition and abdominal fat level. Contrary to our results they reported slight decrease of abdominal fat percentage, however other studies Café et al. [5] confirmed our results, which confirm that effect of additives depends on the level and feed components quality included into the mixture, level and type of enzymes, as well as on farm conditions [11].

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

The study showed that dietary addition of an enzymatic complex had no effect on broiler carcass traits. Abdominal fat, expressed as percentage of the carcass, was increased by Allzyme supplementation, which suggests that birds fed the diets supplemented with enzymes obtained a greater amount of net energy from their diets. However, more research is needed to support these findings, with precise analysis of feed components, together with an analysis of exact farm conditions.

REFERENCES

[1]. Annison, G., and M. Choct, 1991. Antinutritive activities of cereal non-starch polysaccharides in broiler diets and strategies for minimizing their effects. World's Poultry Sci. 47:232–242. z

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[2]. Arash A. 2013. Effect of hemicell enzyme on the performance, growth parameter, some blood factors and ileal digestibility of broiler chickens fed corn/soybean-based diets. Journal of Cell and Animal Biology Vol. 7(7), pp. 85-91. [3]. Bedford, M. R., and H. Schulze, 1998. Exogenous enzymes for pigs and Poultry (Review). Nutr. Res. Rev. 11:91-114. [4]. Biswas T, Mandal L, Sarker SK. 1999. Studies of enzymes supplementation and herbal preparation at different levels of energy on the performance of broilers. J. Interacademic 3: 53-58. [5]. Café M.B., Borges C.A., Frits C.A., Waldroup P.W. 2002. Avizyme improves performance of broilers fed corn-soybean meal-based diets. J. Appl. Poultry Res., 2002, 11, 29-33. [6]. Cmiljanić R., Sretenovič LJ., Trenkovski S., Marinkov G. 2001. Systems of poultry nutrition and their effect on production traits and quality of product. Biotechnology in Animal Husbandry, Vol.17 (5-6) 179-185. [7]. Cowieson, A. J., M. R. Bedford, and V. Ravindran. 2010. Interactions between xylanase and glucanase in maize-soy-based diets for broilers. Br. Poult. Sci. 51:246–257 [8]. Dudley-Cash, W. A., 2001. Soybean meal source, added enzyme affect nutritional value for chicks. Feedstuffs 73:41. [9]. Hajati H. 2010. Effects of Enzyme Supplementation on Performance, Carcass characteristics, Carcass Composition and Some Blood Parameters of Broiler Chicken. Am. J. Anim. Vet. Sci. 5 (3): 221-227. [10]. Iji, P.A., Khumalo, S. Slippers, R.M. Gous, (2003): Intestinal function and body growth of broiler chickens on diets based on maize at different temperatures and supplemented with a microbial enzyme. Repr. Nutr. Dev., 43: 77-90. [11]. Lalić N., Milošević B., Spasić Z., Jašović B. 2013. Efekti korišćenja enzima u tovu pilića na proizvodne rezultate. XVII Savetovanje o biotehnologiji. Zbornik radova, vol 18(20), 439-443. [12]. Mcnab, J.M., Bernard, K. (1997): The effect of proteases (Vegpro) on the true metabolisable energy (TMEn) and true digestibility of amino acids in soybean meal. Poultry Science, 76, 1, 133. [13]. Osek M., Janocha A., Klocek B., Wasiłowski Z., Milczarek A. 2003. The influence of different content of naked oat in plant feed on performance and post- slaughter value of broiler chicken. Ann. Anim. Sci., Suppl. 2003, 2, 205-208. [14]. Perić L., Kovčin S., Stanaćev V., Milošević N. 2002. Effect of enzymes on broiler chick performance. Buletinul USAMV, Vol. 57, 245-249,Cluj-Napoca, Romania. [15]. Saleh F., Tahir M., Ohtsuka A., Hayashi K. 2005. A mixture pure cellulase, hemicellulase and pectinase improves broiler performance. Brit. Poultry Sci., 2005, 46, 602-606. [16]. Sheppy, C., 2001. The current feed enzyme market and likely trents. In: M. R. Bedford and G. G. Partridge. Enzymes in Farm Animal Nutrititon. CABI Publishing, pp. 1- 10. [17]. Simon, O., 1998. The mode of action of NSP hydrolyzing enzymes in the gastrointestinal tract. J. Anim. Feed Sci. 7:115-123. [18]. Szymczyk B., Hanczakowski P., Szczurek W. 2005. Performance and intestinal viscosity in broilers fed diets containing dehulled or naked oats and enzymes. J. Anim. Feed Sci., 2005, 14, 1, 491-494.

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Sonja Samardzic, University of Pristina, Faculty of Agriculture, 38219 Lesak, Kopaonicka B.B., E-mail: [email protected]

Bozidar Milosevic, University of Pristina, Faculty of Agriculture, 38219 Lesak, Kopaonicka B.B., E-mail: [email protected]

Goran Maksimovic, University of Pristina, Faculty of Agriculture, 38219 Lesak, Kopaonicka B.B., E-mail: [email protected]

Lljubisa Djordjevic, University of Pristina, Faculty of Agriculture, 38219 Lesak, Kopaonicka B.B., E-mail: [email protected]

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LOSSES IN ALFALFA MOWING PROCESS PERFORMED BY

OSCILLATORY AND ROTARY MOWER

Vuković,A., Barać,S., Bojana Milenković, Aksić,M., Gudžić,N.

Abstract: This study summarizes results of three-year long research performed on oscillatory mower with classic cutting apparatus IMT 627.667 and rotary mower with two drums PÖTTINGER CAT 185, with the special attention paid to losses made during the alfalfa mowing process. The initial study assumption was that the optimal alfalfa incision height is 6 cm. Average total losses caused by the oscillatory mower were 1.25% of yield. Average total losses of the rotary mower were 3.04% of yield.

Key words: mower, incision height, losses. INTRODUCTION Alfalfa is one of the most important fodder crops in Serbia. The greatest dilemma in

alfalfa production is how to achieve optimal ration between yields and quality of green fodder feed and hay (Orlaf, Putnam, 2004). Period of alfalfa exploitation, yield and quality fodder feed mainly depend upon number of mowing during vegetation period (Kallenbach еt al., 2002; Nagy, 2003; Veronesi et al., 2006). Timing of mowing in certain stages of growth affects the yield and hay quality. Mowing in later stages (full blooming) gives greater yield, but poorer quality (Lloveras, 2001). During two-year long research (Dubljević, Mitrović, 2013) it was found that number of swaths and phenol phase of mowing have great impact on yields and nutritious values of alfalfa hay. The mowing is the first technical operation performed in the scope of quality alfalfa hay preparation technology. Alfalfa mowing should be done on height of 2 inches (5.08 cm) (Wiersma, Wiederholt, 2001). Losses of the classic mowing apparatus were 1.54%of yield. Average incision height for the classic mower was 6.42 cm, (Zoranović, Potkonjak, 1996). During study of the oscillatory mower with classic cutting apparatus and rotary mower with two drums made by Barać et al., 2012, it was said that total losses caused by oscillatory mower ranged from 1.12 to 1.64% of yields, average 1.31%, whereas losses caused by the rotary cutting mower ranged from 3.09% to 3.50%, average 3.25%. Potkonjak et al., 2009, stated that the maximum working speed of the studied oscillatory mower was 8.82 km h-1. Average loss made by oscillatory mower was 1.27% of yield.

MATERIAL AND METHODS This study summarizes results of three-year long research of losses made by

oscillatory mower with classic cutting apparatus IMT 627.667 and rotary mower with two drums PÖTTINGER CAT 185, made during the alfalfa mowing process and hay preparation. The researches were made on the private estate of Aleksandar Mršić in village of Mačkovac (430 33' 33''N; 210 12' 53''Е) in immediate vicinity of the Institute for Fodder plants Kruševac, in the alfalfa age of five and six. Researches were made in three-mowing system under dry farming conditions (without irrigation) in stage of full blooming. The average yield in the first year of research was 4.5 t ha-1, in the second 4.3 t ha-1,and in the third 4.6 t ha-1. Green mass yield was determined based on measuring the alfalfa mass taken from one meter of swath length per hectare. Exploitation parameters for each type of studied mower were measured at the same time (mowing speed, incision height, swath width, losses while mowing). Mowers speed was determined by chronometer method based on distance travelled per unit of time. Work quality was determined based on working swath width, stem incision height and losses while mowing, with assumption that the optimal alfalfa incision height is 6 cm. Stem incision height was determined on the

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spot where the losses were determined for each probe (three repetitions per probe) on appropriate surface by measuring the height of all stubbles. The average was determined for each probe according to the obtained parameters. The losses made while mowing were calculated per surface of one meter swath and working swath width of the tested mowers on the spot where the stem incision height was defined. The total losses represent sum of losses caused by incision height and crushing losses. The losses were determined according to the three probes, with three tests per each probe.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Constructive width of the working swath of the tested mowers cannot be achieved.

The utilization of the working swath is expressed by coefficient of utilization β. Average value of the working swath coefficient of utilization for the three year period for the oscillatory mower was 0.95, and 0.94 for the rotary mower (table 1).

Table 1 Working swath of the tested mowers, (m)

Type of mower

Working Swath

Research year Average

2011 2012 2013 Oscillatory Constructive 1.60

mower Achieved 1.51 1.52 1.54 1.52 β 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.95

Rotary Constructive 1.85 mower Achieved 1.75 1.74 1.73 1.74

β 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.94 β – working swath coefficient of utilization

Table 2

Stem incision height at the tested mowers Type of mower

Parameter Research

year

Average

2011 2012 2013

Oscillatory Cutting height,

(cm) 6.27 6.32 6.63 6.41

mower Moving speed (km h-1)

5.87 5.92 6.11 5.97

Rotary Cutting height,

(cm) 5.95 6.00 5.94 5.96

mower Moving speed (km h-1)

9.69 9.67 9.65 9.68

Stem incision height affects the losses made during the alfalfa mowing. As the moving speed of the mower increases, the stem incision height also increases. Oscillatory mower made an average stem incision height of 6.41 cm at the average moving speed of 5.97 km h-1, (table 2). Rotary mower had average stem incision height of 5.96 cm at the average moving speed of 9.68 km h-1, (table 2). Allowed maximum value of total losses is 5% of yield. The average oscillatory mower incision height losses were 0.85% of yield (table 5), at the average moving speed of 5.97 km h-1 (table 2). Different to the incision height losses, the normal values of crushing losses caused by the oscillatory mower decrease as the moving speed increases.

Table 3

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Oscillatory mower losses IMT 627.667 with classic cutting apparatus (% of yields) Research

Year Type of losses

T e s t

Average

1 2 3 Gvr 0.58 0.70 1.23 0.84

2011 Gus 0.45 0.39 0.33 0.39 Gu 1.03 1.09 1.56 1.23 Gvr 0.56 0.71 1.27 0.85

2012 Gus 0.46 0.40 0.33 0.40 Gu 1.02 1.11 1.60 1.25 Gvr 0.58 0.72 1.28 0.86

2013 Gus 0.48 0.42 0.35 0.42 Gu 1.06 1.14 1.63 1.28

Gvr – incision height losses; Gus – crushing losses; Gu – total losses;

Table 4 Rotary mower losses PÖTTINGER CAT 185 with two drums (% of yield)

Research year

Type of losses

T e s t

Average

1 2 3 Gvr 0.98 1.25 1.47 1.23

2011 Gus 2.24 1.83 1.52 1.86 Gu 3.22 3.08 2.99 3.10 Gvr 0.92 1.18 1.35 1.15

2012 Gus 2.35 1.82 1.47 1.88 Gu 3.27 3.00 2.82 3.03 Gvr 0.94 1.15 1.38 1.16

2013 Gus 2.31 1.75 1.42 1.83 Gu 3.25 2.90 2.80 2.99

Gvr – incision height losses; Gus – crushing losses; Gu – total losses; The average crushing losses caused by the oscillatory mower were 0.40% of yield

(table 5) at the average moving speed of 5.97 km h-1 (table 2). Summing incision height losses (Gvr) and crushing losses (Gus) gives the total losses (Gu) of the oscillatory mower which averagely were 1.25% of yield (table 5) over three years of research. The average rotary mower incision height losses were 1.18% of yields (table 5), at the average moving speed of 9.68 km h-1 (table 2). The average crushing losses caused by the rotary mower were 1.86% of yield (table 5) at the average moving speed of 9.68 km h-1 (table 2). The total losses (Gu) of the rotary mower which averagely were 3.04% of yield (table 5) over three years of research.

Table 5

Losses of the tested mowers, (% of yield) Type of mower

Type of losses

Research year

Average

2011 2012 2013 Oscillatory Gvr 0.84 0.85 0.86 0.85

mower Gus 0.39 0.40 0.42 0.40 Gu 1.23 1.25 1.28 1.25

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Rotary Gvr 1.23 1.15 1.16 1.18 mower Gus 1.86 1.88 1.83 1.86

Gu 3.10 3.03 2.99 3.04

The presented results of our research are in conformity with research results made by Jugovića et al. (2013), who tested the rotary mower with two drums RK 135 and found that the lowest incision height of 5.15 cm was made at the moving speed of 5.89 km h-1, whereas the highest incision was 6.50 cm at the speed of 9.29 km h-1. The same authors state that the incision height losses caused by classic mower were 2.65%, whereas the crushing losses are decreased as the moving speed increased from 1.06% to 0.82%.

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK By comparing results of three year long test, it may be concluded that the oscillatory

mower had average loss of 1.25% of yield. Total average losses of rotary mower were significantly higher and were 3.04%. High losses caused by the rotary mower are consequence of high crushing losses, but it may be concluded that the detected losses of the oscillatory and rotary mowers are within optimal values. Optimal stem incision height during the alfalfa mowing was 6 cm. Having it in mind, the oscillatory mower had average incision height of 6.41 cm at the average moving speed of 5.97 km h-1. Rotary mower had average incision height of 5.96% of yield at the average moving speed of 9.68 km h-1. Due to that fact and based on the obtained results, the optimal moving speed for oscillatory mower with classis cutting apparatus of 5 to 6 km h-1 is recommended. Moving speed of 10 – 11 km h-1 is recommended as the optimal speed for rotary mowers with drums.

REFERENCES [1]. Barać, S.,Vuković, A., Biberdžić, M., Koprivica, R. (2012): Mowers research

results for alfalfa mowing in agro ecological conditions in the Northern Kosovo and Metohija. XVII Consulting on biotechnology with international participation, Collection of works, Vol. 17. (19), 161-165. Čačak.

[2]. Dubljević, R., Mitrović, D.(2013): Influence of development phase on production characteristics of licerne in Zetsko – Bjelopavlićka valley,s agro-environmental conditions, Agriculture and Forestry, Vol. 59, Issue 3: 175-181, Podgorica.

[3]. Jugovic, M., Radivojevic, D., Koprivica, R., Gordana Sekularac, Tanja Jakisic, Lalovic, M. (2013): Quality of rotary mower SIP RK 135 mowing process in mountainous area, IV International Symposium “ Agrosym 2013”. [4]. Kallenbach, L., Nelson C. J.& Coutts J. H. (2002): Yield, quality, and persistence of grazing-and hay type alfalfa under three harvest frequencies. Agronomy Journal 94, 1094-1103.

[5]. Lloveras, J. (2001): Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) management for irrigated Mediterranean conditions:The case of the Ebra Valley. Options Seminares

Mediteraneanes. Zaragoza, 12-15 September, 45: 115-125. [6]. Nagy B. (2003): Breeding for Persistence of Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.)

Varieties. Czech Journal Genet. and Plant Breed. 39, p. 282-284. [7]. Orloff, S. & Putnam, D. (2004): Balancing Yield, Quality and Persistence.

Proceedings of National Alfalfa Symposium, 13-15 December, 2004, San Diego. [8]. Potkonjak, V., Zoranović, M, Anđelković, S. (2009): Exploitation characteristics of

various mower types for alfalfa mowing, Contemporary Agricultural technics, vol. 35, number 1-2, 73-78, Novi Sad.

[9]. Wiersma D., Wiederholt, R.(2001.): Alfalfa cutting height to maximize forage yield and quality. Proceedings 2001. University of Wisconsin, USA. [10]. Veronesi, F., Huyghe, C. & Delgado, I. (2006): Lucerne breeding in Europe:

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Results and research strategies for future developments. Proceedings of the 21th General Meeting of the European Grassland Federation Badajoz, Spain. Grassland Science in Europe. 11,p. 235-242.

[11]. Zoranović, M., Potkonjak, V. (1996): Exploitation characteristics of mowers for alfalfa mowing, Contemporary Agricultural technics, vol. 22, number 5, 266-272, Novi Sad.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS A. Vukovic, Faculty of Agriculture Kosovska Mitrovica – Lesak, Street Kopaonicka bb,

38219 Lesak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected] S. Barac, Faculty of Agriculture Kosovska Mitrovica – Lesak, Street Kopaonicka bb,

38219 Lesak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected] Bojana Milenkovic, Faculty of Agriculture Kosovska Mitrovica – Lesak, Street

Kopaonicka bb, 38219 Lesak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected] M. Aksic, Faculty of Agriculture Kosovska Mitrovica – Lesak, Street Kopaonicka bb,

38219 Lesak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected] N. Gudzic, Faculty of Agriculture Kosovska Mitrovica – Lesak, Street Kopaonicka bb,

38219 Lesak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

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INFLUENCE OF ARBUSCULAR MYCORRHIZAL FUNGI

CONSORTIUM ON TAGETES SP. ORNAMENTAL PLANTS IN VARIOUS NUTRITIONAL CONDITIONS

B. Schmidt and I. Samfira

Abstract: In this experiment we evaluated the capacity of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungal inocula

to affect P utilization and plant physiological responses under variable concentrations (0.125, 0.25 and 0.5 mM) of P substrates of variable solubility (monopotassium phosphate, KH2PO4, monocalcium phosphate, Ca(H2PO4)2 and tricalcium phosphate, Ca3(PO4)2). Experiments were carried out in a two-factorial pot experiment. Tagetes patula L. plants were grown in hydroponic systems. Measured traits included fresh biomass, leaf area, chlorophyll content of leaves and dry matter content. Plants were also assesses for mycorrhization (intensity of colonization and arbuscular richness). When plants were supplemented with highly soluble potassium dihydrogen or monocalcium phosphate immediately after germination, mycorrhization did not have measurable effects, as described by the tested biometric parameters. Mycorrhization had a measurable effect on the same parameters if P was supplied as a less soluble form, tricalcium phosphate. AM infectivity and low-solubility P are linked in a positive feedback loop, whereby lower P availability enhances mycorrhization, which in turn enhance P bioavailability.

Acknowledgements: This paper was published under the frame of European Social Fund, Human Resources Development Operational Programme 2007-2013, project no. POSDRU/159/1.5/S/132765.

Key words: Plants, Thermal Comfort in Buildings. INTRODUCTION The arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) is the most ancient type of mycorrhizal relationships

[8]. Also AM is the most widespread type of known symbiosis in the Plantae regnum with a few exceptions [5].

AM fungi are ecologically important by increasing plants’ chances for survival under adverse environmental conditions by increasing their tolerance to diseases and pests [4] and to drought [3]. The AM fungi, due to their symbiotic “flexibility” can positively enhance the functionality of host plants in nutrient-poor environments, and even in polluted conditions [6].

Phosphorus is a critical macroelement, indispensable for plants growth and development through the biosynthesis of essential organic compounds such as nucleic acids, phospholipids, and adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Although most agricultural soils have large amounts of total P most of it is immobilized in precipitate form or fixed in organic forms and therefore mostly unavailable. Hence, only very little of the total P is available to plants, and many soils are actually P deficient [2]. The mycorrhizal fungi can improve the utility of hardly soluble phosphate compounds, which emphasizes the plant-microbe symbiosis.

The present study, a two-factorial pot experiment, evaluates the influence of phosphate types on the physiological features of the host plants by comparing developmental parameters of plants inoculated or not with AM fungi. Thus a first factor was the absence or presence of the inoculation and a second factor was the concentration of the phosphate. The same experiment was repeated for three types of phosphates, KH2PO4, Ca(H2PO4)2 and Ca3(PO4)2, at different concentrations.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A hydroponic pot culture of marigold plants was established (Tagetes patula L., CNOS-VILMORIN, Poland) on a perlite substrate. The basic nutrient solution consisted in a modified Hoagland’s solution. For every test condition different sources of phosphorous were used in the Hoagland’s nutrient solution: either a highly soluble phosphate as control

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(KH2PO4), a less water-soluble phosphate source (Ca(H2PO4)2), or a source of water-insoluble phosphorus and thus practically insoluble for non-mycorrhized plants (Ca3(PO4)2). Each of these P substrates was tested at different concentrations: 0.125, 0.25 and 0.5 mM. As AM inoculum we used the INOQ Top commercial inoculum (INOQ Gmbh, Germany), which contains three fungal species, Glomus etunicatum (Becker & Gerdemann), Glomus intraradices (Schenck & Smith), Glomus claroideum (Schenck & Smith). Half of all pots for every treatment were inoculated with AM fungi, to assess the effect of the mycorrhizae on the development of host plant. Plants of Tagetes patula L. were grown for 3 months in 1 liter pots filled with perlite, in greenhouse. The temperature varied from a daily temperature of 25°C to a nightly temperature of 18°C. A photoperiod of 16/8 (day/night) hours was used. Each treatment had 10 plants.

For the infection assay root segments were stained with aniline blue [10] and investigated under a light microscope. The degree of root colonization and assessment of mycorrhizal richness were evaluated at flowering [9]. For each treatment, four plants were chosen as repeats for measuring the physiological indexes. At the end of the experiment, we measured the fresh biomass, leaf area, chlorophyll content and dry matter content of leaves. Data were analyzed by analysis of variance (ANOVA).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

For both KH2PO4 and Ca3(PO4)2 treatments the arbuscular mycorrhizal inoculation was associated with a statistically significant increase in total chlorophyll content (averaging 4% and respectively 36%, Table 1). This results are significant considering that Ca3(PO4)2 is practically insoluble and inaccessible to non-mycorrhized plants (Table 1).

Table 1 Total chlorophyll content (mean ± standard error) of the leaves of Tagetes patula L. ornamental plants, influenced by

different phosphate compounds and mycorrhizal fungi (AM). LSD – least significant difference, n=4. Means pairs followed by different letters are significantly different (P≤0.05) by multiple comparison test.

Mycorrhization KH2PO4 concentration

0.5 mM 0.25 mM 0.125 mM

Myc- 49.26 x 50.81±2.34 51.95±0.84 45.01±3.02

Myc+ 51.06 y 53.88±0.34 52.44±1.67 47.64±1.19

51.95 a 52.19 a 46.33 b

Mycorrhization Ca(H2PO4)2 concentration

0.5 mM 0.25 mM 0.125 mM

Myc- 40.74 x 42.4±0.17 43.74±1.62 36.09±0.88

Myc+ 41.68 x 41.51±8.12 48.47±1.85 35.04±5.92

41.95 a 46.1 a 35.57 b

Mycorrhization Ca3(PO4)2 concentration

0.5 mM 0.25 mM 0.125 mM

Myc- 21.8 x 25.63±0.48 20.61±6.71 19.16±1.09

Myc+ 29.8 y 31.15±0.7 28.53±1.44 29.72±1.39

28.39 a 24.57 b 24.44 b

Phosphate ions from the soluble KH2PO4 are the most accessible and thus easily

metabolized by plants. This explains why inoculation with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi did not induce any significant increase (P≤0.05%) in the dry matter content of leaves. Nevertheless, the concentration of phosphate had significant effects. Plants treated with 0.25 and 0.125 mM KH2PO4 accumulated significantly more dry matter than the control plants (Table 2).

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Table 2 Dry matter content (mean ± standard error) of the leaves of Tagetes patula L. ornamental plants, for different phosphate compounds and mycorrhizal inoculation status (AM). LSD – least significant difference, n=4. Means pairs followed by different letters are

significantly different (P≤0.05) by multiple comparison test.

Mycorrhization KH2PO4 concentration

0.5 mM 0.25 mM 0.125 mM

Myc- 17.25 x 15.01±2.36 17.96±0,61 18.77±1.35

Myc+ 16.72 x 13.55±0.51 17.28±1.42 19.32±1.61

14.28 a 17.62 b 19.04 b

Mycorrhization Ca(H2PO4)2 concentration

0.5 mM 0.25 mM 0.125 mM

Myc- 8.67 x 7.76±1.34 8.84±0.70 9.41±0.86

Myc+ 8.4 x 8.04±2.15 8.52±0.84 8.64±3.86

7.9 a 8.68 a 9.02 a

Mycorrhization Ca3(PO4)2 concentration

0.5 mM 0.25 mM 0.125 mM

Myc- 12.25 x 10.29±2.17 12.45±2.14 14±0.97

Myc+ 7.8 y 7.59±2.42 8.16±2.19 7.65±1.29

8.94 a 10.3 ab 10.83 b

For monopotassium phosphate treatments, there was a direct relationship between

biomass and phosphate concentration. AM inoculation did not make any difference. For Ca(H2PO4)2, biomass was larger for the AM inoculated plants only for the 0.25mM treatment. While for the non-inoculated plants a reduction in Ca(H2PO4)2 consistently reduced plant biomass by equivalent proportions, for the AM inoculated plants this was only true when stepping down from the 0.25mM to the 0.125mM concentration. AM inoculation significantly enhanced biomass accumulation for all tricalcium phosphate concentrations (Table 3).

Table 3 Fresh biomass (mean ± standard error) of the Tagetes patula L. ornamental plants, for different phosphate compounds

and mycorrhizal inoculation status (AM). LSD – least significant difference, n=4. Means pairs followed by different letters are significantly different (P≤0.05) by multiple comparison test.

Mycorrhization KH2PO4 concentration

0.5 mM 0.25 mM 0.125 mM

Myc- 17.2 x 30.7±3.0 16.4±0.3 4.6±0.6

Myc+ 15.27 x 29.0±4.3 12.2±1.8 4.6±0.2

29.8 a 14.3 b 4.6 c

Mycorrhization Ca(H2PO4)2 concentration

0.5 mM 0.25 mM 0.125 mM

Myc- 21.03 x 35.7±11.7 19.2±2.6 8.2±2.6

Myc+ 23.51 x 28.9±14.6 31.11±7.2 10.6±2.6

32.3 a 25.2 a 9.4 b

Mycorrhization Ca3(PO4)2 concentration

0.5 mM 0.25 mM 0.125 mM

Myc- 0.39 x 590.7±63.6 266.8±86.7 87.5±15.1

Myc+ 0.89 y 572.0±77.5 195.0±11.9 107.6±8.7

0.8 a 0.5 b 0.6 ab

Regarding the leaf area, there were differences due to types of phosphates applied and phosphate concentration (directly related to P concentration). Surprisingly, the largest leaf areas were measured in the monocalcium phosphate treatments; nevertheless the AM inoculation did not show any consistent differences. On the other hand for the tricalcium phosphate treatment AM inoculation was consistently associated with larger leaf areas (Table 4).

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Table 4 Leaf area (mean ± standard error) of the Tagetes patula L. ornamental plants, for different phosphate compounds and

mycorrhizal inoculation status (AM). LSD – least significant difference, n=4. Means pairs followed by different letters are significantly different (P≤0.05) by multiple comparison test.

Mycorrhization KH2PO4 concentration

0.5 mM 0.25 mM 0.125 mM

Myc- 314.99 x 590.7±63.6 266.77±86.7 87.53±15.1

Myc+ 291.56 x 572.0±77.5 195.03±11.9 107.6±8.7

581.4 a 230.9 b 97.6 c

Mycorrhization Ca(H2PO4)2 concentration

0.5 mM 0.25 mM 0.125 mM

Myc- 888.86 x 1435.9±385.1 886.8±98.5 343.8±94.2

Myc+ 1082.86 x 1333.4±641.9 1425.3±299.2 489.8±135.8

1384.7 a 1156.1 a 416.8 b

Mycorrhization Ca3(PO4)2 concentration

0.5 mM 0.25 mM 0.125 mM

Myc- 26.13 x 31.2±0.7 24.3±8.0 22.9±5.4

Myc+ 42.57 y 47.9±5.3 32.7±9.3 47.2±13.8

39.5 a 28.5 b 35.1 ab

AM colonization of roots was evaluated for the KH2PO4 treatments. At flowering,

colonization could be measured at rates inversely correlated to the phosphate concentrations. The arbuscular richness of colonized roots indicates the degree of AM symbiotic functionality, high values meaning good nutrient exchange between the host plant and the AM fungi. In our hydroponic experiment, arbuscular richness values had a trend similar to the colonization rates (Table 5).

Table 5 AM colonization rate and arbuscular richness (mean ± standard error) of the roots. LSD – least significant difference,

n=4. Means pairs followed by different letters are significantly different (P<0.05) by multiple comparison test.

KH2PO4 concentration

0.5 mM 0.25 mM 0.125 mM

Colonization rate 9.69±10.09 a 28.46±9.71 a 28.35±29.79 a

Arbuscular richness 6.27±8.1 a 20.12±7.28 a 17.16±17.27 a

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

The AM inoculation treatment increased significantly the chlorophyll concentration for the plants in the Ca3(PO4)2 treatment. Given that this was not also obvious for the more soluble phosphate treatments it may be hypothesized that enhanced P played a role.

AM inoculation of the treatment with the least soluble phosphate source, tricalcium phosphate, was clearly associated with with greater total leaf area per plant, thus increasing the ornamental value of the marigolds. The enhanced plant growth and development can be explained by the better phosphorus efficiency of Tagetes sp. plants inoculated with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, similar to the results of Abu El Seoud [1].

Both plant biomass and total leaf area per plant varied according to the nature and concentration of accessible phosphate sources in the environment. Phosphate availability to plants was mitigated by the symbiotic fungi.

To summarize, a decrease in phosphate solubility had a negative effect on plant growth and development. From the measured developmental parameters, those that influenced the ornamental value (total leaf area and biomass) were the most sensitive to the quality, availability and solubility of phosphates. The chlorophyll content was less influenced by the presence of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi than by the type of phosphates

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used in nutrient solution, as earlier studies showed [7], but for the least soluble phosphate source it had a significant impact.

REFERENCES

[1]. Abou El Seoud, I.I.A. 2008. Phosphorus efficiency of Tagetes plant inoculated with two arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi strains. Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences 2(2), 234-242. [2]. Adesemoye, A.O., Kloepper, J.W., 2009. Plant–microbes interactions in enhanced fertilizer-use Efficiency. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 85, 1–12 [3]. Augé, R.M. 2001. Water relations, drought and vesiculararbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis. Mycorrhiza 11, 3–42. [4]. Azcón-Aguilar, C., Barea, J. M. 1996. Arbuscular mycorrhizas and biological control of soil-borne plant pathogens – an overview of the mechanism involved. Mycorrhiza 6, 457-464. [5]. Brundrett, M.C. 2009. Mycorrhizal associations and other means of nutrition of vascular plants: understanding the global diversity of host plants by resolving conflicting information and developing reliable means of diagnosis. Plant and Soil 320, 37-77. [6]. Biró, B., et al. 2006. Role of the beneficial microsymbionts on the plant performance and plant fitness. In: Microbial Activity in the rhizosphere ed. Mukerji, K.G., Manoharachary, C. and Singh, J., pp. 265-296. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg. [7]. Schmidt, B., Şumălan, R., 2011. The influence of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on ornamental characters of Tagetes patula L. Journal of Horticulture, Forestry and Biotechnology 15(1), 182-186. [8]. Taylor, T.N., et al. 1995. Fossil arbuscular mycorrhiza from the Early Devonian. Mycologia 87(4), 560-573. [9]. Trouvelot, A., Kought, J.L., Gianinazzi-Pearson, V., 1986. Mesure du taux de mycorrhization VA d’un systéme radiculaire. Recherche de méthodes d’estimation ayant une signification fonctionnelle. In Les Symposium Europeen sur les Mycorrhizes ed. Gianinazzi-Pearson, V., Gianinazzi, S. pp. 217-221. INRA Paris. [10]. Vierheilig, H., Schweiger, P., Brundrett, M., 2005. An overview of methods for the detection and observation of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in roots. Physiol. Plantarum 125, 393-404.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

B. Schmidt, Banat’s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine “King Michael Ist of Romania” from Timişoara, Romania, 119 Calea Aradului, 300645 Timisoara, Romania, E-mail: [email protected].

I. Samfira, Banat’s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine “King Michael Ist of Romania” from Timişoara, Romania, 119 Calea Aradului, 300645 Timisoara, Romania, E-mail: [email protected]

Acknowledgements: This paper was published under the frame of European Social

Fund, Human Resources Development Operational Programme 2007-2013, project no. POSDRU/159/1.5/S/132765.

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MATHEMATICAL MODELLING IN ANIMAL FEEDING AND PRODUCTION

Florin Gogoa�ă, Cosmin Ni�u, Radu Burlacu

Abstract:This paper analyses Newtonian or semi Newtonian-type mathematical models, the dynamic and determinist, and the empirical models based on biological hypotheses. A mathematical model represents a collection of biological hypostases. Often they are a simplification of the reality.

Key words: mathematical model, egg production, egg protein, animal feeding

INTRODUCTION

Testing and evaluating a mathematical model is a continuous process which may start from the very beginning of the modelling project. An approach which is different from this one is, undoubtedly, inefficient.

The term testing is taken here with the meaning of the control of methodological corrections. This means: the mathematical equations must present correctly the biological hypotheses which are considered; the equations must be consistent per se and compatible in terms of measure units; any algebraic and mathematical analysis considerations must be correct and achieve the set purposes.

A practice-born attitude is to do your best to work as correctly as possible when constructing a model, with unifying stages, after each set of functions which characterise a phenomenon, a process.

Evaluation, on the other hand, is not necessarily an objective process and thus more difficult to define. The simultaneous evaluation in relation to aspects such as the good approximation of the set objective, plausibility, good agreement, elegance, economy, simplicity and utility is, obviously, hard to achieve and presumably some characteristics will be individualised more in a given model. The final evaluation of a model may be done only after testing and only after making sure of the methodological correctness of the model.

Supposing that the objectives have been defined correctly and adequately, we may identify four modules in the structure of mathematical models:

1. Model structuring, including its biological hypotheses; 2. Mathematical expression of point 1 and any other subsequent mathematical

analysis; 3. Solving the equations obtained at point 2, often with a software; 4. Examination and interpretation of the model predictions, particularly in relation

with point 1 and agreement of the predictions with the available experimental data. Testing and evaluation can be dealt with distinctly when constructing mathematical

models but they may also be present after each stage. A process takes place here which presumes the existence of a succession of stages:

construction – evaluation, testing – rework some stages and parts of the model – construction of a new version – evaluation, testing – etc.

EXAMPLE OF MODEL

Following is an example of model which may actually show how the four stages run, as well as the modalities in which the selected example had generated or clarified or lead to new connections, answers or questions on the various biological and physiological aspects and on the interaction between them.

• Structure of the model

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A mathematical model represents a collection of biological hypostases. Often they are a simplification of the reality.

The modeller may develop ideas or make a description and synthesis, or he may develop an instrument useful for the practice. The level of simplification, often connected to the empiric/Newtonian content may, and must be in relation with the proposed objective.

Because the initial hypotheses are important, it is therefore important that the modeller is familiar with the biological problem.

The structure of the model can be evaluated and not tested. Evaluation depends on the objectives proposed to be reached by modelling and on the level of knowledge of the processes and of the domains to be modelled.

• Mathematical equations (formulas, functions) For the success of a model, the accuracy of translation of the biological ideas into

mathematical expressions is essential. There are simple rules to follow in order to minimize the number of mistakes

(deviations), which narrows the possibility of occurrence and helps in detecting them. First we have to define the symbols. The second stage involves establishing the measure units. In an equation, each of

the two composing terms must be expressed with the same measure unit. A single system of measure units must be used (preferably the IS. Stage three consists in verifying (determining) the mathematical consistence and

complementarity. There have to be enough equations which to define the problem, but the problem must be properly defined.

It is necessary and useful to design an organisation chart similar to a logic design, which to determine the number of inputs, their connections to the state variables, the interdependences between the state variables and various constitutive parameters, as well as the connections between the “internal” variables of the model and the output variables.

Such a design helps determining the internal logic of the modeller and establishes what mathematical relations must be developed within the model.

Stage four includes the analysis of model biological consistence and complementarity. For instance, both for the plant models and for the animal models, carbon and nitrogen are elements whose balance must be shown. One may write:

(total C or system N) = inputs into the system – exits from the system (1)

The internal transfer (internal transformations) which we call “from pool i to pool j, Tij ”, must be shown in the model as mathematical equations which should describe the biological hypothesis which is accepted when the transfer of Tij is shown. Usually, these equations should reveal an increase in pool j and a corresponding decrease in pool i.

We must note that the biological hypotheses give a concrete, specific form of expression to the fundamental principles of physics and chemistry.

By summing up the expressions described by all the equations of a model we obtain the balance of the internal transfers, which is the object of the model.

• Solving model equations This is the domain usually assigned to computer utilisation. The errors which

appeared during the various stages can now be readily observed and corrected. Correcting is a very complex and difficult process.

In numeric terms the errors can be large and small errors, below the 5% limit, almost unanimously accepted for the accuracy of biological determinations. The small errors are more difficult to identify because it is hard to distinguish between what is due to a systematic error because of the system and what is due to the inherent statistic deviations.

CONCRETE EXAMPLE: EGG PRODUCTION

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The main content of an egg, except for the water, is protein. Standard layer eggs weigh about 58 g and have about 7 g protein, 42% of which is yolk protein which is synthesized particularly in the magnum region of the oviduct.

Egg production by layers is a reproductive activity with a high level of matter turnover.

The requirement of dietary essential amino acids determines essentially the egg production. In practical terms, the goal of feeding is to provide an adequate level of protein in the diet which to meet the requirement for maximal production, while avoiding feed wasting.

Combs (see [10]) was one of the first scientists who characterised the feeding requirement of layers in terms of essential amino acids; he developed, by linear regression, the following equation, to describe the requirement of methionine:

where is the ingested methionine , is the production of eggs

, is the body weight , is the weight gain . Later, similar equations for amino acids were developed both for the layers and for

broilers. In each case the regression techniques were applied to the experimental data (of performance) of each individual layer or for groups of layers for which one can presume that the requirement of the particular amino acid was the limiting factor for the level of production.

An approximation (variant) closer to the shape of a Newtonian model was adapted by Hurmitz and Barustein (see [8]), who developed two models to estimate the requirement of essential amino acids in layers. The requirement of amino acids was divided in three components, called maintenance, growth and egg production. Both models presume the same requirements for maintenance and growth and rely on the hypothesis according to which yolk synthesis is a continuous process in which the requirement of amino acids was deducted directly from the diet. The nature of egg white protein synthesis was expressed in both models with a similar formula:

Model I: presumes that the egg white and egg shell protein have been synthesized from the protein tissue during secretion and the model was written as follows: 

(2)

where variable A is the requirement of dietary amino acid for layers, W is the body weight of the layer, r is the rate of egg production and is egg weight.

Parameter is the requirement of amino acid determined experimentally by the unit of body weight for maintenance, the amino acid content of the protein tissue and the amino acid content of the yolk protein.

The constants of Model I were determined on the basis of the following hypotheses: 1. A layer has a constant weight gain during the laying period, when protein turnover is

0.3 ; 2. Egg protein accounts for 12.1% of egg weight; 3. Yolk protein amounts to 44% and egg white + egg shell protein amounts to 56%; 4. The amount of sulphur amino acids from egg white is twofold the maximum amount

from the protein tissue of the carcass; 5. The efficiency of dietary amino acids absorption is 95%. Model II: on the other hand, presumes that oviduct products were synthesized

continuously from the dietary amino acids, except for the ovoglycoproteins and egg shell protein.

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Model II was written as follows:

(3)

where is the amino acid contained in the ovoglycoprotein, while the other parameters and variables are the same as in the previous case.

The constants of Model II have been established on the basis of hypotheses 1., 2., and 5., plus the following two hypotheses:

6. The amount of protein in egg components is as follows: yolk 44%, ovoglycoprotein 42% and egg shell protein 4%;

7. The amount of sulphur amino acids in ovoglycoprotein and in the egg shell protein is 2.2, respectively 4 times higher than in the tissue protein.

Hurwitz and Bornstein compared the model values with the values cited in the literature for the requirements of amino acids, they observed that Model II produced closer estimates of the requirements than those produced by Model I. In an subsequent experimental verification of the modules, Hurwitz and Bornstein showed that Model II showed a higher accuracy in estimating the requirements of essential amino acids than Model I.

The diets generated on the basis of Model II generated a more consistent egg mass, closer to the proposed levels, while the diets developed with Model I allowed the layers to exceed the proposed performance, which shows that Model I supplies an excess of essential amino acids.

Fisher, Marris and Jennings (see [9]) describe a model which determines the response of a group of layers to different levels of ingested amino acids. The model relies on the hypothesis of a simple linear relation between the ingested amino acids, A

, egg production, E and the maintenance requirement . It presumes that each individual has a characteristic maximum laying percentage and that for each layer:

if (4) where is layer weight, and and are the amounts of

amino acids associated to a unit of E, respectively to a unit of W. We also presume that when , thus we exclude the negative

production of eggs. The exact equation describing the response curve of a group, together with the methods for parameter estimation together with their properties in terms of statistics are given by Curnow. Fisher, Marris and Jennings use the Monte Carlo simulation method to determine the laying curve. The laying level is described by a differential equation:

(5)

where is the production of eggs , is the amount of ingested amino acid , W is the body weight and t is the time [days]; is measured in

; is measured in and the measure units for are .

POSSIBLE CONTRIBUTIONS

Mathematical modelling may contribute in many ways to animal feeding and production among which:

1. The biological hypotheses expressed in mathematical language may provide a quantitative description and understanding of the biological problems;

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2. The necessity of a model of the mathematical competence may provide the conceptual framework allowing reaching unknown domains and may stimulate the emergence of new ideas and experimental approaches.

3. A mathematical model can supply the means to furnish the farmers with stored data in a readily usable way;

4. The practical advantages of the proposed research methods can be synthesized with the mathematical models, thus stimulating the adoption of more efficient methods of production;

5. Modelling enables to have less ad-hoc experiments because it is easier, using the models, to design experiments which to respond to particular research demands, or to dissociate between alternative mechanisms;

6. Within a multicomponent system, the model provides a method which enables to join the knowledge on the component parts to give a coherent picture of the entire system behaviour.

7. Modelling may provide a strategic and tactic support to a research program, justifying the activity of the scientists and promoting collaboration.

8. A model can be an efficient way of summarizing data and a prudent method of interpolation and extrapolation;

9. A model may use data with a higher efficiency, making a better use of tem sometimes;

10. The prediction power of an efficient model can be used in many ways: priorities of research and development, governance and planning.

REFERENCES

[1]. Burlacu, Gh., Burlacu, R., Cavache, A., (2002), Potentialul productiv al nutreturilor si folosirea lor in hrana animalelor de ferma, Editura CERES, Bucuresti, I.S.B.N. : 973-40-0541-3

[2]. Burlacu, Gh., Burlacu, R., Cavache, A., (1996), Indicatorii noului sistem de apreciere a valorii nutritive a nutreturilor calculul normelor de hrana si optimizarea ratiilor pentru animalele de ferma, Vol. I si II, I.B.N.A. & S.I.A.T.-S.A.

[3]. Burlacu, Gh., Burlacu, R., Cavache, A., Surdu, I., (1998 republicat 2002), Ghid pentru alcătuirea raţiilor de hrană la păsări, editat de M.A.A., Agenţia Naţională de Consultanţă Agricolă, O.J.C.A. Constanţa, I.S.B.N.: 973-8036-00-3

[4]. Burlacu, R., (2007), Biostatistica, Editura Ceres, Bucuresti, I.S.B.N.: 978-973-40-0758-5

[5]. Burlacu, R., (2003), Mathematical models of applied biology of some metabolic processes, Progress in research on energy and protein metabolism, EAAP publication, Wageningen Academic Publishers, p. 139-146

[6]. Dent, J.B., Blackie, M.J., (1974), Systems simulation in agriculture, Applied Science Publishers LTD, London.

[7]. Doucet, P., Sloep, P.B., (1992), Mathematical modeling in the Life Science, Ed. Ellis Horwood, New York London Toronto Sydney Tokyo Singapore.

[8]. Emmans, G.C., (1992), Animal growth and feed intake, A collection of papers 1981-1990, SAC, Edinburgh.

[9]. France, J., Thornley, J.H.M., (1986), Mathematical models in agriculture, Butterworths, London Boston Durban Singapore Sydney Toronto Wellington.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Florin Gogoa�ă, PhD, University of Bucharest, Faculty Of Mathematics And Computer Science, phone:+400768317996, email: [email protected]

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Cosmin Ni�u, PhD, University of Agronomic Science and Veterinary Medicine – Bucharest, Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, phone:+400743049601, email: [email protected] .

Radu Burlacu, Prof. Dr., University of Agronomic Science and Veterinary Medicine – Bucharest, Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, phone: +400788252061, email: [email protected]

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THE EFFECT PRUNING SYISTEM ON BEARING BALANCE OF VINE CULTIVAR WHITE TAMJANIKA IN ŽUPA VINE DISTRICT

Z. Jovanović, B. Ćirković, M. Garić, D. Janković, Z. Nikolić

Abstract: This paper presents results of some important agrobiological traitis of the cultivar White

Tamjanika in the agroecological conditions of Župa vine district. The investigation has been carried out at a productive vineyard in private property, at the location Svračak, during the period 2008-20010. The vineyard was planted in 2002, with planting distance 2.8 x 0.9 m. Agroecological conditions were favorable for growth and development of vine cultivar White Tamjanika. The study was aimed to observe important agrobiological traits of this cultivar, as well as possibility for its spreading in the vine district of Župa. The following parameters were observed: phenological observations, bearing balance for bud and bearing balance for vine. Results of the study confirm a possibility of successful grooving of White Tamjanika cultivar in the conditions of Župa Vine Distrct.

Key words: cultivar, phenological observation, ecological conditions, bearing balance

INTRODUCTION

Bešlić et al. 2012 researched genetic profile of 12 varieties through a genotyping approach that included the ”core set” of 9 SSR markers chosen by the international grape comunity for genetic identification and further 13 common microsatellites to strengthen relationship analysis. Consistent matching with SSR markers of grapevines cultivated in neighbouring countries or maintained in European germplasm collections was found for most of the molecular profiles, suggesting possible synonyms. These included three Muscat-type cultivars which showed identical SSR profiles with true-to-type “Moscato Giallo”, “Moscato Rosa” and “Muscat fleur d’Oranger” varieties. When compared with germplasm representing the classical eco-geographic grouping of grape varieties, Serbian cultivars were divided into two distinct clusters. The Muscat-type cultivars were included within the Convar orientalis subconvar caspica.

The aim of the stady was to establish the most important agrobiological caracteristics of White Tamjanika cultivar, in order to be recommended for growing in Župa vine district. The agrobioogical traitis and bearing balance great dael very depending the agroecological conditions (Avramov et al. 1996; Cindrić et al. 2003; Žunić and Garić 2010; Ćirković et al 2013). Climatic conditions of Župa vine district enable a normal annual development cycle of vine, as well as good ripening of the studied cultivars grapes and shoots.

On the basis of the obtained resultsone can conclude that the applied pruning sistem exspressed a significant effect on vine production potential and the other observes parametres.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Researches were carried out during the period 2008-2010 at a productive vineyard in private property, at the location Svračak. The vineyard was found in 2002 and it is in the period of growing yield. The planting distance is 2.8 X 0.9 m

It were applied three pruning variants with short and longs spurs, and three variants of mixed pruning with canes eight and ten buds long. The fertile bud load per vine varied from 18 - 36 buds per vine (tab. 1).

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Table 1. Review variants and number of buds per vine No Variants Pruning system Number of buds per vine1 I (6 X 3) 18 2 II (4 X 4 + 4 X 2) 24 3 III (4 X 5 + 3 X 2) 26 4 IV (2 x 10 + 3 X 2) 26 5 V (3 X 8 + 3 X 2) 30 6 VI (3 X 10 + 3 X 2) 36 Agroecological conditions in the observed period were very good for the cultivar

White Tamjanika. This cultivar at the located in Župa vine district, characterized parish climate with average annual air temperature of 11.00C and average vegetational air temperature of 16.80C. The absolute minimum of air temperature during the study was -14.00C. The average annual precipitation amount in the observed period varied from 619.5–738.3 mm; 380.6-491.4 mm of which fell during vegetation.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Phenological observation showed that beginning and duration of penological stages depended on weather conditions of the investigated year (tab. 2). The earliest bleeding sap was noticed in 2009 (March 15th), and the latest one in 2010 (March 22nd), the average March 18th. The investigation period, bud burst began at April 6th (2008) and ended at April 13th (2010). Beginning of flowering was observed in the second decade of May, as average for the investigation period flowering began at May 27th and ended June 8th. Veraison was observed in the first decade of August, the average August 7th. Grape harvesting was carried out at October 4th.

Beginning and end time of bud burst was early than the date reported by Ćirković (2003) of the cultivar Italian Riesling, Rhine Riesling and Župljanka, of conditions the Rasina vine district. There were 174 days between bud burst and grape harvest.

Beginning and end time of flowering dated early reported by Zirojević, (1974) and Garić (1994) of the Italian Riesling, which is caused by climatic conditions of the investigated year. Based on the ecological conditions of Župa vine district, veraison was early and berry maturation was early.

Table 2. Developmental phenophases of vine cultivar White Tamjanika

Stage of Year of investin. development 2008 2009 2010 Average Bleeding sap March 17th March 15th March 22nd March 18th

Time of bud burst April 6th April 10th April 13th April 9th Beginning of flowering May 28th May 26th May 29th May 27th

End of flowering June 7th June 8th June 9th June 8th Veraison August 10th August 7th August 5th August 7th

Full berry maturity October 6th October 3rd October 5th October 4th The highest bearing balance per bud was observed in the first variants with the

lowest load (292.45), and the lowest in six variants with the highest load (215.20). With the increasing level of load, increasing developed canes and yield per vine, but decreases the bearing balance per bud. This is clear from the data obtained (tab. 3), in both three pruning variants with short and long spurs, and three variants of mixed pruning canes eight and ten buds long.

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Differences between years of research have significantly varied from 257.62 g (2009) to 226.25 g (2010).

Table 3. Bearing balance per bud

Variants Years of invesigation

Average 2008. 2009. 2010.

I (6x3) 301.99 306.34 269.01 292.45 II (4x4 + 4x2) 230.20 258.16 231.45 239.94 III (4x5 + 3x2) 231.05 242.87 218.05 230.66 IV (2x10 + 3x2) 247.08 258.51 233.68 246.42 V (3x8 + 3x2) 225.26 251.30 203.04 226.53

VI (3x10 + 3x2) 212.78 228.51 204.07 215.12 Просек 241.39 257.62 226.55 241.85

CV% 17.65 15.88 15.24 17.07

F-test Years (A) Variants (B) AxB 14.567** 22.078** 0.529

LSD 0.05 Years (A) Variants (B AxB

11.37 16.08 27.85 LSD 0.01 15.01 21.22 36.76

The highest bearing balance per vine was observed in the six variants with the

highest load, and the lowest firs variant with the lowest load (tab. 4). Among all the variants, depending on the fertile bud loads, differences were assessed as very significant.

The fertile bud loads exerted a positive influence on the bearing balance per vine. Specifically with increasing fertile bud loads per vine increases the bearing balance per vine, and the tendency is well expressed in both variants with a short pruning, and in variants with mixed pruning.

Analyzing the data of other authors and our results are consistent with data Zirojević (1974), Nakalamić, (1981), Avramov (1996) and others.

Table 4. Bearing balance per vine

Variants Years of invesigation

Average 2008. 2009. 2010.

I (6x3) 5435.9 5514.2 4842.1 5264.1 II (4x4 + 4x2) 5524.7 6195.9 5554.8 5758.5 III (4x5 + 3x2) 6007.2 6314.7 5669.4 5997.1 IV (2x10 + 3x2) 6424.1 6721.4 6075.7 6407.0 V (3x8 + 3x2) 6757.8 7538.9 6091.1 6795.9

VI (3x10 + 3x2) 7660.1 8226.2 7346.5 7744.3 Просек 6301.6 6751.9 5929.9 6327.8

CV% 17.65 18.36 17.25 18.52

F-test Years (A) Variants (B) AxB 15.307** 34.306** 0.587

LSD 0.05 Years (A) Variants (B AxB

293.8 415.5 719.7 LSD 0.01 387.8 548.4 949.9

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CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

On the basis of the three-year investigation and the analyze expressed data, for the cultivar White Tamjanika in the conditions of Župa vine district, we can conclude the following:

White Tamjanika showed positive agrobiological properties and results of the study confirm a possibility of successful grooving of this cultivar in the conditions of Župa vine district.

In the climatic characteristics of the investigated year, beginning and end time of bud burst was early, veraison was early and berry maturation was early, which is caused by climatic conditions.

The highest bearing balance per bud was got in 2009 (257.62 g). and the lowest one in 2010 (226.25 g).

The fertile bud load per vine had shown a positive impact on the bearing balance per vine. The highest bearing balance per vine was in the sixth variant (7744.3 g), at least in the first variant (5264.1 g).

REFERENCES

[1]. Avramov, L., Žunić, D., Milanović, M. 1996. Agrobiološke karakteristike sorte merlo i kaberne fran u župskom vinogorju. Poljoprivreda, 383-385, 41-47. [2]. Bešlić, Z., Todić, S., Korać, N., Lorenzi, S., Emanuelli, F., Grando, M.S. 2012. Genetic characterization and relationships of traditional grape cultivars from Serbia. Vitis: Journal of Grapevine Research, 51(4):183-189. [3]. Cindrić, P., Korać, N., Kovač, V., 2003. Sorte vinove loze. Prometej. Novi Sad, Serbia. [4]. Garić, M., Ćirković, B., Barać, S., Jovanović, Z., Todosijević, S. 2010. Agrobiološka svojstva sorte merlo u uslovima severne Kosovske Mitrovice. Agroznanje, 11(2), 87-93. [5]. Garić, M. 1994. Agrobiološka svojstva sorte rizling italijanski u uslovima orahovačkog vinogorja. Poljoprivreda, br. 372-374, str. 24-30. [6]. Nakalamić, A. 1981. varijabilnost rodnosti nekih sorti vinove loze u zavisnosti od ekoloških uslova i načina gajenja. Doktorska disertacija. Beograd. [7]. Zirojević, D. 1974. Poznavanje sorata vinove loze. Vol. 1. Gradina, Niš, Serbia. [8]. Žunić, D., Garić, M. 2010. Posebno vinogradarstvo, Ampelografija II. Poljoprivredni fakultet Beograd-Zemun. [9]. Ćirković, B., Deletić N., Matijašević, S., Ćirković, D., Jovanović, Z. 2013. Biological and productive characteristic of grape variety gewürztraminer in vinegrowing subregion of Niš. Research people and actual tasks on multidisciplinary sciences, vol. 1, 46-50. [10]. Ćirković, B. 2003. Uticaj načina rezidbe na rastenje i rodnost sorti vinove loze rizling rajnski B21, rizling italijanski i župljanka u rasinskom vinogorju. Magistarski rad, Beograd.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Z. Jovanović, PhD, Docent, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture, Kopaonička

Street 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

B. Ćirković, PhD, Associate professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture, Kopaonička Street 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

M. Garić, PhD, Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture, Kopaonička Street 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

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D. Janković, PhD, Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture, Kopaonička Street 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

Z. Nikolić, PhD, Associate professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture, Kopaonička Street 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

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STUDY ON FERMENTATION CAPACITY OF SEVERAL MICROBIAL

STRAINS FOR BIOETHANOL PRODUCTION FROM LACTOSE

Popa Nicolae, Skumpija Alen, Vintila Teodor*, Gergen Iosif*

Banat’s University of Agricultural Science and Veterinary Medicine” King Mihai I of Romania”, Timisoara

Abstract: Lactose, in lower concentration (5 -10%), is the principal organic component of cheese whey

from dairy industry. It is a major source of water pollution because of the biological oxygen demand. Using of this waste for ethanol production by fermentation offer multiple advantages by providing cheap raw materials and simultaneous waste treatment. Several microorganisms (yeast and bacterial strains) have been considered as ethanol producing microbes. In order to select lactose-fermenting and ethanol producing strains, 12 microbial strains, available in our culture collection were investigated for their capacity to ferment lactose and produce ethanol in in batch system (Kluyveromices marxianus DSM 5418, Kluyveromices lactis var.lactis DSM70799, Zymomonas mobilis DSM 424, Saccharomyces cerevisiae 203, Saccharomyces cerevisiae 17/17, Saccharomyces cerevisiae SMR-4 Killer, Saccharomyces cerevisiae K5-51 Rhe-, Saccharomyces cerevisiae K5-5a Spencer, Saccharomyces cerevisiae Hansen CBS 5926 Boulardii, Saccharomyces cerevisiae Crystal Japan, Saccharomyces cerevisiae Cara R581, Saccharomyces cerevisiaeCMIT21. The best results were obtained with Kluyveromices marxianus DSM 5418 and Kluyveromices lactis DSM70799, which produced 4-5% (v/v) ethanol in fermentation medium with 10% lactose. The others microbial strains produced only 0.2 – 0.3 % (v/v) ethanol. Therefore the selected Kluyveromices strains are the main candidates in future studies for fermentation of lactose from whey in order to produce ethanol in high yield.

Key words: bioethanol, lactose, cheese whey, Kluyveromices , Saccharomyces cerevisiae

INTRODUCTION

Lactose, in lower concentration (5 -10%), is the principal organic component of cheese whey from dairy industry [Ariyanti and Hadiyanto, 2013]. It is a major source of water pollution because of the biological oxygen demand. Using of this waste for ethanol production by fermentation offer multiple advantages by providing cheap raw materials and simultaneous waste treatment [Guimarães et al., 2010].

In recent years different thermo-tolerant Kluyveromyces yeast strains have been reported to be important candidates for whey fermentation, or mixture composed from whey and different sugar source like sweet sorghum, molasses [Zafar & Owais, 2006;Fonseca, et al., 2008; Sadik & Halema, 2014]. In this respect Kluyveromyces marxianus DMKU3-1042, and Kluyveromyces lactis NBRC 1903 were investigated by Toyoda (2008) and Pimpakan (2012) with good yield. In other studdies, Saccharomyces cerevisiae was used to ferment lactose [François-Nicolas de Glutz, 2009]. The overall objective of the work was to select microorganisms able to ferment lactose and produce ethanol in batch system from 12 microbial strains available in our culture collection. The investigated microbial strains were: Kluyveromices marxianus DSM 5418, Kluyveromices lactis var.lactis DSM70799, Zymomonas mobilis DSM 424, Saccharomyces cerevisiae 203, Saccharomyces cerevisiae 17/17, Saccharomyces cerevisiae SMR-4 Killer, Saccharomyces cerevisiae K5-51 Rhe-, Saccharomyces cerevisiae K5-5a Spencer, Saccharomyces cerevisiae Hansen CBS 5926 Boulardii, Saccharomyces cerevisiae Crystal Japan, Saccharomyces cerevisiae Cara R581, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae CMIT21.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Kluyveromices marxianus DSM 5418, Kluyveromices lactis var.lactis DSM70799,

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Zymomonas mobilis DSM 424, Saccharomyces cerevisiae 203, Saccharomyces cerevisiae 17/17, Saccharomyces cerevisiae SMR-4 Killer, Saccharomyces cerevisiae K5-51 Rhe-, Saccharomyces cerevisiae K5-5a Spencer, Saccharomyces cerevisiae Hansen CBS 5926- Boulardii, Saccharomyces cerevisiae Crystal Japan, Saccharomyces cerevisiae Cara R581, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae CMIT21 microbial strain from the collection of microorganisms CMIT from U.S.A.M.V.B. King Michael I of Romania from Timisoara were the microbial strains employed in the experiments.

Microorganisms are maintained by cryopreservation in glycerol suspension, at -70oC. Before fermentation, the organisms are revived by thawing the cell suspension and inoculating it on specific solid culture media (Y.M. for Kluyveromices strains, Y.P.D. for Saccharomyces strains and Z.M. for Zymomonas strain. After incubation of plates containing the inoculated strains, specific colonies are selected and inoculated in liquid culture media with the same formulation, in Erlenmayer flasks. After incubation at 30oC in a shaker at 150 r.p.m. for 24 hours, the obtained cultures are used as inoculums for fermentation medium containing lactose as carbon and energy source.

As fermentation medium, we have used a modified version of Y.P.D. medium by replacing dextrose 2% with lactose 10% as carbon and energy source. Accordingly, the fermentation medium formula used in this study is: 1% yeast extract, 2% casein peptone and 10% lactose, and pH was adjusted in the initial condition to reach 5.6-5.8.

Fermentation Fermentation was performed in triplicates for each strain using 15 ml plastic test

tubes covered with screw caps in which injection needles are inserted. At the outer end of the injection needles silicon tubes are attached and the other ends of the silicon tubes are immersed in other 15 ml graduated test tubes, filled with water and immersed in a water bath up-side down. This way, the CO2 released during fermentation is collected and measured; the accumulation of gas in test tubes is an indicator of the status of the fermentation. The tubes containing inoculated lactose media where incubated at 30oC in a water bath and samples were collected every 12 hours, centrifuged at 1000 rpm for 30 minutes and the supernatant was frozen until analysis.

Analytical Methods, material and equipment Ethanol concentration was estimated by NIR methods using Alcolyzer M [Anton Paar

– Austria]. This device uses a patented method (US 6,690,015;AT 406711) based on near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy to determine the alcohol content in a highly alcohol-specific range between 1150 nm and 1200 nm. The evaluation method uses the significant alcohol peak in this area and two spectral points very close to it for defining the baseline. Extensive investigations showed that the alcohol results based on this type of evaluation are virtually free of influences from other known wine constituents. This allows adjustments to be done simply with water for the zero point and one binary ethanol/water mixture. All reagents were high purity analytical grade.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Total lactose concentration decreased and ethanol concentration increased with increasing time and fermentation was completed in 72 hours in all experiments. The experimental data, respectively alcohol concentration in %v/v, analyzed by NIR method using Alcolyzer M (Anton Paar) are presented in Table 1.

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Table 1. The investigated microbial strains and ethanol produced by fermentation of 10%

lactose solution in batch system. Nr. Yeast Strain Ethanol

concentration % (v/v)

1 Kluyveromices marxianus DSM 5418 4.85±0.05 2 Kluyveromices lactis var.lactis DSM70799 4.50±0.04 3 Zymomonas mobilis DSM 424 0.33±0.02 4 Saccharomyces cerevisiae 203 0.24±0.02 5 Saccharomyces cerevisiae 17/17 0.29±0.03 6 Saccharomyces cerevisiae SMR-4 Killer 0.25±0.05 7 Saccharomyces cerevisiae K5-51 Rhe- 0.30±0.05 8 Saccharomyces cerevisiae K5-5a Spencer 0.33±0.02 9 Saccharomyces cerevisiae Hansen CBS 5926- Boulardi 0.32±0.02 10 Saccharomyces cerevisiae Cara R581 sab5, 0.29±0.02 11 Saccharomyces cerevisiae Crystal Japan 0.26±0.03 12 Saccharomyces cerevisiae–CMIT21 0.31±0.03 The fermentation efficiency was calculated as shown below [Sankar & Seethalakshmi, 2013]: F E= % Ethanol produced *100/5.4 Theoretical maximum ethanol yield = 0.54 g ethanol per gram of lactose, according to the reaction stoichiometry [Sankar & Seethalakshmi, 2013] :

Fermentation by yeast 4C2H5OH + 4CO2 + H2O

Lactose Fermentation efficiency was calculated at 72 h incubation time in terms of mass % concentration with ethanol density 0.789 g/cm3 (at 25°C). The results are presented in Figure 1.

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Figure 1. Fermentation efficiency of lactose by 12 different yeast strains Fermentation efficiency varies between 3.5 - 71%, the best results are obtained for

Kluyveromices marxianus DSM 5418 (70.86%) and Kluyveromices lactis var. lactis DSM70799 (65.75%).

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

For alcoholic lactose fermentation the best results were obtained with Kluyveromyces marxianus DSM 5418 and Kluyveromyces lactis var.lactis DSM70799 that produced alcohol solutions with concentrations between 4.50 - 4.85% (v / v) and achieved yields of 71-66% reported to lactose content of fermentation medium. These two yeasts will be used in future studies for alcoholic fermentation of lactose from whey obtained after cheese separation.

REFERENCES

[1]. Anton Paar, Alcolyzer Wine M/ME, 08/11 C83IP003EN-A, Web: www.anton-paar.com [2]. Ariyanti D and H. Hadiyanto, (2013). Ethanol Production from Whey by Kluyveromyces marxianus in Batch Fermentation System: Kinetics Parameters Estimation. Bulletin of Chemical Reaction Engineering & Catalysis, 7 (3): 179-184. (doi:10.9767/bcrec.7.3.4044.179-184) [3]. Fonseca, G. G.; Heinzle, E.; Wittmann, C. And Gombert, A. K. 2008. The yeast Kluveromyces marxianus its biotechnological potential. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 793: 339-354 [4]. François-Nicolas de Glutz, Fuel Bioethanol Production from Whey Permeate, PhD Thesis, 2009, ÉCOLE POLYTECHNIQUE FÉDÉRALE DE LAUSANNE. [5]. Guimarães, P.M.R.; Teixeira, J.A.; and Domingues, L. (2010). Fermentation of lactose to bio-ethanol by yeasts as part of integrated solutions for the valorization of cheese whey. Biotechnology Advances 28: 375–384 [6]. Pimpakan Podchamarn, Wichien Yongmanitchai and Savitree Limtong, Kasetsart, Bioethanol Production from Sugar Cane Syrup by Thermo-tolerant Yeast, Kluyveromyces

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marxianus DMKU3-1042, using Fed-batch and Repeated-batch Fermentation in a Nonsterile System, J. (Nat. Sci.) 46 : 582 - 591 (2012) [7]. Sadik M.W.* and Halema A.A., Production of Ethanol from Molasses and Whey Permeate Using Yeasts and Bacterial Strains, Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2014) 3(3): 804-818. [8]. Sankar M and M. Seethalakshmi, Ethanol Production from Cheese Whey with Sweet Sorghum, INDIAN JOURNAL OF APPLIED RESEARCH, Volume : 3 | Issue : 2 | February 2013 | ISSN - 2249-555X [9]. Toyoda, T., and Ohtaguchi, K. (2008). Production of Ethanol from Lactose by Kluyveromyces lactis NBRC 1903. Thammasat International Journal of Science and Technology 13 Special Edition: 30-35 [10]. Zafar, S, Owais, M 2006. Ethanol production from crude whey by Kluyveromyces marxianus, Biochem Eng J 27: 295-98.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Popa Nicolae, PhD, researcher at Banat’s University of Agricultural Science and Veterinary Medicine „King Mihai I of Romania” from Timisoara, [email protected],

Skumpija Alen, master student from Banat’s University of Agricultural Science and Veterinary Medicine „King Mihai I of Romania” from Timisoara, [email protected],

Vintila Teodor*, PhD. Eng. lecturer at Banat’s University of Agricultural Science and Veterinary Medicine „King Mihai I of Romania” from Timisoara, [email protected],

Gergen Iosif* PhD, professor at Banat’s University of Agricultural Science and Veterinary Medicine „King Mihai I of Romania” from Timisoara, [email protected]

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RESULTS OF THE EXPLOITING TRIALS ON THE SILAGE COMBINES IN

PREPARING THE SILAGE FOR DAIRY COWS

S. Barac, A. Vukovic, M. Biberdzic, A. Djikic, Bojana Milenkovic, D. Djokic

Abstract: This paper presents the results of exploitation testing of different forage harvesters when harvesting corn for silage under the agro-ecological conditions of Central Serbia. Forage harvester throughput was determined by measuring the amount of the collected mass in production time, in known work conditions.The mass yield averaged approximately 25 t ha-1. The effects achieved ranged from 7.68 t h-1 to 38.05 t h-1, or 0.25 ha h-1 to 1.27 ha h-1. Average cutting height losses ranged from 1.43% to 4.71 %.

Key words: forage harvester, losses, efficiency, quality of work. INTRODUCTION

Preparing silage from whole maize plants is one way to prepare one of the most important and cheapest high quality forage feedstuffs (Dinić et al, 2005). The development of hybrid ensilage varieties can be characterized by the growth of share of corn cobs in total yield, which affects the growth of energetic and caloric value of the feed (Michalski, 2002; Podkówka, 2003). Corn crops for ensilaging will be rational if proper machinery is applied for harvesting to guarantee proper split of plants and grain (Ott, 2000; Lisowski, 2006; Calvin, 2007). During the work of single row carried silage harvester it achieves lower throughput combines, and realized capacity in relation to the declared value is 25-40%, while the biggest effects and capacity are achieved with the self-propelled silage harvester. According to these authors, with the increase in speed of movement increased are the losses due to the cutting height. Jacek et Aleksander (2007) come to the conclusion that changing the speed and the number of blades on the disk significantly affects the quality of silage harvester with the disc. Koprivica (2012) found that, under field work conditions, the pulled harvester achieves the capacity of about 7 t h-1 and the effect of 0.176 ha h-1, at an average speed of 2.15 km h-1, which all depends on the working speed mode, cutting height, yield, plot size and work organization. There is a of clear relationship between working velocity of forage harvesters and looses caused by inappropriate cutting height. These two parameters are directly proportional, i.e. their connection is strong (R2 = 0.88) and linear (Barac et al, 2015).

MATERIAL AND METHODS Exploitation tests of various forage harvester during preparation of silage from whole

maize plant were conducted in the agro-ecological conditions in central Serbia (440 06′ 00" N, 200 51′ 00" E) during 2014. The study included the four types of forage harvesters: single row carried silage harvester SIP 80, two-row forage harvester Lifam SK 2, self-propelled silage harvesters ZMAJ 351 and Claas Jaguar 80 SF. After selecting the land on which the tests will be carried established was the biological yield and test conditions, and all values were taken at 5 reps. In order to determine the exploitation of forage harvesting measured was work speed, throughput and performance of the combine, and it was followed the regime and the quality of the combine, expressed through the length of chopped material and losses exceeding 12 cm measured from the land. On that basis was determined the mass loss due to stem cutting height and harvested yield in relation to the achieved, as a result of differences. Single-row forage harvester SIP 80 worked in aggregate with tractor power (47 kW), and double row silage harvester Lifam SK 2 in aggregate with tractor power 77 kW. The surfaces on which the tests were performed were planted with hybrid corn ZP 600. Operating speed was determined chronometrically. The

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applied methodology is a standard for field laboratory and exploitation tests of forage harvester and adapted to our conditions.

The aim of our study was to determine the quality of the examined forage harvesters in the region of central Serbia, according to the defined parameters.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 1 presents data on realized losses in the work of examined forage harvester.

The results show that when working with single row borne silage harvester SIP 80 measured was the average speed of 3.32 km h-1 and the average height of cut 12.58 cm. Average losses caused by the cutting height during operation of the combine amounted to 347.90 kg ha-1 or 1.43% total yield. As for the effects of work with silage harvester Lifam SK 2, it can be concluded that the realized average speed was 3.54 km h-1, cutting height 20.75 cm, where the average stood at an average of 1.094 kg ha-1 or 4.41% total yield (table 1).

When silage is self-propelled silage harvester ZMAJ 351, achieved an average speed of movement 5.60 km h-1, cutting height 22.80cm, losses over 12 cm were on average 1.156 kg ha-1 or 4.71% in relation to total yield. During operation of this silage harvester it was measured top speed of movement in relation to all tested silage harvester 6.45 km h-1, cutting height 25.30 cm, during which largest losses were measured 1.364 kg ha-1 or 5.56% (table 1).

Table 1

Working speed, cutting height, increased cutting height losses Type of ensilage harvesters

Working speed

[km h-1]

Cutting height [cm]

Cutting height losses

Collected yield*

[kg ha-1]

Yield

[kg ha-1][kg ha-1] [%]

SIP 80 2.75 10.26 0.00 0.00 24.475

24.4753.28 11.99 227.70 0.91 24.247 3.92 15.50 468.00 1.91 24.007

Average 3.32 12.58 347.90 1.43 24.127

Lifam SK 2 3.16 18.03 686.40 2.76 24.097

24.7833.46 20.67 1.122 4.53 23.661 4.01 23.54 1.474 5.94 23.309

Average 3.54 20.75 1.094 4.41 23.689

Zmaj 351 4.73 20.46 995 4.05 23.567

24.5625.62 22.63 1.110 4.52 23.452 6.45 25.30 1.364 5.56 23.198

Average 5.60 22.80 1.156 4.71 23.739 Claas Jaguar 80SF

4.46 18.58 970 3.82 24.371

25.3415.43 20.37 1.238 4.89 24.103 6.00 22.77 1.295 5.11 24.046

Average 5.30 20.57 1.168 4.60 24.173 *Collected yield- is a result of the decreased realized yield caused by the looses of the harvesters work

When realized losses when operating in silage harvester Claas Jaguar 80 SF are

considered (table 1), it can be noticed that this self-propelled forage harvester was operating with average speed of 5.30 km h-1 cutting height 20.57 cm, average losses 1.168 kg ha-1 or 4.60%.

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By testing the levels specified difference at work silage harvester SIP 80 there was a statistically significant effect of working speed and cutting height on the losses that occur due to cutting height, with the correlation coefficient 0.496.

When it comes to silage harvester Lifam SK 2, it was found that between the moving speed and cutting height there is a positive correlation dependence with correlation coefficient 0.583, where in the differences are evaluated as statistically significant (table 2).

Table 2

Interdependence of harvester working speed, cutting and cutting height losses Type of ensilage harvesters

Features r Sr texp

SIP 80 Speed : Height 0.496 0.208 2.145* Height : Losses 0.871 0.063 12.437***

Lifam SK 2 Speed : Height 0.583 0.190 2.761** Height : Losses 0.856 0.077 9.950***

Zmaj 351 Speed : Height 0.731 0.146 4.521***Height : Losses 0.610 0.184 2.996*

Claas Jaguar 80SF Speed : Height 0.658 0.132 4.057** Height : Losses) 0.548 0.166 2.697***

t0,05= 1,843; t0,01= 2,487; t0,001= 1,843 t0,05= 1,764; t0,01= 2,318; t0,001= 2,961

Based on the analysis of the impact of working speed and cutting height losses

during work combines Zmaj 351 it was found that there is a significant impact on speeds and cutting height to the losses incurred as a result of the increased cutting height. The differences were rated as highly significant, and there is a positive correlation relationship between the speed of the combine and the cutting height with correlation coefficient 0.731, while the correlation connection between cutting height and weight losses expressed by the correlation coefficient 0.610 (table 2).

Analyzing the result obtained when operating a self-propelled silage harvester Claas Jaguar 80SF,we can notice the positive correlation between speed of movement and height adjustment with a coefficient 0.658, whereby the given differences are statistically significant. Correlation between cutting height and measured weight losses incurred due to increased cutting height is expressed with a coefficient 0.548, and the differences were assessed as very significant ( table 2).

Table 3 shows the values of the mass flow and the effect of the forage harvester in maize silage preparation from whole maize plants.

On the soles of the results obtained, it can be seen that the silage harvester SIP 80 hit flow chopped at average speed 3.32 km h-1 of 2.13 kg s-1 or 7.68 t h-1, with the surface effect of 0.25 ha h-1. In comparison with the projected realized capacity of the combine is less for 80%.

Propelled forage harvester Lifam SK 2 achieved average flow of the chopped material 4.05 kg s-1 which is 14.59 t h-1, or 0.53 ha h-1. The achieved capacity of a combine harvester is in relation to the declared was on average lower by 70% (Table 3).

When storing silage corn, silage combine Zmaj 351 achieved an average operating speed of 5.60 km h-1, while the flow of chopped material averaged 8.90 kg s-1, or 32.04 t h-1, with effect from the surface 1.06 ha h-1. Actual capacity in relation to declared was lower on average for 59% (table 3).

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Table 3 Mass flow and the forage harvesters efficiency in making whole-plant corn silage

Type of ensilage harvesters

Working speed

[km h-1]

Chopped mass flow Realized efficiency

[ha h-1] [kg s-1] [t h-1]

SIP 80 2.75 1.75 6.30 0.23 3.28 2.12 7.63 0.25 3.92 2.53 9.11 0.27

Average 3.32 2.13 7.68 0.25

Lifam KS-2 3.16 3.25 11.70 0.49 3.46 4.10 14.76 0.50 4.01 4.81 17.32 0.59

Average 3.54 4.05 14.59 0.53

Zmaj 351 4.73 6.98 25.13 0.89 5.62 8.75 31.50 1.00 6.45 10.97 39.50 1.28

Average 5.60 8.90 32.04 1.06

Claas Jaguar 80SF 4.46 8.37 30.13 1.13 5.43 10.50 37.80 1.28 6.00 12.84 46.22 1.42

Average 5.30 10.57 38.05 1.27

When working with a silage harvester Claas Jaguar 80SF realized the flow of chopped material 10.57 kg s-1 (38.05 t h-1), average speed 5.30 km h-1 surface effect 1.27 ha h-1. Actual capacity was on average lower than the declared for 69% (table 3).

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

Based on these results it can be concluded that the average realized losses were within the limits of 1.43% when operating silage harvester SIP 80, up to 4.71% when operating silage harvester Zmaj 351. With the increase of operating speed in all tested harvester , increased were losses due to cutting height. The results show a high correlation between speed and cutting height and cutting height and losses. Although losses at the cutting height increase with increasing speeds, to achieve greater impact it is recommended that it should be higher od 4 km h-1. Actual flow of chopped material was in the range 2.13 kg s-1 when operating silage harvester SIP 80, up to 10.57 kg s-1 at silage harvester Claas Jaguar 80SF. Actual capacity in all tested forage harvesters was lower compared to the declared. Increasing the capacity of the tested harvester with the preset lengths was not possible in our conditions, because with the increase of movements speed, congestions of harvesters would occur.

REFERENCES

[1]. Barac S,, Petrovic D., Radojević R., Biberdzic M., Djikic A. 2015. Comparison of self propelled forage harvesters in maize harvesting. Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering. Proceedings of the 43. International Symposium on Agricultural Engineer- ATAE, Opatija, р. 377-385. [2]. Barwicki J., Gach S., Ivanov S. 2011. Input analyses of maize harvesting and ensilaging technologies. Agronomy Research Biosystem Engineering. Special Issue 1,p. 31-36. [3]. Calvin H. P. 2007. An Updated, Automated Commercial Swather for Harvesting Forage Plots Agronomy Journal, VOL. 99, p.1382- 1388.

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[4]. Dinic B, Djordjevic N., Jasmina Radovic, Snezana Ignjatovic 2005. Modern procedures in technology of conserving Lucerne by ensiling. Biotechnology in Animal Husbandry Vol. 21 (5-6), p. 297-303. [5]. Jacek K., Aleksander L. 2007. Investigations on power requirement for driving the forage harvester knife disk with respect to yield monitoring. Ann. Warsaw Agricult. Univ. – SGGW, Agricult. No.50, p. 27-31. [6]. Koprivica R., Veljkovic B., Radivojevic D., Stanimirovic N., Topisirovic G., Djokic D. 2012. Grass silage making by direct cutting using a Corner Machinery-1300 flail forage harvester African Journal of Agricultural Research Vol. 7(40), p. 5459-5465. [7]. Lisowski A. 2006. Maize harvesting - How to choose the harvester. Agrotechnika No. 8, p. 29-32. [8]. Michalski T. 2002. Maize ready to harvest. Top Agrar Polska, No 9, p. 72–45. [9]. Ott A. 2000. Konkurrenzfähigkeit grosser Erntemaschinen. FAT-Berichte Nr 550, p. 8-12. [10]. Podkówka W. 2003. Maize silage as high energetic feed. Kukurydza, Vol.1 (21) ,p. 63–64. [11]. Stanimirovic N., Koprivica R., Barac S., Mihajlovic I. 2004. The performance quality of ‘’Inex-Lifam 60 field ensilage harvester. Agro-knowledge Journal. Vol. 5, No. 3, p.5-11.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

S. Barac, Faculty of Agriculture Pristina, Kosovska Mitrovica - Lesak, Street Kopaonička bb, 38219 Lesak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

Aleksandar Vukovic, Faculty of Agriculture Pristina, Kosovska Mitrovica - Lesak, Street Kopaonička bb, 38219 Lesak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

M. Biberdzic, Faculty of Agriculture Pristina, Kosovska Mitrovica - Lesak, Street Kopaonička bb, 38219 Lesak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

A. Djikic, Faculty of Agriculture Pristina, Kosovska Mitrovica - Lesak, Street Kopaonička bb, 38219 Lesak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

Bojana Milenkovic, Faculty of Agriculture, Kosovska Mitrovica - Lesak, Street Kopaonička bb, 38219 Lesak, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

D. Djokic, Institute for Forage Crops - Krusevac, Globoder, 37000 Krusevac, Serbia, E-mail: [email protected]

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The results of research were made by funding the Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of the Republic of Serbia. The project "Improvement of biotechnological processes in the function of the rational use of energy, increase productivity and quality of agricultural products ", registration number 31051st.

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RESEARCH ON USING THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD FOR THE STUDY OF COMPRESSION BEHAVIOR FOR SUNFLOWER SEEDS

S.Şt. Biriş, M. Ionescu, V. Vlădu�, and A. Atanasov

Abstract: The phenomena that occur during compression sunflower seeds are complex. Knowledge of

these phenomena is important for the vegetable oil industry. Both for the cracking of shells and for the grinding of kernels, but also for the pressing of oilseed materials is helpful to understand the compression behavior of sunflower seeds. The major objective of this work is to find a way of highlighting how the stresses and deformations propagate in the kernel and shell sunflower seeds during the compression process, with the aim of optimizing the energy consumption required for processing. Therefore, at present there can try using the finite element method. This method is the most advanced engineering tool for computing numerical and mathematical modeling of complex phenomena involving the propagation of stress and strain fields in continuous media. In this paper is presented a two-dimensional FEM model for analysis sunflower seeds subjected at compression by the axial and lateral directions. For experimental validation of FEM model were made uniaxial compression tests on sunflower seeds using a Hounsfield/Tinius Olsen unit for mechanical tests, H1KS model.

Key words: Finite Element Method, Sunflower Seeds, Experimental Validation. INTRODUCTION

Modeling of stresses and strains propagation of sunflower seeds in the compression process is very important because it allows estimating the energy consumption required to their decortication and pressing for oil extraction. To achieve mathematical models of seeds behavior at compression is necessary to know the physical and mechanical characteristics for both kernel and the shell, respectively Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio.

In Figure 1 is shown the morphological structure of sunflower seed, one of the best known oilseeds, which is composed of the outer shell (pericarp), a thin peel (seed coat or endocarp) and the kernel.

Fig. 1. Morphological structure of sunflower seed, [7]

1.pericarp; 2.endocarp; 3.kernel.

Over the past few years, studies and research have been realized on experimental determination of the seeds physico-mechanical properties. Thus, in the papers of Khodabakhshian, R., et al. (2010) [5] and Khodabakhshian, R. (2012) [6], are deducted the mean comparison of elastic modulus of sunflower seed and kernel considering the influence of variety, moisture content and loading rate. The obtained results showed that elastic modulus of sunflower seeds and their kernels decreased with increasing in moisture content from 3% to 14% dry basis, and also increasing loading rate from 2 to 10 mm/min for all studied varieties and size categories. Average Poisson’s ratio values of

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seeds from 0.28 to 0.35, 0.31 to 0.38, 0.33 to 0.42, were obtained for moisture levels ranging from 3% to 14%, respectively. Poisson’s ratio increased from 0.281 to 0.357, 314 to 0.387 and 0.346 to 0.42 at loading rates of 2 to 10 mm/min, for seeds. The Poisson’s ratio and elastic modulus of sunflower seed and its kernel also exhibit a positive relationship with size for all studied varieties, moisture content and loading rates.

In the paper of Gupta and Das, (2000) [3] are presented the results of experimental research related to energy consumption for achieving the compression stress of sunflower seeds oriented vertically and horizontally. The research from this study leads to the conclusion that the seeds loaded in a vertical orientation absorbed more energy prior to rupture than those loaded in the horizontal orientation. Kernels loaded in a vertical orientation required less energy to rupture than those loaded in the horizontal orientation.

In the paper of Jafari et al., (2010) [4] are presented interesting results of the experimental determinations, showing that the average compressive forces required to cause seed rupture were 43.36 N for the vertical and 27.37 N for horizontal orientations of loading. Deformation and the energy absorbed at rupture point of the seeds increased in magnitude with an increase in moisture content for loading in both vertical and horizontal orientations.

The major objective of this work is to find a way of highlighting how the stresses and deformations propagate in the kernel and shell sunflower seeds during the compression process, with the aim of optimizing the energy consumption required for processing. Therefore, at present there can try using the finite element method. This method is the most advanced engineering tool for computing numerical and mathematical modeling of complex phenomena involving the propagation of stress and strain fields in continuous media.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Measured and calculated physical properties of the sunflower seeds used for the study are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Physical properties of sunflower seeds

Dimensions, (mm) Weight, m (g)

Volume, V (mm3)

Average diameter, dm

(mm)

Sphericity coefficient, ψ

Weight of 1000

seeds (g) l b c

10 6 3 0.06 100 6 0.55 58

The mechanical properties of oilseeds can be determined using one of the most used methods namely uniaxial compression test. From this test, the load-strain curves are obtained which, after appropriate processing, can provide important information about seeds hardness, crushing strength, apparent modulus of elasticity, the energy consumption for crushing, force and deformation at various compression moments etc., [1]. Figure 2 shows the Hounsfield/Tinius Olsen mechanical testing machine, KS H1 model and the two compression orientations of the seed. After performing compression tests on sunflower seeds were obtained the force-strain characteristic curves on which the strain, force, energy consumption values and the slope to the breakage point of the shell were read at different times of compression (Fig. 3).

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Fig. 2. The Hounsfield/Tinius Olsen mechanical testing machine, H1 KS model

Fig. 3. Force-strain curve and its characteristic points

Seeds are placed on the fixed plate of the machine, in a stable position, and the

speed of the movable plate was set at 1 mm/min. Force and strain values are given and saved by the software (Qmat) of the mechanical testing machine used in the compression test. The point "1" from the force-strain curve (Fig. 3) represents the point where the shell rupture occurred, a sudden drop of the force being observed here. Beyond that point, the seed kernel was subjected to the compression, this process occurring until to the point "2" where has been reached the maximum force (about 1030 N), since the cell force was 1kN.

The obtained results are used for the meshed model, which is necessary for the modeling using finite element method of stresses and strains distribution in sunflower seeds. For the numerical solving was used the QuickField Finite Elements Analysis System, Release 5.10 software. Discretized model of sunflower seed is shown in Figure 4. The value of the Young's modulus for shell was 123 MPa and 107 MPa for kernel [6]. Poisson's ratio value was 0.36 for the shell and 0.3 for the kernel [6].

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Fig. 4. Discretized model of sunflower seed

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Using the QuickField Finite Elements Analysis System, Release 5.10 software, they were obtained as results the von Mises equivalent stresses and total displacements distribution for the analysed field of the complex model consists of kernel and shell. These results are presented in Figures 5 and 6 for the two different ways to place the seed (horizontal and vertical).

a) b) Fig. 5. Equivalent stresses (a) and displacements (b) distribution in sunflower seed for the

horizontal orientation

a) b) Fig. 6. Equivalent stresses (a) and displacements (b) distribution in sunflower seed for the

vertical orientation In Figure 7 is shown the comparative analysis of equivalent stresses and total

displacements on the sunflower seed outline for the both orientation ways (horizontal and vertical). Hence, it results that the stresses are more evenly distributed if the seed was horizontal orientated. For the vertical orientation of the seed, it results that the greatest

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equivalent stresses are concentrated on the top, respectively on the basis of the seed.

a) b) Fig. 7. Comparative analysis of equivalent stresses (a) and total displacements (b) on the

sunflower seed outline for the both orientation ways CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

The finite element method is the most advanced engineering tool for computing numerical and mathematical modeling of complex phenomena involving the propagation of stress and strain fields in continuous media, and it promises to be an important tool for modeling the stresses and strains propagation in the kernel and shell of sunflower seeds.

These models highlight that the orientation of the seeds is very important. There are situations when it is desirable that this stresses to be as higher (at shelling, grinding, pressing, etc.) or situations when it is desirable that this stresses to be as smaller (at transport, storage, etc.). FEM models realized allow the easy study of all the situations in which the seed is subject in technological processes.

REFERENCES

[1]. ASAE STANDARDS. 2000. Compression test of food materials of convex shape. American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers, S368.4: 585–592. [2]. Biri�, S.�t., Manea, M., Maican, E., Ungureanu, N., Toma, L.M. 2009. Studies regarding the use of finite elements method for the working process modeling of the oil presses. Proceeding of the 37th International Symposium „Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering”, Croaţia, Opatija, pp. 485-496. [3]. Gupta, R. K., and S. K. Das. 2000. Fracture resistance of sunflower seed and kernel to compressive loading. Journal of Food Engineering, 46(1): 1–8. [4]. Jafari, S., et al., 2011. Effects of some parameters on fracture resistance of sunflower seed. Cercetari Agronomice in Moldova, Vol. XLIV, No. 3(147). [5]. Khodabakhshian, R., B. Emadi, and M. H. Abbaspour Fard. 2010. Some engineering properties of sunflower seed and its kernel. Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology, 4(4): 37-46. [6]. Khodabakhshian, R. 2012. Elastic behaviour of sunflower seed and its kernel. Agric.Eng. Int: CIGR Journal, Vol. 14, No. 4, pp. 173-178. [7]. http://blog.lib.umn.edu/michaels/thursaft/2009/09/sunflower-seedmorphology. html#comments

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

S.St. Biris, “Politehnica” University of Bucharest, 313 Splaiul Independentei 060042 Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: [email protected]

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M. Ionescu, “Politehnica” University of Bucharest, 313 Splaiul Independentei 060042 Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: [email protected]

V. Vlăduţ, National Institute of Research-Development for Machines and Installations Designed to Agriculture and Food Industry Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1, Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]

A. Atanasov, “A. Kunchev” University of Rousse, 8 Studentska Str. 7017, Rousse, Bulgaria, E-mail: [email protected]

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CONSIDERATIONS ON THE FACTORS INFLUENCING THE

ARTIFICIAL COMPACTION OF SOIL

Ungureanu N.1), Vlăduţ V.2), Voicu Gh.1), Biriş S. Şt.1), Paraschiv G.1), Atanasov At.3) Dilea M.2), Ionescu M.2)

1)P.U. Bucharest; 2)I.N.M.A. Bucharest; 3)Univeristy of Russe

Abstract: Artificial compaction of soil is a phenomenon that occurs due to successive passage on the soil (people, animals, equipment), but also due to successive rainfalls and to the lack of some proper restoration works of soil structure. This paper presents the main factors influencing the artificial compaction of soil, in Romania and worldwide, respectively the state of soils affected by this process which directly affects agricultural production.

Key words: soil, artificial compaction, agricultural vehicle, tire, external load

INTRODUCTION

Compaction is one of the main threats to the sustainability of soil quality in Europe (COM, 2006). Currently, the European Union is facing eight main processes of soil degradation: erosion, organic matter loss, contamination, salinisation, compaction, loss of soil biodiversity, soil sealing, landslides and floodings [41].

Compaction is often seen as a result of mismanagement of traditional agriculture and the most difficult type of soil degradation [3, 23, 35], being a phenomenon difficult to locate and to rationalize, invisible, cumulative and persistent, mainly because it is not always visible at soil surface [3, 18].

Since its begining in the nineteenth century, agricultural soil mechanics has been regarded in terms of transit problems of agricultural machinery and soil-vehicle interaction. Soil compaction was not an important topic until the intensification of agriculture mechanization after World War II, when attention was drawn on the decrease of soil fertility as a result of compaction induced by vehicle traffic. Although the attention has shifted from the transit of vehicles to the preservation of soil fertility, the military needs were the main reason for the study of soil-vehicle interaction, until the late 1960’s, [25].

According to Soil Science Society of America (1996), soil compaction represents “the process by which the soil grains are rearranged to decrease void space and bring them into closer contact with one another, thereby increasing the bulk density”, [18, 19, 48].

Compaction is the physical-mechanical process by which, under the influence of external mechanical work, occurs the interlocking by placing the particles of solid phase, with impact on the reduction of liquid and gas phases in the composition of mineral skeleton. Compaction reduces the volume of empty spaces between solid particles, increases the mechanical characteristics of the deformation module, increases the compressive strength and decreases water permeability of the compacted soil layer of soil [29].

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Types of compaction Soil compaction can be classified in terms of the origin and location or depth at which

it manifests itself. Depending on its origin, soil compaction can be natural (primary) and antrropic (artificial, secondary) [19, 30].

- Natural compaction is caused by the factors and processes involved in soil formation, being specific to certain types of soils. Most often there are formed very compact layers of soil, particularly in argillic soils (in areas with humid climates) [30].

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- Artificial, anthropic or secondary compaction, is due to technological errors in the agricultural system, such as excessive and unreasonable traffic on soil for hydroameliorative and transport works, especially in inadequate conditions of soil moisture. It is specific to intensive agriculture and increases with increasing mass of agricultural machinery, tire inflation pressure and soil tillage intensity and frequency [30].

Depending on the depth at which it occurs, there is [8]: - deep compaction, affecting the layers of soil found at over 40 cm depth. in general, it has natural origin, but with the use of vehicles weighting 10-20 tons or more on each axis, there was also observed artificial deep compaction. - shallow compaction, that occurs just below the arable layer. - surface compaction, which is found in the arable layer and most often has anthropic origin, but it can also be of natural origin (eg. on loamy clays).

Another classification is given by Spoor (2006), which identified five types of soil compaction in non-urbanized areas [19, 44]: - general compaction, which manifests from the ground surface to the lower horizons, being caused by external loads or soil slippage and difficult to determine in soils with unstable structure; - compaction located in soil layers, at specific depths, caused by the tires of agricultural equipment and which manifests under their working depth; - subsoil compaction, which manifests under the arable layer, due to stresses arising through excessive loads applied to the soil surface; - secondary compaction, which occurs when soil with weakened structure found above a compacted layer is also compacted due to loads applied on its surface; - deep natural compaction, manifested in the form of cemented layers.

RESULTS

Causes of soil compaction There are many natural and anthropic forces that lead to soil compaction. There can

be forces by the size of raindrops or large forces, such as those produced by tractors and agricultural machinery [11, 40]. In paper, [10] is stated that the causes of compaction and the deformation suffered by compacted soil can vary in soil layers (top layer, arable layer and subsoil). After, [11, 40], one of the most important causes of soil compaction is the sinkage of soil due to the rolling bodies of agricultural vehicles (wheels with tires or tracks). Compaction due to the impact of raindrops on the soil is visible through the crust formed on the soil surface (usually it has thickness < 1.2 cm), which can hinder plant emergence, [11]. Natural predisposition of soil to compaction can be given by its texture or grain size. Wet soils have low resistance and are subject to compaction, if agricultural machinery will transit when soil moisture content is close to the value of field capacity. Sometimes, high moisture can lead to decreased soil density due to swelling of clay particles. This increases shear between soil particles and the compaction is reduced, [39]. Other causes of natural compaction are: freeze-thaw cycles, precipitation, soil water internal tensions, root system and soil drying, but they are not as harmful as anthropic causes, [34]. Anthropic compaction is favored by, [30]: - use of short rotation crops (monoculture and two year rotation of wheat-corn); - absence of ameliorative crops (vegetables and perennial grasses); - negative balance of humus and some nutrients in the soil as a result of reduced

fertilization and the absence of organic fertilization; - performing soil works in inadequate soil moisture conditions and often at the same depth; - improper application of irrigationaplicarea necorespunzătoare a irigaţiilor.

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Decreased soil resistance by tillage is an anthropic factor. Newly plowed soils lose their natural resistance and may not oppose to the compressive forces applied by the running bodies of agricultural vehicles, [39]. By performing repeated drilling or tillage of soil at the same depth, beneath the arable layer are formed compacted layers of soil, generally with low thickness (between 2.5-5 cm), which do not necessarily have significant consequences on agricultural productivity, [11] and can be removed by varying the depth at which the soil is plowed, [11, 20]. Nowadays, the danger of soil compaction increased due to the dramatic increase of agricultural machinery weight, [3, 27, 33, 34, 36] necessary in modern agriculture, which compacts the soil at each passage and reduces the production capacity. For example, the maximum weight of tractors has increased from about 3 tons (1940) to 7 tons (1998), and up to 20 tons at present, [12] while the weight of combines and liquid manure spreaders is between 20-30 tons, [51]. Soil can become compacted by repeated application of reduced loads on the same surface by light tractors, [39]. Grazing animals moving on pastures can affect soil properties, plant growth, dynamics of water and nutrients in the soil, especially if the soil is moist, [28, 34].

Soil compaction associated with natural causes usually occurs in the top 5 cm, compaction caused by grazing animals is visible up to 20 cm deep, and compaction caused by mechanical works can even occur at 60 cm depth, [34].

Effects of soil compaction

Regardless of its origin, soil compaction is a concern in modern agriculture, since it affects many physical, chemical and biological soil properties and processes taking place in the soil, with negative consequences for the environment.

Soil compaction is a source of pollution of the environmental resources, produced by conventional agriculture, [18, 28]. Seen from an ecological perspective, soil compaction is one of the factors responsible for: erosion, landslides, flooding, leakage of pesticides and nutrients in groundwater, decreased water infiltration capacity in the soil, increasing of the emanations of N2O, CH4 and CO2, rut formation (ruts being one of the first visible signs of soil degradation by the passage of agricultural vehicles), [4, 10, 12, 22, 23, 27, 37, 45, 50]. Soil compaction reduces the available volume of pores in which fluids are stored, modifies the arrangement of the constituents of soil and pore geometry, with effects on fluid transport and on some ecological functions of soil, [1, 6, 12, 25, 26].

Fig. 1 – Effects of compaction on pore space [11]

In addition to environmental issues, soil compaction is also responsible for agronomic

problems: increased penetration resistance, inhibition of root development and plant growth, followed by decreased crop production, increased plowing resistance and therefore increased fuel consumption, [10, 15, 20, 23, 27, 28, 34, 43].

Due to compaction, soil not only becomes denser but also more rigid and therefore it will be processed with greater difficulty, increased energy consumption, while its friability (grinding capacity) decreases. As a result of increasing soil stiffness, the tensile forces and fuel consumption required in soil works also increase, leading to increased volume of exhaust and engines flue gas, which ultimately contributes to global warming of the atmosphere. Increasing of necessary energy has negative influence on the budget of farmers, so it is very important to limit tillage costs to optimize profit, [47].

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Compaction changes the elasticity modulus of soil and its bulk density increases, restricting root development, [12, 25], but compared to the change of soil elasticity modulus, this tends to be a minor effect. Soil compaction, expressed through increased bulk density, increases the speed of propagation of seismic waves, [25]. However, in some specific situations it can be considered that there are also some beneficial effects of soil compaction, because, [11]: - a moderate degree of compaction, particularly in dry years, might improve the contact

between soil and seeds, and the germination and growth of seedlings will take place faster; - in a moderalely compacted soil is reduced the water loss by evaporation, thus avoiding

the drying of soil near the growing seed; - there is an increase in yields in dry years; - compaction helps to build better roads (farm paths, circulation bands between cultivated rows).

In Fig. 2 are presented some visible signs of compaction. Ruts formed on the soil are an indication of its deterioration due to the traffic of agricultural vehicles. In some cases, a soil that does not show signs of rutting can be significantly affected by compaction, [39]. Rut depth is the most obvious visual indicator of compaction of the top layer of soil and it can be related to: the initial state of the soil, tire inflation pressure, tire width and the number of passes on the soil, [7]. Water can not infiltrate into compacted soil and will pond at its surface for long periods of time, [43]. Compaction can also be indicated by poor root development and therefore by deficient development of plants.

Fig. 2 – Visible effects of soil compaction: (a) ruts after the passage of an agricultural vehicle, [34],

(b) water logging, [52], (c) corn root unevenly developed, [54]

From economic and ecological perspective, on short time the compaction of arable layer has a greater impact than subsoil compaction, but in terms of sustainability, subsoil compaction is a more serious threat, [49]. After, [12], compaction of the vegetable layer of sandy soils can be improved within a year by plowing works, while heavier soils require repeated plowing works and also more freezing and drying cycles. On the other hand, regardless of the type of soil, subsoil compaction (under the plowing depth) does not improve by freeze-thaw cycles and wetting-drying cycles.

The consequences of artificial compaction of agricultural soil are still underestimated, and proper understanding of the processes involved in this phenomenon is necessary in order to prevent future challenges on global food security, [34]. Recommendations for reducing the degree of soil compaction

Proper understanding of the causes leading to soil compaction makes it possible to develop management strategies to avoid or remedy its effects. Because the remediation of compacted soil is costly, often ineffective and can last up to several years, it is important that soil works and agricultural vehicle traffic would be done only on sufficiently dry soils [13, 42] and also to apply certain measures to prevent permanent compaction.

Literature recommends the following measures to prevent soil compaction, [12, 18, 39]: - traffic of agricultural vehicles on the soil should take place only if soil moisture is lower

than 60 % of field capacity;

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- using a conservation tillage system that reduces the number of passes of agricultural machinery on the soil and consequently decreases the incidence of rut formation;

- adoption of a traffic system in controlled conditions, which limits the passage of vehicles on certain areas of the field;

- reducing the external load by reducing the mass of agricultural vehicles; - using radial tires, because they provide large footprint areas; - using the minimum inflation pressure in radial tires, according to the recommendations

of manufacturers; - providing low contact pressures by using vehicles with tandem wheels or tracks; - deep subsoiling works to remove compacted soil layers; - increasing the organic matter content of the soil by retaining crop residues; - use of crop rotation. State of soil compaction in Romania

In Romania, due to successive works, most soils are compacted, they have medium and heavy texture (clay content between 30÷50%), drainage is difficult and soils often present an impermeable layer.

Surfaces of compacted soils in Romania [hectares]

3,761,000

2,174,000

556,000 ModeratelycompactedStronglycompactedExcessivelycompacted

Fig. 3 – Vulnerability to compaction of arable soils in Romania [32]

Fig. 4 – Surfaces of soil affected by compaction in Romania [8, 21]

In recent years, in Romania has been generalized the conventional agricultural

management system, which consists of autumn plowing (with return of the furrow) at a depth of 25 ÷ 28 cm, followed by soil tillage for seedbed preparation, [31, 41]. The conventional system was used in the context of shortening crop rotation, with low mineral fertilization and without organic fertilization. These practices, along with uncontrolled irrigation, are responsible for soil physical degradation (soil compaction and destructuring and on relatively small areas of the south, overloosening), [31]. In Romania, most alluvial clay soils are affected by primary compaction, and its remediation requires drainage works followed by deep loosening. In the 1990’s, Romania had approximately 2.800.000 hectares of arable soils affected by natural compaction, while artificial compaction affected 6.700.000 hectares, [8].

Among the factors affecting the production capacity of the soil, natural compaction occurs on 2.060.000 million hectares of arable soil, while anthropic compaction affects 7.485.000 hectares of agricultural soil and 4.525.000 million hectares of arable soil, [38]. Recent data show that of the total surface of Romania’s arable soils, 3.761.000 hectares (38 %) are reduced-moderately compacted, 2.174.000 hectares (22 %) are strongly compacted, and 556.000 hectares (6 %) are excessively compacted, (Fig. 4), [8, 21].

Table 1 Surfaces of arable soils affected by compaction in Romania [8]

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Surface and low depth compaction (until 40 – 45 cm), anthropic

High depth compaction (over 40 – 45 cm), natural Total

Absent Present Absent 20 14 34

Present, of which: low and moderate 30 8 38 strong 17 5 22 very strong 5 1 6

Total 72 28 100

Arable soils worked at inadequate moisture and circulated repeatedly by agricultural machinery are compacted in the arable layer, on large areas in all regions of Romania, [21].

Table 2 Percentage of compacted soils in the arable layer in Romania [21]

Region Compacted soils (% of arable soils)

Low - moderate Strong Excessive Moldova, Bucovina 17 - 56 4 - 66 2 - 4 Transilvania 29 - 51 3 - 46 3 - 6 Banat, Crişana, Maramureş 13 - 57 5 - 65 4 - 22 Oltenia, Muntenia, Dobrogea 6 - 50 2 - 49 1 - 22 Mountain area 6 - -

State of soil compaction worldwide

In all developed countries, agricultural soils have a certain degree of compaction. According to estimations made in Europe, in 1991 over 33.000.000 hectares of agricultural soil were at subjected to the risk of compaction. Worst compaction phenomena are found in Central and Eastern Europe, where about 25.000.000 hectares are easily compacted, and 36.000.000 million hectares were severely affected by compaction.

More recent data, provided by the European Commission in 2008, in the Report on natural predisposition to compaction of soils in the 27 Member States, have allowed the mapping of the areas prone to natural compaction. The map was made on the basis of logical connections between the main relevant parameters, obtained from the European Soil Database (soil type, texture, water regime, the depth at which soil texture changes occur and limiting of soil use for agricultural purposes). As auxiliary parameters were considered: the presence of impermeable soil layer, the depth to which roots encounter obstacles, and water management system. It was assumed that any soil, being a porous medium, can be compacted, [53].

According to Flowers and Lal (1988) in, [14] and Hamza and Anderson (2003) in, [17] soil compaction has affected 33.000.000 hectares of soil in Europe, 4.000.000 hectares in Australia, 18.000.000 hectares in Africa and 10.000.000 hectares in Asia. Worldwide, 68.000.000 hectares of soil were compacted by the traffic of agricultural machinery, [14, 18]. According to studies conducted by Jones et. al. (2003, 2005), over a third of Europe's soils are prone to degradation by compaction in layers or horizons below the surface, [38].

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Fig. 5 – Natural vulnerability of soils to compaction in Europe [47]

According to Keller and Lamandé (2012), the process of artificial compaction consists in four stages (Fig. 6), [24]: - tire of agricultural machinery applies stresses on soil surface; the size of external

load determines the size of stress applied on the soil; - the higher the external load, the larger the depth at which stress is distributed in the soil; - as a reaction to the applied stress, soil deforms (the deformation depends on soil

mechanical resistance); - soil deformation leads to changes in soil structure and porosity.

Between these four stages, there are a series of links. The stress-strain behavior of soil influences the stress at soil surface and the distribution of stress in the soil depth, and the change of soil porosity influences its water retention capacity and soil resistance.

Fig. 6 - Stages of compaction, from soil stress to soil deformation and changes in soil structure and porosity, [24]

Soil resistance is considered by some experts to be the easiest parameter which

characterizes the state of soil compaction. Soil resistance is a dynamic property that changes over time under the influence of climate, agricultural practices and plant growth and the external load of agricultural machinery, animal traction and agricultural tools. Due to the dynamic nature of soil, its resistance is simultaneously affected by moisture, texture and degree of compaction, hence the use of this parameter to characterize the variability of soil compaction under field conditions is considered to be of limited trust, [37].

After, [2], the factors that influence the compaction capacity of soil by the traffic of agricultural machinery are: soil state during traffic, type and intensity of forces applied to the soil, the number and duration of loads on the soil. Internal resistance of the soil varies temporally, vertically and horizontally due to differences in soil texture, organic matter content, structure, and density of the root system and in particular due to soil moisture (Fig. 7).

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Fig. 7 – Influence of field traffic factors and soil properties on soil compaction [2]

Fig. 8 – Causal relations between the main factors influencing soil compaction [16]

A similar approach is provided by Gysi M. (2000) in [16], which divided the factors

that influence the artificial compaction of soil into two categories (Fig. 8). The first category is related to soil properties, such as precompaction state, bulk density, structure and moisture content. The second category of factors is related to the characteristics of mechanized farming operations, such as: load (pressure) on the wheel, contact pressure and working parameters (repeated passes, machine speed and vibration). Compacted soils can be regenerated by natural phenomena such as: plant growth, frost, soil shrinkage and biological activity in soil, and mechanized works of soil loosening, [16].

Larson et al. (1994) and Chamen et al. (2003) identified the following factors of influence on soil compaction: soil type, soil moisture content, mass of agricultural machinery, speed of the agricultural machinery, number of passes and the contact pressure on the soil, considering that the intensity of compaction is given by the relationship between these factors and the frequency of agricultural works, [8].

According to, [3], soil compaction is influenced by: texture, moisture content, size of the external load, size of the tire, tire inflation pressure, tire slip, speed of advance of the vehicle and the number of passes on the soil. The characteristics of compaction depend on the relationship between the applied stress and the reaction of soil volumetric parameters (i.e., deformation and porosity). In Fig. 9 are presented the main factors influencing the artificial compaction of soil after, [5, 46, 48].

Fig. 9 - Main factors influencing soil compaction, [5, 46, 48]

CONCLUSIONS

The intensity of artificial compaction, induced by agricultural vehicles, depends on: soil properties: structure, texture, moisture content; size of external load; contact pressure (determined by tire size, tire inflation pressure and external load);

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number of passes on the soil. Although factors such as: soil moisture, initial cone index, tire size and tire inflation

have a great influence on soil compaction, they don’t influence compaction in the same manner, and particular atention must be paid to the external load lon the tire (determined by the weight of the vehicle and the size of tire), respectively to soil moisture while performing the agricultural works.

Artificial compaction of agricultural soil is an extremely complex phenomenon, and research carried out so far worldwide for its assessment have not yet been able to fully explain the influence of each factor and neighter the interdependence of these factors.

REFERENCES

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[21]. Jităreanu G. 2007. Influenţa sistemelor neconvenţionale de lucrare a solului asupra durabilităţii şi biodiversităţii ecosistemelor agricole – Raport de cercetare, U.S.A.M.V „Ion Ionescu de la Brad”, Iaşi. [22]. Jones D., Kunze M. 2004. Guide to sampling soil compaction using hand-held soil penetrometers. TPS 04-1. Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands (CEMML), Colorado State University, Fort Collins. [23]. Keller T., Lamandé M. 2010. Challenges in the development of analytical soil compaction models. Soil & Tillage Research, Vol. 111, pp. 54-64. [24]. Keller T., Lamandé M. 2012. From soil stress to soil deformation: current state of the research. NJF Report. Soil compaction – effects on soil functions and strategies for prevention. Vol. 8, no. 1. Seminar 448. Helsinki, Finland. [25]. Keller T., Lamandé M., Peth S., Berli M., Delenne J.-Y., Baumgarten W., Rabbel W., Radjaï F., Rajchenbach J., Selvadurai A.P.S., Or D. 2013. An interdisciplinary approach towards improved understanding of soil deformation during compaction. Soil & Tillage Research, Vol. 128, pp. 61-80. [26]. Lipiec J., Hajnos M., Swieboda R. 2012. Estimating effects of compaction on pore size distribution of soil aggregates by mercury porosimeter. Geoderma, Vol.179-180, pp: 20-27. [27]. Manuwa S.I. 2013. Soil behaviour characteristics under applied forces in confined and unconfined spaces. InTech. Advances in Agrophysical Research. Chapter 7. pp. 151-174. [28]. Mari G. R., Changying Ji. 2008. Influence of agricultural machinery traffic on soil compaction patterns, root development, and plant growth, overview. American-Eurasian J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., Vol. 3 (1): 49-62. [29]. Mihăilescu Şt. ş.a. 1985. Maşini de construcţii, vol. 2, Editura Tehnică, Bucureşti. [30]. Ministerul Mediului şi Gospodăririi Apelor. Ordin privind aprobarea Codului de bune practici în fermă. Nr. 1234 din 14.11.2006. [31]. Model cu distribuţie spaţială pentru prognoza stării agrofizice a solului, sub influenţa lucrărilor agricole – MOSTA, Raport 2. Institutul Naţional de Cercetare – Dezvoltare pentru Pedologie, Agrochimie şi Protecţia Mediului–I.C.P.A, Bucureşti. [32]. Model cu distribuţie spaţială pentru prognoza stării agrofizice a solului, sub influenţa lucrărilor agricole – MOSTA, Raport 3. Institutul Naţional de Cercetare – Dezvoltare pentru Pedologie, Agrochimie şi Protecţia Mediului – I.C.P.A, Bucureşti. [33]. Nankali N., Namjoo M., Maleki M.R. 2012. Stress analysis of tractor interacting with soil using 2D Finite Element Method. Int. J. Advanced Design and Manufacturing Technology. Vol. 5(3): 107-111. [34]. Nawaz M. F., Bourrié G., Trolard F. 2012. Soil compaction impact and modelling. A review. Agron. Sustain. Dev. Springerlink. [35]. Oldeman L. R., Kakkeling R.T.A., Sombroek W.G. 1991. World Map of the Status of Human-Induced Soil Degradation. An explanatory Note. FAO/ISRIC. Wageningen. [36]. Patel S. K., Mani I. 2011. Effect of multiple passes of tractor with varying normal load on subsoil compaction. Journal of Terramechanics. Vol. 48, pp. 277-284. [37]. Quraishi M., Mouazen A.M. 2013. Calibration of an on-line sensor for measurement of topsoil bulk density in all soil textures. Soil & Tillage Research . Vol. 126, pp. 219-228. [38]. RAMSOL–Raport I, Institutul Naţional de Cercetare – Dezvoltare pentru Pedologie, Agrochimie şi Protecţia Mediului – I.C.P.A, Bucureşti. [39]. Raper R. L. 2005. Agricultural traffic impacts on soil. Journal of Terramechanics. Vol. 42, pp. 259-280, Elsevier. [40]. Rashidi M., Gholami M., Ranjbar I., Abbassi S. 2010. Finite element modelling of soil sinkage by multiple loadings. American-Eurasian J. Agric & Environ. Sci. Vol. 8(3), pp. 292-300. [41]. Robescu V-O., Elekes C. 2008. Degradarea solului, efect al procesului de compactare. Problemă gravă în România. Lucrări Ştiinţifice, vol. 51, seria Agronomie. USAMV Iaşi, 2008. [42]. Sağlam M., Selvi K. Ç., Dengiz O., Sarioğlu E. F. 2012. Determination of some soil phsico-chemical characteristics using factor analysis for soil tillage in Vertisol and Entisol. ISB/INMA TEH International Symposium, Bucharest, pp 165-172. [43]. Schwab G. J., Murdock L. W., Wells L. G. 2004. Assessing and preventing soil compaction. UK Cooperative Extension Service. University of Kentucky – College of Agriculture.

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[44]. Spoor G. 2006. Alleviation of soil compaction: requirements, equipment and techniques. Soil Use Manage. Vol. 22, pp. 113-122. [45]. Taghavifar H., Mardani A. 2014. Prognostication of vertical stress transmission in soil profile by adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system based modeling approach. Measurement. Vol 50, pp. 152-159. [46]. Ungureanu N., Biriş S. Şt., Voicu Gh., Paraschiv G., Ionescu M., Dilea M., Vlădu� V., Matache M. 2013. Study on the measuring equipment of stress in agricultural soil. Research People and Actual Tasks on Multidisciplinary Sciences. Proceedings of the 4th International Conference. Volume 1, pp. 394-399. Lozenec, Bulgaria. [47]. Ungureanu N., Croitoru Şt., Biriş S.Şt., Voicu Gh., Vlăduţ V., Selvi K.C., Boruz S., Maican E., Matache M., Manea D., Constantin G.Al., Ionescu M. 2015. Study of agricultural soil compaction under the action of agricultural machinery. Proceedings of the 43rd International Symposium ”Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering”, pp. 31-42, ISSN 1848-4425. Opatija, Croaţia. [48]. Ungureanu N., Voicu Gh., Biriş S.Şt., Vlăduţ V., Matache M., Ionescu M. 2014. Factors influencing the artificial compaction of agricultural soil – a review. International Symposium ISB-INMATEH, 30 oct-1 nov., pp. 500-507. Bucharest, Romania. [49]. Van den Akker J. J. H., Hoogland T. 2011. Comparison of risk assessement methods to determine the subsoil compaction risk of agricultural soils in The Netherlands. Soil & Tillage Research, Vol. 114, pp. 146-154. [50]. Way T.R., Kishimoto T., Burt E.C., Bailey A. C. 1997. Tractor tire aspect ratio effects on soil stresses and rut depth. Transactions of the ASABE. Vol. 40 (4): 871-881. 1997. [51]. Wolkowski R., Lowery B. 2008. Soil compaction: causes, concerns, and cures (A3367), Cooperative Extension Publishing, University of Wisconsin. [52]. http://adlib.everysite.co.uk/adlib/defra/content.aspx?id=2RRVTHNXTS.809L9T1O2A7N [53].http://eusoils.jrc.ec.europa.eu/library/themes/compaction/Resources/Compaction.pdf [54]. http://www.thefieldposition.com/2011/06/causes-of-uneven-corn-stands-part-1

ABOUT THE AUTHORS N. Ungureanu, P.U. Bucharest, 319 Splaiul Independenţei Bd., Bucharest Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; V. Vlăduţ, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; Gh. Voicu, P.U. Bucharest, 319 Splaiul Independenţei Bd., Bucharest Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; S. Şt. Biriş, P.U. Bucharest, 319 Splaiul Independenţei Bd., Bucharest Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; G. Paraschiv, P.U. Bucharest, 319 Splaiul Independenţei Bd., Bucharest Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; A. Atanasov, University of Rousse, 8 “Studentska” St, 7017 Ruse, Bulgaria, E-mail: [email protected]. M. Dilea, P.U. Bucharest, 319 Splaiul Independenţei Bd., Bucharest Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; M. Ionescu, P.U. Bucharest, 319 Splaiul Independenţei Bd., Bucharest Romania, E-mail: [email protected].

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RESEARCH ON THE PROCESSING OF THYME (Thymus vulgaris) PLANTS IN ORDER TO OBTAIN QUALITY PRODUCTS

A. Pruteanu1), L. David2), M. Matache1), M. Ferdes2), G. Gageanu1), A. Muscalu1)

1)INMA Bucharest / Romania; 2)P.U. Bucharest / Romania

Abstract: In the production of medicinal plants, the quality of phyto-therapeutic products is given by the quality of the plant raw material, by the quality of the processing works and by the content and quantity of bioactive substances in the plant. Through the application of modern processing operations by producers and processors, many types of medicinal plants can be valorized in a superior manner.

The paper presents the experimental determinations of some physical and dimensional properties of the plant material, constituted by thyme (Thymus vulgaris), in order to separate it on fractions (sorts) and to obtain several bioactive plant extracts from it. The determinations were conducted in the view of a correct and adequate processing of the thyme (Thymus vulgaris) plant in order to obtain quality phyto-therapeutic products.

Key words: processing, medicinal plants, thyme, quality products. INTRODUCTION

The species of medicinal and aromatic plants grown in Romania represent an important basis of raw material for the pharmaceutical industry, the cosmetics and perfume industry, but also for the food industry. From the total of the 3700 species of plants growing in our country, the medicinal flora is represented by 800 species, out of which 283 have certain therapeutic properties.

The importance of the biological active substances contained by the medicinal plants has led to increasing demands of products obtained from these plant products. That is why it is important that the valorization of these raw materials through different processing operations is achieved so that it maintains or even increases the valuable constituents of these plants.

If at the beginning of the last century over 450 species were registered as belonging to the Thymus genus, nowadays it is accepted that this genus contains at most 150 species, of which 75 are found in the European flora. The European Thymus species used in therapeutics are the following: for essential oil and herba: Thymus capitatus, T. serpyllum L., T. vulgaris L; only for herba: Thymus ×citriodorus and only for essential oil: Thymus mastichina L., T. pulegioides L., T. zygis L.[8]

Plants from the genus Thymus are important medicinal herbs, which are known to contain antimicrobial agents, and are rich in different active substances such as thymol, carvacrol, p-cymene and terpinene [7, 9] and polyphenolic compounds [3].

Since the existing data in the scientific literature of Romania on the polyphenolic fractions of Thymus pulegioides are in the paper [8] and [6].

Next will be described morphologically, biologically and the bio-chemical composition for the species of the medicinal plant analyzed. Thyme (Thymus vulgaris) is a species of plant that is perennial, herbaceous, semi-lignified at the basis, from the Thymus genus, Lamiaceae (Labiatae) family, spread on hills, meadows or alpine pastures. Harvesting is performed in the months of July-August [1].

Morphological and biological characteristics: The stem is ascendant and has 3-5 centimeters in height; The leaves are small, aromatic, linear, elliptical-ovate or rounded, plane, not dentate,

petiole, opposed, pubescent; The flowers are set in whorls, grouped in flower heads or racemes, are purple or pink and

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cyclamen, rarely white having the calyx cylindrical-campanula with five teeth, three superior, short, two inferior, long, a short floral tube, pubescent, in exterior the corolla with an ovate superior base, emarginated, four-angled.

Thyme (Thymus vulgaris) contains 0.5-1.2 % volatile oil (thymol, carvacrol), bitter substances, 4-8 % tannins, ursolic acid and caffeic acid, flavonoid glycosides, mineral salts of the malic acid.

For the accurate correlation of technical characteristics of the equipment for sorting medicinal plants is important to know the physical and dimensional characteristics of the fragments of chopped medicinal plants [4, 5, 10], that is why in the paper these characteristics will be determined in the view of processing and obtaining plant extracts.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The determining of physical characteristics of thyme fragments was performed following common methods [10]. In order to determine the dimensional characteristics of the chopped plant material, five samples were analyzed, for each sample was weighed on the precision scales a quantity of 120g of plant material that was sieved on the sieve classifier, at the amplitude of 50 mm, for 5 minutes. On each sieve was found a quantity of plant material that represented the totality of fragments with smaller sizes than the meshes of the upper sieve, and with larger sizes than the meshes of the sieve through which it passed, figure 2.

For thyme chopped at 2 mm, the sieve setting was the following one: collector – 2.2 – 3.15 – 4.5 – 6.3 mm, and the collecting of material on sieves in presented in figure 1.

Figure 1 – Thyme fragments separated on sieves with different meshes

After setting the dimensional fractions, was passed to the extraction of bioactive

substances in each fraction. On the analytical scales, 20 g of plant material was weighed from each fraction obtained from sorting, in which were added in turns 250 ml of solvent, water and respectively ether. The samples were stirred for 10 minutes until the mixture was homogeneous and the plant product was soaked in the solvent. Then each sample was placed on the water bath of a rotavap in order to achieve more rapidly the maceration procedure. In order to provide a continuous stirring on the water bath, the parameters of the rotavap were set: rotation speed of the vial was 100 rpm, the temperature 50o C and the time 120 minutes. After the time expired, the macerate obtained was filtered on filter paper and the plant material was dried in a drying oven at 105o C, for 3 hours.

The solvent from the macerate was recovered, on the rotavap and the plant extract was concentrated for all corresponding fractions, the samples was weighed and were determined the water quantity, the dry matter and the quantity of extract concentrated in bioactive substances.

For the macerates obtained from different sorts, the color intensity was lower as the sizes of the fractions were increasing.

Regarding the recovery of solvent from the macerate, it was found that it is recovered in a short time (approximate 10 minutes), but also in a high proportion, 80%, keeping in mind that there were also some loses during the preparation of the macerate.

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For extracts obtained from each fraction were made dilutions and were measured quantitatively the spectra of absorption with the UV-VIS spectrometer with double fascicule.

For the analysis of extracts with the spectrometer, was first performed a correction to the baseline of 380-780 nm with distilled water, then the extracts were diluted with the dilution factor 100/1 for ether extracts and 500/1 for water extracts.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In the case of chopped fragments, were determined experimentally the most important physical properties that characterize the process of sieve separation, the values obtained are given in table 1.

Table 1 – Values of the physical properties of thyme chopped plant [4]

Humidity [%]

Average diameter

[mm]

Volume mass

[kg/m3]

Density [kg/m3]

Porositytea [%]

Specific surface

x103 [m2/kg]

Angle of repose, ψ [0]

Static coefficient of friction, μ

Steel sheet Wire meshing

10.6 2.97 78 56.4 38 35.82 63.82 0.703÷1.150 1.005÷1.451

Mass and percentage values obtained after classifying are shown in table 2, and

aspects of the sieved fragment are shown in figure 1. Table 2 – Distribution by fraction sizes of thyme fragments

Sample number Limits of dimensional fractions of thyme [mm]

0- 2.2 2.21-3.15 3.16-4.5 4.6-6.3 [g] [%] [g] [%] [g] [%] [g] [%]

1 83.64 69.72 29.86 24.88 4.37 3.64 1.68 1.4 2 83.89 69.9 30.07 25.06 4.81 4.0 1.25 1.04 3 84.1 70.08 29.21 24.34 5.02 4.18 1.9 1.58 4 84.32 70.26 29.42 24.52 4.59 3.82 2.11 1.76 5 84.52 70.44 29.64 24.7 4.16 3.46 1.46 1.22

Sample average 84.1 70.08 29.64 24.7 4.59 3.82 1.68 1.4

The results obtained from the dimensional analysis of thyme fragments were transposed graphically in figure 3 by representing the quantity of material that passed through the sieve PASSED (P) and of the REFUSAL (R), expressed as percentages, depending on mesh sizes.

The variation curves for the percentages of sieved material, of refusal and of the distribution of plant material on sieves depending on the mesh sizes are shown in figure 2.

Figure 2 - Variation curves for the percentages of sieved material, of refusal and of the

distribution of plant material on sieves

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These curves establish in percentage the distribution of plant material separately from the first to the last sieve of the classifier with vibrating motion and can be used for choosing the adequate sieves that allow the separation of fragments corresponding to the percentage of plant material desired in order to obtain quality plant extracts but also for determining the flows of sieved material and of refusals.

Table 3 – Content of plant extracts obtained from thyme fractions

Plant sort

Dry matter after maceration

[g]

Water in the sample mass

Water extract Ether extract

[g] [%] [g] [%] [g] [%] I thyme 17.808 2.192 10.96 2.345 13.17 3.069 17.24 II thyme 17.651 2.349 11.75 1.929 10.93 2.185 12.38 III thyme 17.902 2.098 10.49 0.987 5.52 1.121 6.27 IV thyme 17.953 2.047 10.24 0.906 5.04 1.044 5.81 After analyzing the spectra of absorption obtained, it was possible to state the

concentration for each extract obtained from the thyme fractions. The spectra of absorption for the extracts obtained from thyme fractions in ether are

shown in figure 3 and those in water are presented in figure 4. Wavelength

(nm) Abs

669.00 0.371 610.00 0.052 532.00 0.067 471.00 0.309 409.00 0.930

Wavelength (nm)

Abs

669.00 0.233 610.00 0.037 532.00 0.047 471.00 0.204 409.00 0.568

Wavelength (nm)

Abs

669.00 0.119 531.00 0.032 471.00 0.115 409.00

0.298

Wavelength (nm)

Abs

747.00 0.001 669.00 0.055 531.00 0.015 409.00

0.146

Figure 3 - Spectrograms in ether for thyme fractions

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Figure 4 - Spectrograms in water with a dilution of 1/500 for thyme fractions

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

From analyzing the variation curves of the percentages of sieved material, refusals and of the distribution of plant material on the sieves depending on the mesh sizes of the classifier, recommendations can be given regarding the process of sorting medicinal plant fragments and the dimensions of sorts (fractions) can be identified: sort I had dimensions between 0.1-2.2 mm, sort II between 2.21-3.15 mm, sort III between 3.16-4.5 mm and sort IV between 4.51-6.3 mm.

From table 3 is observed the content of bioactive substances for thyme sorts, from sort I with sizes smaller than 2.2 , was extracted a maximum of 17.24 % in ether and 13.7% in water, sort I was followed by sorts II, III and IV with the maximum extraction in ether.

Data obtained from spectrograms offers information regarding the qualitative and quantitative analysis of alcoholic and water extracts from the medicinal plant studied. The qualitative analysis is identified through the spectrum of absorption from which structural information can be deducted on the basis of peaks. The quantitative analysis is identified from the amplitude of absorption and depends on the concentration of the main substance in the solution, the substance with antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory character etc.

From the spectra performed for thyme sorts extracted in ether, are observed the following:

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- The maximum concentration was at sort I, for a wavelength of 409 nm and the absorbance of 0.930, followed by sort II with the absorbance at 0.568 for the same wavelength;

- For sorts III and IV, the absorbance is very low, 0.298 respectively 0.146 for the wavelength of 409 nm.

The spectra from diluted water extracts of thyme show a maximum absorbance of 10.00 for sorts I and II at a dilution of 500/1, followed by sort III with the absorbance higher than 1.505 and sort IV with the absorbance higher than 1.265.

Knowing the physical and dimensional characteristics of the plant material is important for optimizing the processes of separation and extraction, for building specialized equipment with high performances in processing medicinal plants.

Choosing adequate technologies for their primary and advanced processing implies an adequate adjustment of the working bodies and choosing the optimal working regimes for the machine in an ensemble, in order to obtain quality phyto-therapeutic products. In the context of reappearance of plants on the Romanian market and developing the interest in natural remedies, the sorting of medicinal plants on dimensional fractions is an important premise for making quality phyto-therapeutic products.

REFERENCES

[1] Ardelean A., Mohan Gh., 2008, Romanian Medicinal Flora, All Pub., Bucharest [2] Bojor Ovidiu, 2003, Medicinal and aromatic plant guide from A to Z, Fiat Lux Pub., [3] Boros B., Jakabova S., Dornyei A., Horvath G., Pluhar Z., Kilar F., Felinger A., 2010, Determination of polyphenolic compounds by liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry in Thymus species, Journal of Chromatography A, 1217, 7972–7980 [4] Constantin G.A., Voicu Gh., Ştefan M.E., Paraschiv G., 2013 - Research of the grist dimensional characteristics of the second matter grinding in an industrial wheat mill, vol. 39, no. 1, INMATEH Journal, ISSN 2068-2239 [5] Ipate George, Căsăndroiu Tudor, 2009 – Physical properties of agro-food products; Politehnica Press Pub., Bucharest, ISBN 978-606-515-051-5 [6] Mărculescu A., Vlase L., Hanganu D., Drăgulescu C., Antonie I., Neli-Kinga O., 2007, Polyphenols analyses from Thymus species; Proc. Rom. Acad., Series B, 3, p. 117–121 [7] Nabavi S., Marchese A. , Izadi M., Curti V., Daglia M., Nabavi F., 2015, Plants belonging to the genus Thymus as antibacterial agents: from farm to pharmacy; Food Chemistry, 173, 339–347 [8] Necula R., Aprotosoaie C., Cioanca O., Gille E., Stanescu U., 2011 Contributions to the study of the biochemical variability of the polyphenols existing in 8 Thymus Pulegioides populations from Northern Moldavia; Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Brasov; Series VI: Medical Sciences; Vol. 4 (53); No. 2; 15-22. [9] Pereira o., Cardoso S., Overview on Mentha and Thymus polyphenols, 2013, Current Analytical Chemistry, 9, 382-396 [10] Pruteanu A., David L., Muscalu A., 2015, Experimental research on the quality of plant material, in order to optimize procedures of processing medicinal plants, OPROTEH, Bacău, June 4 – 6.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

A. Pruteanu, M. Matache, G. Gageanu, A. Muscalu, National Institute of Research-Development for Machines and Installations Designed to Agriculture and Food Industry Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1, Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

L. David, M. Ferdes, “Politehnica” University of Bucharest, 313 Splaiul Independentei 060042, Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

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ASPECTS REGARDING THE FACTORS INFLUENCING

SOIL COMPACTION

Vlăduţ D.I.1), Croitoru Şt.2), Atanasov At.3), Vlăduţ V.4), Biriş S.Şt.1), Paraschiv G.1), Duţu M.F.1), Dumitru I.2), Ungureanu N.1), Găgeanu I.4), Mircea I.D.1)

1)P. U. Bucharest; 2)University of Craiova; 3)University of Craiova; 4)INMA Bucharest

Abstract: Currently soil compaction represents a real issue in Romania, the EU but also worldwide, a reason for which researchers looks for solutions to reduce it. The paper presents a few aspects and considerations regarding the most important factors that influence soil compaction and the manner in which they can be minimized in order to reduce this phenomenon.

Key words: soil, compaction, factors, works, agriculture INTRODUCTION

In order to assess the physical condition of soil at a given time, to determine the correlation between soil compactness status and the resistance to agricultural works or to the development of plant roots or to determine the load bearing capacity of the land, technical method that measures simultaneously the resistance that the soil opposes to the penetration with a standard metal body and the depth of penetration [3, 4, 9]. Worldwide, countries like United States of America, Canada, Germany, Great Britain and the Netherlands, with great potential for research, promote a sustained policy for controlling soil compaction on agricultural land by machinery and agricultural tractors, building penetrometers that also ensure simultaneously measurement of soil moisture.

Compaction is one of the main threats to the sustainability of soil quality in Europe, the European Union currently facing eight main soil degradation processes: erosion, organic matter degradation, contamination, salinisation, compaction, lose of soil biodiversity, withdrawal from the agricultural circuit, landslides and floods [2, 8].

Compaction is seldom seen as a consequence of poor management of the traditional agriculture and represents the most difficult type of soil degradation, [1, 6, 7], being a phenomenon difficult to locate and streamline, invisible, cumulative and persistent (Horn et. a, 1995), mainly because it does not manifest itself visibly at the surface of the soil [1, 5].

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Soil compaction can be prevented after taking measures concerning the manner of conducting agricultural works and measures of a constructive nature regarding the agricultural equipment: performing agricultural works in the conditions when the soil has an optimal humidity; reducing the number of crossings on the soil surface by using complex agricultural aggregates, reducing the pressure on the soil surface by using tires with a radial construction, low pressure tires, with larger balloon sizes, twin wheels or elastic tracks; reducing load on the axels of tractors, harvesting combines and agricultural machinery by increasing the number of axels; increasing the percentage of organic matter contained by the soil mass.

RESULTS

Implementation of intensive agricultural production systems led to the use of heavy machinery with high working capacity requiring high traction forces. The traffic of these machines causes soil compaction and general structural degradation, reducing porosity

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and creating barriers to air, water and nutrient movement and root penetration (Carrara et al., 2003; Febo and Pessina, 2002). Soil compaction consists in the increase of the natural density of the ground even at superficial depth (from 0-0.50 m) where the elongated pores distributed along the lines parallel to the ground surface are prevalent to the ones that are normally distributed on the surface of the soil, which are relevant for water drainage ( Febo et al., 1998). Repeated crossings on the soil surface can cause uneven field surface, having a low permeability to water and nutrients and high resistance to root penetration. Root characteristics, such as diameter, elongation and morphology, are negatively affected by soil compaction.

In order to understand whether or not a land is subject to soil compaction, the farmer has to question the intensity, extension, spatial and temporal variation, depth, thickness and duration of the compaction, which requires an investigation on the field. Only a correct local monitoring and suitable mapping of the compacted areas allow us to perform an optimal soil processing, because the processing depth can be optimized depending on the depth of compaction. The processing at a variable depth can be carried out by working just below the compacted layer, and only where it is necessary (Basso et al., 2003). Therefore, farmers can save fuel, labor and equipment wear.

Information about the soil is necessary in the precision agriculture in order to lead and understand plant growth and the behavior of the land to repeated crossings of agricultural machinery. Soil penetration resistance and shear resistance are among the soil parameters affecting crop production by limiting production potential and affect mobility of the machines by limiting the potential of traction. Regions of high mechanical resistance in the soil may result from the natural characteristics of soil, heavy agricultural machinery traffic or hardpan formation by soil processing. Therefore, soil quality should be determined and analyzed in order to increase crop productivity and soil capability to enable repeated crossings of agricultural machinery.

The values of soil resistance are important for the soil classification and the profile of the resistance to penetration together with the depth are necessary for the quantification of the degree of soil compaction. Also, it contributes to providing a common system for characterizing the properties of the soil from where it is possible to determine the number of crossings of agricultural machinery, in order to be able to forecast the traction performance (Wismer & Luth, 1974; Brixius, 1987; ASAE, 2000b). Abrasive Wear: is a mechanical process and is manifested by the wear of softer

surfaces by harder particles or by the roughness of the harder surface. Hard particles may come from the environment external to the coupling (dust, sand, etc.) or can be wear particles detached in the process of adhesion or wear. In general, in the soil there may be several materials with different micro-hardness, a series of materials that are found in the soil having a high hardness and can easily cut certain constituents of the superficial layer of the parts submitted to abrasive wear, such as: ferrite, pearlite, austenite, etc.

Soil humidity: it is an essential element influencing the pressure on the friction surface. At low humidity, the pressure is high and vice versa. In the range of working speeds of soil processing machines, the pressure is also influenced by the working speed. With increasing the working speed, the pressure on the friction surface increases. Humidity strongly influences the intensity and character of the abrasive wear. Soil moisture variation results in the variation of a number of factors such as: density, the cutting force, coefficient of friction, pressure on the metal surface, etc. With the variation of these factors, the soil abrasion attribute also changes. The experiments conducted so far have shown that changing soil humidity leads to a wide variation of the abrasive wear. Humidity in the soil is a necessary feature for practical purposes (for example managerial decisions: starting agricultural works, remediation of lands with large

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deviations from the average humidity, initiating the irrigation work, etc.), but also for scientific purposes (humidity is a soil parameter involved in most of the physical and chemical processes in the soil) .For the determination of humidity maps of lands, not necessarily only for agricultural use, it is necessary to highlight the geographical location of humidity measuring, which, when the area is vast (generalized diameter of 20 meters), is indicated to be performed using a GPS device, coupled or not with a soil moisture sensor. If the area is narrow, setting the coordinates for humidity measurement can be done using a tool to measure distances, setting in advance a reference system. If the correlation with weather conditions is desired, in order to use data from complex calculations, with practical or scientific applications, the weather conditions (temperature, pressure, wind speed, air humidity), can be measured simultaneously, or it is even possible to record weather data.

The coefficient of friction: increases along with the increase of soil humidity. It increases to a maximum and then decreases with the increase of humidity. Increasing the friction coefficient with increasing soil moisture is explained by the increase of molecular attractive forces of the soil particles by the metal surface. The decrease of the coefficient of friction along with the further increase of moisture, is due this time to the lubricating property of the water that is between the metal surface and the ground. The coefficient of friction of a sandy soil and a metal surface is less than the coefficient of friction between soil loamy or clay and the same metal surface.

Soil texture: also influences the process of abrasive wear, by texture understanding the manner how are presented in the soil the size, shape and proportion of different elementary particles out of which it is constituted.

The compactness of soil influences the pressure on the friction surface of the working bodies, along with an increase in the soil compactness, the pressure increases, and on heavy soils, the pressure on the friction surface has high values..

Considerations on estimating the degree of soil compaction The exact and rapid calculation of the degree of soil compaction is, at least for the

current stage of development of measuring instruments, difficult, if not impossible. Because the only coherent definition for the compaction degree uses the ratio of densities in natural state and in dry state and compressed at 200 kPA, it results that an exact estimation is practically impossible. Taking a soil sample from a certain depth affects at least the soil from the vicinity of the contact area with the sampling instrument.

Accepting the resistance to penetration as a measurement for the degree of soil compaction is motivated by experimental considerations, theoretical models not being able to demonstrate the validity of this acceptance and not even to formulate conditions in which the acceptance is valid. Some authors appreciate that the penetrometer method was used in agriculture and horticulture first to try to measure the pressure that the roots of plants face when growing in the soil. The method is frequently used because it is easy to operate, gives instant results and is relatively economical.

The degree of soil compaction is a complex notion, especially because it is associated with several other soil parameters and is manifested differently for different types of soil. The definition of the degree of compaction is given in terms of volume density so that, in general, in the specialty literature are accepted the results of the penetrometer only as a measure of the degree of compaction and not as an exact estimation of the degree.

Some researchers accept the value of the penetration tension of 3 MPa, as a critical compaction value and with the decision of compaction is associated the value of 10 % of the porosity. Other authors accept as limit for the characterization of the compacted soil

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the value of 2 MPa, and others admit as limit resistance of the soil to penetration of the soil, characteristic to a compacted soil, the value of 300 psi, meaning 2.068 MPa.

Table 1 Compaction limits in the resistance to penetration tension

Qualitative compaction degree Resistance to penetration tension [MPa]

Low compaction effects <1.0 Medium compaction effects 1.0 – 1.5 Severe compaction effects e 2.0 – 3.0

Table 2]

Estimating compactness in terms of volume density Soil Volume density, kg/m3

Soil well structured, rich in humus, organic matter 900 Alluvial humus 1100 Clayey soil average structured 1300 Sand 1500 Compacted soil or argillaceous in the subsoil 1300 - 1600

Measuring the penetration tension with the penetrometer is, from a strictly practical

point of view, an operation independent from other measurements, even from the weather and positioning, if the value of the tension interest only for the soil characterization. Performed isolated, this operation loses a lot of the richness of information that be offered by coupling it with the geographic positioning, correlated with the weather conditions, but especially with the humidity.

Adherence is the property of soil particles to stick to the active metallic parts of the agricultural tools and machines cu which they come in contact at a certain degree of humidity. Dry soil or soil that has low humidity (below 16%) does not have adherence, and for soils with a humidity over 30%, adherence decreases gradually. Maximum values for soil adherence are, in consequence, for the humidity interval of 16-30%. When the optimal humidity for agricultural works is exceeded, it shows higher values as the soil is richer in clay and, namely, up to 0.2 N/cm2 in the case of adhesion to steel.

Adhesion is determined by pressing a soil fragment between the fingers. The appreciation of adhesion is performed thus: - Not adhesive, the material does not adhere to fingers or other foreign bodies; - Low adhesive, has a low adherence, but is detached easily, the fingers remaining

clean; - Moderate adhesive, has a clear adherence and are hard to detach, a part of the

material remains on the fingers; - Very adhesive, the soil detaches very hard, when attempting to remove it, the material

remains impregnated in the digital print.

CONCLUSIONS Throughout the time, the soil can undergo different processes that can affect its

structure and quality, as a result of natural phenomena or of those caused by humans, abrasive wear, soil humidity, the coefficient of friction and soil texture being the main factors influencing soil compaction.

Knowing these factors is important in performing mechanical works and for adequate design of agricultural machinery, in order to obtain works with the desired quality indices and a high working productivity.

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REFERENCES

[1]. Barik K., Aksakal E. L., Islam K. R., Sari S., Angin I. - Spatial variability in soil compaction properties associated with field traffic operations, Catena, 120, pp. 122-133, 2014; [2]. Canarache A. – Physics of agricultural soils, Ceres Pub., Bucharest, 1990; [3]. Dumitru E. – Residual effects of agricultural practices on the physical status of the soil, Risoprint Pub., Cluj-Napoca, 1999; [4]. Fechete L.V. – Research on the optimization of the process of mechanical soil processing, Doctoral Thesis, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, 2008; [5]. Hamza M.A., Anderson W. K. - Soil compaction in cropping systems. A review of the nature, causes and possible solutions, Soil & Tillage Research 82: 121-145, 2005; [6]. Keller T., Lamandé M. - Challenges in the development of analytical soil compaction models, Soil & Tillage Research, 111, pp. 54-64, 2010; [7]. Oldeman L. R., Kakkeling R.T.A., Sombroek W.G. - World Map of the Status of Human-Induced Soil Degradation, An explanatory Note. FAO/ISRIC. Wageningen, 1991; [8]. Robescu V-O., Elekes C. – Soil degradation, an effect of the compaction process. A severe issue in Romania, Scientific works, vol. 51, Agronomy Series. USAMV Iaşi, 2008; [9]. Ţenu I. ş.a. - The impact of mechanization technologies on soil, Environmental Engineering and Management Journal, Vol. 8, 2009. No.5, p.1263-1267.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

D.I. Vlăduţ, P.U. Bucharest, 319 Splaiul Independenţei Bd., Bucharest Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; Ş. Croitoru, University of Craiova, 13 Alexandru Ioan Cuza St, Craiova, Romania, e-mail: [email protected]; A. Atanasov, University of Rousse, 8 “Studentska” St, 7017 Ruse, Bulgaria, E-mail: [email protected]. V. Vlăduţ, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; S. Şt. Biriş, P.U. Bucharest, 319 Splaiul Independenţei Bd., Bucharest Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; G. Paraschiv, P.U. Bucharest, 319 Splaiul Independenţei Bd., Bucharest Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; M.F. Duţu M.F., P.U. Bucharest, 319 Splaiul Independenţei Bd., Bucharest Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; I. Dumitru, University of Craiova, 13 Alexandru Ioan Cuza St, Craiova, Romania, e-mail: [email protected]; N. Ungureanu, P.U. Bucharest, 319 Splaiul Independenţei Bd., Bucharest Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; I. Găgeanu, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; I.D. Mircea, P.U. Bucharest, 319 Splaiul Independenţei Bd., Bucharest Romania, E-mail: [email protected];

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OPTIMIZATION OF SOIL WORKS FOR MAINTAINING A GOOD

AGROPHYSICS STATE OF THE SOIL

Vlăduţoiu L.1, 2), Croitoru Şt.3), Tudor A.1), Atanasov At.4), Vlăduţ V.2), Biriş S.Şt.1), Dumitru I.3), Radu O.2)

1)P. U. Bucharest; 2)INMA Bucharest; 3)University of Craiova; 4)University of Russe

Abstract: Reduction of soil degradation and improvement of those degraded through conventional technologies along with the reduction of energy consumption is a necessity for maintaining / restoration of the agro-physical state of the soil. The paper presents some issues and considerations related to the works and the factors to be taken into consideration, to maintain a good agro-physical condition of the soil.

Key words: soil, techniques, properties, forces, particles

INTRODUCTION

Soil means the superficial layer of the terrestrial crust resulting from the disintegration and alteration of the rocks under the influence of climatic and biological factors ensuring the life of the organisms. The external loosened layer of the lithosphere found under the scope of the biosphere and atmosphere and having characteristic of fertility is called soil [1, 2].

From the physical point of view, the soil is solid, liquid, gas and consists of a set of mineral particles of various states of aggregation and size. These particles are bound to one another due to physical forces and contact forces physico-chemical functions as a binder. The soil consists of the steps of: solid, liquid and gaseous. - - The solid phase, which accounts for approximately 50% of the volume is made up of

a part of the mineral (approx. 45%) and an organic (approx. 5%). - - Liquid and gaseous phase represents 50% of the soil, tending to exclude each other.

The liquid phase or the soil solution, the water content of the soil in which there are dissolved salts, the anions and cations resulting from the dissociation of dissolved salts, organic acids, etc.

- - The gaseous phase comprises air from soil characterized by a high content of CO2 and other gases.

The soil is a natural body traits, fertility, formed by the action of creatures long and climatic factors on the rocks of the mineral from the land surface. Earth ensures food products, raw materials for industry and not least, unsuspected energy. Soil is support human life and welfare. Life on the planet, soil, atmosphere, water and landforms have developed together. Nothing would be the same without the others [1, 3].

The soil is an exhaustible resource, also can be heavily eroded, but will remain living epidermis of the planet Earth on which terrestrial life. The man tends to regard soil as inexhaustible resource; he can learn to spare this resource, but in most situations, man exploits the soil without paying any attention to its qualities. The soil is a natural formation that was born and evolve under the influence of natural vegetation and environmental factors.

The soil is the result of cumulative five natural factors of soil formation factors or factors referred pedogenetical, these being: climate, rock, topography, living organisms and evolution at that time were subsequently added random factors, such as: stagnant water, human activity on groundwater and soil.

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MATERIAL AND METHODS

The development of mechanized farming techniques respectively the use of tractors and machines from increasingly larger and heavier, with benefits on productivity and economic efficiency has led to the intensification and expansion of soil degradation processes, especially of the destructuration and anthropic compaction [6, 8].

A particular problem is that which occurs in drier climates where intensive work the soil and plant debris removal contributes to loss of water from soil, emphasizing the drought and desertification processes. [2, 5, 7].

In the countries or industrialized areas with high inputs, various communities of politicians, professionals, farmers have been fascinated by powerful tractors and agricultural equipment, which is regarded as a visible symbol of progress, the modern farm, claiming the use in agriculture on a large scale. Even in low-resource agriculture from the small farms, the tractor quickly became the symbol of welfare, giving a higher social status.

The mechanization in agriculture as well as in other fields represent the modality the most obvious, which is associated with the progress, with the economy development and of a prosperous society.

RESULTS

The intensification of the mechanization, however, as in the case of excessive fertilization, determined the emergence of that "conflictual" state between the immediate positive effects of the loosening and excessive soil mobilization and the long-term negative effects.

The basic work of the soil outside of a good weed control, even of different pests in soil and sowing facilities has immediate positive effects uncontested: soil surface roughening, removing the compact layer on the surface, increasing the speed of infiltration water in the soil and reduce the risk of excess water and erosion, increased nitrogen mineralization rate of organic matter decomposition processes and the rapid stimulation of plant growth and development effects that unfortunately are only short-term.

However, the scientific community argues that there is compatibility between the two concepts, based on the fact that both the productivity of ecosystems and their vulnerability to degradation are basically controlled by the same factors, such as: the climate, the soil, the relief or the topography, the hydrology and the agricultural management and by the same processes.

Providing a healthy and harmonious environment, ie quality: soil, water, air, vegetation and food in sufficient quantity and quality is of fundamental human rights, even if much of the world's population can not benefit from them today. This problem is unique, especially in countries in poor areas dominated by extensive agriculture with limited resources, subsistence agriculture, even primitive, and by areas where the population is growing. In these conditions, the soil degradation processes and the environment are caused by low inputs, which often causes nutritional imbalances, and / or components of agricultural technological systems that are not properly applied in relation to the degree of suitability of the land, and / or towards the crop needs.

Romania, although it is part of the very poorest countries, however, face particular difficulties because the large agricultural technologies are extensive areas with limited resources, relying on the minimum level of mechanization, on human labor and animal traction. Often, the so-called "agricultural technologies" sometimes are applied to plots of 1-2 ha, and where are used intensively in farms with large areas are not always in

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agreement with the local traditions: the requirement to work the soil with moisture condition, its level of supply in nutrients, often with crop needs etc.

In the energy-intensive agriculture with high inputs: work excessive soil, heavy farm machinery, very high doses of mineral fertilizers and by other agrochemicals used to control diseases, pests and weeds, emphasizing possible and even challenge of new forms of the the soil degradation and by other resources. Among the most widespread negative processes mention: ball movement and by leaching of nutrients and other chemicals causing contamination of ground water resources, soil translocation of their vegetative mass, and hence the entire food chain; excessive growth of the state of soil compactness, excess surface water and erosion risk; creşetrea emissions leading to soil degradation and global warming the atmosphere. It can not be neglected any negative influence on the agricultural technological system change and loss of biodiversity due to excessive soil loosening mode, eliminating plant debris from the surface, decrease the content and by the soil organic matter degradation.

Now, it is widely accepted by different communities: scientific, practitioners, politicians, etc., that agriculture can have a negative impact on various environmental resources regardless of their social development.

Therefore, the agriculture must take on the responsibility to protect, improve and conserve the quality of those resources that affect them. This can be achieved only through a national strategy and by through consistent and adequate legislation, which would encourage and stimulate those who do right, but at the same time and to penalize those who commit mistakes.

Numerous studies and research internationally and in our country showed that between farming systems and crop technology, state of the environment, the economic development and quality of life are closely interdependent. Continuing intensification of agriculture will intensify the negative effects on the environment by degrading various components: soil, air, surface and depth etc., affecting the development and promotion of sustainable economy and by a healthy society. Therefore, the objective of sustainable agricultural management should seek to minimize and even eliminate the adverse effects of the intensification of agriculture.

Looking at the edaphical resource, sustainable use implies the reduction to eliminate the negative impact of degradation processes, increasing the soil's resilience and the restoration of its quality status.

The decisive factor of the state of soil quality and at the same time, the most important source of nutrients for plants, particularly for farmers working in areas with limited resources, of subsistence, is the organic carbon.

Consequently, various agricultural technological systems must impose, by increasing their rings technological and conservation of organic matter, namely of the reserve of quality humus in the soil.

In the agricultural policies of various countries, especially in the last 50 years, huge efforts have been made to modernize agriculture to increase productivity, increasing agriculture's contribution to economic development, but unfortunately, it was this development was accompanied by a number serious negative effects on the environment.

In the European Union is estimated that almost 30% of the territory is the 50.5% for forestry and agriculture; the most widespread agricultural system, the conventional practice has been generalized. It was characterized mainly by: loosening and processing works with returning excessive soil tillage, crop residues total elimination from the surface or even the burning of stubble, intense fertilization and short rotations.

It is recognized not only by specialists in the field, but also by ever larger communities, the fundamental role of soil by its functions: the changing biodiversity, climate change, protecting the environment, promoting and developing agriculture as a

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form of the conservative sustainable agriculture, in economic development and in the prosperity of the society.

The soil functions, related to the non-agricultural human activities, refer to: the soil as a physical environment, serving as a space for the development of

technical and industrial structures, rural and urban settlements, access roads and surface socio-cultural activities;

the soil as a source of the natural raw materials providing water, clay, sand, gravel, minerals, fibrous and of construction materials etc.;

the soil as cultural space, representing each nation a true "museum" of preservation or wealth, paleontological and geological treasures and relics.

The ecological functions of the soil covers: the production of biomass, environmental protection, biological habitat and reserve the genes.

In the production of biomass fundamental role of soil is the soil representing the very basis of the existence of human life and animals by providing the necessary resources for food and renewable energy materials. Soil, by its very nature, through its components, through its natural processes ensure production of biomass.

To achieve biomass crops of high energy-intensive agriculture, they are usually used excessive doses of fertilizer and other agrochemicals used to control diseases, pests and weeds, soil amid the intensive work that can have negative effects on soil . Uncontrolled application of "fertilizer" unconventional organic (sewage sludge, industrial sludge, domestic waste) containing large amounts of organic material, but often some toxic chemical compounds can have serious negative effects in the the environment pollution. In the intensive farming systems, but also in the extensive low-input or may be present technological errors in the agricultural practices [4].

Among the most common are: inadequate irrigation, soil Working without respecting workability and trafficability optimal conditions (optimum water content in soil cultivation, harvest, transport crops); unbalanced application of mineral fertilization and / or organic without taking into account reserves in the soil and plant requirements; short rotations without ameliorative crops. These are soils with use arable major causes degradation processes that determine and enhance the physical, chemical and biological soil, which in turn causes damage to other resources: surface water and groundwater, the atmosphere, flora and fauna.

The soil function of environmental protection is manifested through the processes of: buffering, processing, purification and filtration. At the same time, this function înconurător environmental of soil is the extremely complex, depending on stability, quality and nature of macro and micro-pore system of the soil.

The porosity of the soil is the the one that controls the transport processes of the solutions to the plant through the root mass, to the water layer or to the surface water, and absorbing the toxic chemical components makes this medium to act as a buffer and filtering. When into the soil the mechanical filtering capacity and physicochemical buffering, the capabilities of the microbiological and biochemical transformation are exceeded, then the organic and inorganic components of the solution are transferred to soil, and hence they can then be transported in the depth or surface waters, or can be extracted by the roots of plants, affecting the entire food chain.

Ensuring the biological environment of life, natural habitat for many species, and also as a store of genes for different species of plant and animal organisms, is the third very important ecological function of the soil.

In this environment coexist many living organisms, from bacteria and fungi to meso and macrofauna. All these living organisms are particularly important role in maintaining a

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normal and natural process of physical, chemical and biological that contribute to soil fertility.

Preserving the genetic potential from soil has a fundamental role in biological processes, so that agricultural practices be applied in a way that does not lead to degradation or destruction of this wealth.

The conventional agriculture, energy-intensive, has seriously affected the function of the soil. The best example is the disappearance lumbricides who major role in reconstruction processes naturally the structural state as a whole, but especially the macro- and micro-structural aggregates quality, porous and having high capacity to resist destructive action of water and agricultural tools. Along with other bodies, lumbricides were affected by increased concentration of heavy metals, herbicides uncontrolled application of excessive use of mineral fertilizers or organic fertilizers liquids, intensive work of the soil significantly reducing soil and food enhancing water losses by removing or the burning of the vegetal remnants.

Thanks to the followers of the intensive modern technologies, the anthropic pressure exerted on the soil, over time, greatly increased due to increased mechanization and agricultural machinery growing larger, heavier and faster, the excessive use of highly active mineral fertilizers for immediate growth from nutrient concentration soil and stimulate the rapid development of the plants.

As the requirements of humanity became larger, the agricultural technology systems have increased and their negative effects on soil processes have become more severe. Since the soil condition is the requirement decisive in ensuring the success the conservative agricultural technologies and environmental protection in different areas of the world and in Europe are intensified studies on its ability multifunctional precisely linked above three ecological functions, as well as its resilience capacity.

The capacity of resilience of the soil depends on many factors and processes. Soil is a mineral-organic and dynamic entity has the ability to restore to rebuild its vital processes that have been degraded by certain human activities, if they were not severe and if the period covered after the termination of their action it is sufficiently long.

However, under certain conditions, the soil may suffer irreversible degradation processes, if "pressure" put on him is very severe and its vital processes are completely destroyed!

The resilience capacity of a soil depends on the ratio established between the ability to restore or recovery and the degradation. These in their turn depend on the intensity of vital processes of degradation due to anthropogenic disturbances, the type and intensity of natural restoration processes, as well as the activity of all organisms that live into the soil building a favorable environment for life "prosperous", namely that biological buffering capacity, including its ability to self recovery.

CONCLUSIONS

The knowledge of soils properties,respectively the compaction factors influencing the practice of importance as it helps finding the general physical condition of the soil (loosening, texture, structure) and to the calculation of water and nutrients reserves.

Over time the soil can suffer various processes that may affect the structure and quality as a result of natural phenomena or manmade, abrasive wear, soil moisture, soil texture coefficient of friction and to the main factors influencing the soil compaction.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This paper has been financially supported within the project entitled „SOCERT. Knowledge society, dynamism through research”, contract number POSDRU/159/1.5/S/132406. This

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project is co-financed by European Social Fund through Sectoral Operational Programme for Human Resources Development 2007-2013. Investing in people!”

REFERENCES

[1]. Canarache A. - Physics of Agricultural Soils, Ceres Publishing House, Bucharest, 1990; [2]. Cârdei P., Gângu V., Sfîru R. - Optimisation of the incidence angle of chisel blae – type working devices by numeric experiments on the plane plate movement in high viscosity fluid flow in translation movement”, Proceedings of International Conference on SOIL CONDITION AND CROP PRODUCTION, Gödöllő, Hungary, 2-5 September; 1998 [3]. Dimancea, Şt. - Agrotechnics, Didactic and Pedagogic Publishing House, Bucharest, 1967 [4]. Dumitru E. - Remanent effects of the farming practices on the soil physical condition, Risoprint Publishing House, Cluj-Napoca, 1999; [5]. Fechete L.V. - Research on optimization of mechanical machining of the soil, PhD Thesis, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, 2008; [6]. Rus F., Csatlos C. - Complex systems and methodologies for determining the physical and mechanical properties of soils, Transylvania University Publishing House, Brasov, 2009; [7]. Totolici I., Cândea I. - Theoretical aspects concerning the active bodies interaction with the soil, Proceedings of the 3nd International Conference Computational Mechanics and Virtual Engineering”, COMEC 2009, Braşov, October 2009, ISSN 1844-9336,vol. 3. [8]. Ţenu I. ş.a. - The impact of mechanization technologies on soil, Environmental Engineering and Management Journal, Vol. 8, 2009. No.5, p.1263-1267.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

L. Vlăduţoiu, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; Ş. Croitoru, University of Craiova, 13 Alexandru Ioan Cuza St, Craiova, Romania, e-mail: [email protected]; T. Andrei, P.U. Bucharest, 319 Splaiul Independenţei Bd., Bucharest Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; A. Atanasov, University of Rousse, 8 “Studentska” St, 7017 Ruse, Bulgaria, E-mail: [email protected]. V. Vlăduţ, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; S. Şt. Biriş, P.U. Bucharest, 319 Splaiul Independenţei Bd., Bucharest Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; O. Radu, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: [email protected].

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FEATURES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF GRANULATED CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS THAT INFLUENCE THE WORK PROCESS

Petcu A.1), Popa L.1), Ciuperca R.1), Vlădut V.1), Stefan V.1), Girleanu I.C.2)

1)INMA Bucharest; 2)P.U. Bucharest / Romania

Abstract: The fertilization means supplementing the plants needs with extra nutrients by applying fertilizer. Applying fertilizers with good results requires knowledge of mutual links between plants and the environment as a core issue in managing soil fertility and plant nutrition. The paper presents some considerations on the characteristics and peculiarities that these fertilizers have on the work process..

Key words: Fertilization, Physical And Mechanical Properties. INTRODUCTION

One of the directions of development of agriculture in the European Union is to promote sustainable agriculture, based on the achievement of competitive products, but in perfect harmony with the environment through the development and implementation of environmentally friendly technologies, with direct reference to this article in technologies for spreadin granulated chemical fertilizers.

The evolution of technologies for the application of fertilizers, along with research on age and quality fertilizers fertilizer is given, it is placed on the quality of processes executed research to improve the quality of equipment and processes executed by them.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A great role in increasing the efficiency of fertilizer is the methods and times of application.

In principle should be pursued as nutrients to be as long as the active root zone of plants [6].

It should be borne in mind that the plant rooting depth, as to which spread radius differs from species to species, variety and hybrid [2]. After the era of fertilizer are three main methods:

- Fertilization before seeding (planting), also called basic fertilization; - Fertilization with seeding (planting); - Fertilization during vegetation, called additional fertilization. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The quality of process can be influenced by physical and mechanical properties of fertilizers such as natural slope angle, aggregate state, wettability etc. They are taken into account in the design and construction hopper agitator and distribution apparatus for choosing technical solutions to ensure a constant flow and distribution of fertilizers.

• Density: bulk material is defined as the ratio between the mass and volume of granular materials in a state of open cast loose. To determine the bulk density of the granular material, it is poured through a funnel at a certain distance in a vessel with a known volume until it fills the vessel. After carefully remove excess material without compaction weigh (fig. 10). The density is determined by equation (10) [3]:

V

mm gp (1)

Where: mp is the mass of the vessel filled with material; mg- mass empty vessel;

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N- volume of the vessel. For compressible bulk granular materials, bulk density is almost constant. Cohesive

and compressible granular materials are often compacted by pressure forces or vibrations to which the material is subjected and therefore the determination of bulk density of granular materials such conditions must be specified.

• The compressibility of bulk material: can be evaluated efficiently through the piston compression devices [2].

Figure 1 - Compression device for bulk granular material: [1]

1 - the cylinder of the sample (D, h = 50 mm); 2 - the piston (d = 48 mm); 3 - inductive

sensor; 4 - standard masses; 5 - standard compensation tables; 6 -

electronic device for measuring displacement

To perform a test, the sample cylinder is filled with the screened material to avoid agglomeration of the material (Fig. 1). A break of approx. one minute is usually sufficient for deaeration sample so that the initial density of the bulk material to be well defined. With a metal spatula, sample material is carefully scraped at the lip of the sample cylinder without insert normal stresses.

Lightweight plunger approaches the surface of the sample, and then gradually to 2-minute intervals, the load piston and weight should be measured every time movement of the piston. The density of the bulk material is unaffected by air leaving the material or size as long as the sample is given a break for more than 2 minutes between each charge and if the clearance between piston and cylinder is sufficient for friction forces walls of the cylinder do not affect the experiment.

Friction material cylinder walls influence the results in relatively small proportion to the low compressive stresses. For compressive stresses of low, relative errors of measurement are approx. 6-15%, for a relevant charge.

Relative density ρ bulk powder material increases in correlation with the pressure p developed mass of material and can be approximated by the equation:

pb

pba

10

0

(2) where a, b are regression parameters; ρ0 - initial density, kg / m3. The constant a is the maximum increase of the density at infinite pressure p. The compressibility of the bulk solid materials is dependent on their particle size and

distribution. Granular materials are only slightly compressible, and the type of fibrous anisotropic due to the elasticity of the fibers show a higher degree of compressibility [1].

• Hygroscopicity: fertilizers fertilizers are the property of absorbing water vapor in the atmosphere surrounding, thus enriching the water content. This is more prominent in mineral fertilizers in a state of powder and crystals.

In the case where the amount of vapor absorbed is small, there is a first wetting of the fertilizer becomes difficult to manage the mechanical spreading because they stick to the walls of the hopper and forms arches in the material in the hopper, in the outlet. Also

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aggregate form small lumps, worsening uniformity spreading by blocking the outlet of the hopper car fertilizers and adheres to its active organs, colmatându them. As a result, the work of the equipment is very difficult.

Absorption capacity of water vapor depending on the relative humidity differ from one to another, and the fertilizer is greater than calcium nitrate and ammonium nitrate, superphosphate is less hygroscopic.

If the granular mineral fertilizers are able to react with water to form hydroxides atmosphere during storage and in particular incorrect storage, losses occur active substance which depreciates quality, granular clusters difficulty producing their administration, the necessary in some cases additional work.

• Friability: the ability to run a solid material with a certain degree of granulation. Indirectly, this property is characterized by internal friction of the material, known as the natural slope angle. This angle has a certain value φ0 if horizontal surface that drains the material is at rest and another value φ0 if the surface is subjected to vertical oscillations (natural slope at rest and in motion) [2].

• Natural slope angle: α0 is an indicator on internal friction and provides flow characteristic value of solid bulk materials, but is not suitable for quantitative calculations.

Static natural slope angle can be determined by experiment shown in Figure 2 [2]. The roller 1, originally placed upright on a horizontal surface AB, is filled with the powder material, after which a constant speed is high very little in the vertical direction. Material leaking from the cylinder is horizontal surface has the form of a cone 2 whose surface is inclined from the horizontal angle of the natural slope static. If you repeat the experience will always get the same amount of natural slope angle.

Figure 2 - Determination of the friction angles [2]

1 - cylinder; 2- sample material moving

If the lifting cylinder during the printing area AB and the vertical oscillation of the cone that forms the natural slope angle between the two quantities there empirical relationship (3) [2]:

0 k , [grade] (3) in which the coefficient k = 0.4 ... 0.7 [2]. Determinations on static natural slope angle indicates a large difference between the

materials commonly used in agriculture, in terms of this parameter. Natural slope taking birth by sliding beads on the inclined surface under its own

weight forces and friction forces between grains, formed from granules 900 angle will be ideal for material - that is composed of extremely small granules and absolutely internal friction angle α0 equal to the material.

Dimension:

0

0

sin1

sin1

b (4)

is called the coefficient of internal mobility of the material and is important in the calculation of bunkers and locks.

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For liquids angle α = 0, so if a solid b1 and α0 = 90 ° and b = 0. Bulk materials, which have 0 <α <90 °, occupies a middle position between solid and liquid [2].

Figure 3 - Representation of the most used methods for measuring natural slope

angle [2] The correlation between the angle of natural slope and the property of being good is

flowing: • α0 <30 ° very good material flowing • 30 ° <α0 <45 °free flowing material, • α0> 45 ° material with poor flow properties. • Coefficient of friction: determination of the coefficient of friction of granular

materials with surfaces made of different materials: steel, rubber, wood, etc., interested in calculating machines run bunker walls fertilizers and amendments. As if the natural slope angle, there are two values of the coefficient of friction [2]:

- Coefficient of static friction, μ0 = tgφ0 - Dynamic coefficient of friction, μ = tgφ, where φ0 and φ represent respectively static friction angle dynamic behavior studied

area as a support. The coefficient of friction angle interested in choosing wall bunkers and tip, tilt angles

for transport, etc.

Figure 4 - Schematic instruments for determining the coefficient of friction [2]

to using a dynamometer, b, by means of a rotating disc, rotating disc that External and internal friction angles enlarges resisting material granules change

position, both among themselves and against the surfaces of various materials that come in contact with (eg. Steel, wood, rubber, polyethylene).

• Air movement around the particles: as in the work of the unit there is a stage centrifugal scattering the particles execute a movement in free flight, which is influenced by particle aerodynamic qualities and characteristics of motion.

A movement of the fluid medium is a complex process characterized by the balance between the inertial forces, pressure and friction. Conditions of movement is characterized by the Reynolds values of similarity criterion, which is a dimensionless value which is determined by the expression [3, 5]:

dv

Re (5)

where: v is the speed in m / s; d- body feature size in m; ρ- the density of the fluid kg / m3; η- dynamic viscosity of the fluid medium in · Pa s.

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The environment is the air moving particles, whose state parameters (temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure) influenţiază the density and kinematic viscosity.

• Humidity: appropriate standard, granular fertilizers humidity is between 0.6% and 2%, and bio fertilizers granules can reach 17%.

Moisture mineral fertilizers is their water content, which is expressed in absolute or relative. This property affects the utmost other physical and mechanical properties of fertilizers. In current practice to define the state of humidity, the relative humidity is used ur concept, which is defined as the amount of water contained in an amount of fertilizer, in certain circumstances, expressed in units of mass, volume and weight in the dry state [3]:

pa

pupar m

mmu

(6) Where in mpa is the sample of the material containing water; mpu- the sample of the

material to dry in an oven at 1050C. • Floating rate: the physical and mechanical characteristics are vertical air flow

speed capable of keeping afloat granules located in the stream. Granules floating rate is determined subject to a balance between the buoyancy force, hydrodynamic force developed by the environmental movement and the force of gravity due to the mass of the particle, for the case of spherical particles, it is calculated by the relation [2] :

m

pp d

gv

3

4

(7) in which: g - acceleration of gravity; ξ - coefficient of resistance; d diameter of particle; p-

density of the particles; m - density environment. Critical speed of floating values are summarized fertilizers and amendments from 2.5

to 14.5 m / s [1]. • The size and shape of grains: flow behavior characteristic that defines the relative

displacement of the particles of a system willing and driving conditions on the disc centrifugal particle and then in free flight, are attributes of particle geometry and mechanical characteristics of the surface thereof. It follows the need for a heterogeneous mixture of particles to have relevant information on the size and shape of the particles, the percentage distribution according to their size, the mass of granular product [3].

• Agglomeration and compaction properties: granulated mineral fertilizers are usually constitutively hydrophilic substances, slightly brittle and easily biodegradable, easy to agglomerate when cracks occur in the process of handling high atmospheric humidity [1].

• Cohesive properties: cohesion is defined in the dictionary of Romani as a property of the constitutive elements of solids, liquids and gases to remain united due to forces exerted between their atoms or molecules.

• Resistance to crushing of fertilizer granules: resistance to crushing is putting a balanced fertilizer granule by pressing hard body until granule breakage. Record the force and repeat testing and other grains larger or smaller then averaged (Fig. 5).

Figure 5 - Diagram of the determination of the crushing strength of the granule of

fertilizer by means of a spring balance and the storage device [2]

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CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

In agriculture using a wide variety of fertilizers in terms of shape, size, mineral composition etc. Within the concept of "precision farming" is a necessity management in controlled chemical fertilizers to avoid excess which is certainly harmful. However, by avoiding unnecessary administration of the additional amount is eliminated financial losses and increase in the cost of agricultural products. In addition to knowledge of the design of the existing equipment of particular importance is the capacity improvement specialists who experience new products, to determine the properties of the materials used, operating parameters of the equipment, working conditions, taking into account the requirements prescribed in relation to agricultural technology agricultural work performed

REFERENCES

[1]. Rotaru G. and Sava N. - Control and quality assurance of food products, faculty course Lower Danube Galati (2007) [2]. Hodarnau M. Research on optimizing functional parameters of machines to manage fertilizers, Thesis, 2008, UTB Brasov; [3]. Radu I. Optimizing Working granular fertilizer spreaders by improving the methods and means of measuring the functional parameters - Thesis, 2002, UTB Brasov;

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

PhD. Stud. Eng. Petcu A., National Research - Development Institute For Machines And Installations Designed To Agriculture And Food Industry Ion Ionescu de la Brad Blv. no.6, 013813 Bucharest, sector 1, ROMANIA,

PhD. Eng. Popa L., National Research - Development Institute For Machines And Installations Designed To Agriculture And Food Industry Ion Ionescu de la Brad Blv. no.6, 013813 Bucharest, sector 1, ROMANIA,

PhD. Eng. Ciuperca R., National Research - Development Institute For Machines And Installations Designed To Agriculture And Food Industry Ion Ionescu de la Brad Blv. no.6, 013813 Bucharest, sector 1, ROMANIA,

PhD. Eng. Vladut V., National Research - Development Institute For Machines And Installations Designed To Agriculture And Food Industry Ion Ionescu de la Brad Blv. no.6, 013813 Bucharest, sector 1, ROMANIA,

PhD. Stud. Eng. Stefan V., National Research - Development Institute For Machines And Installations Designed To Agriculture And Food Industry Ion Ionescu de la Brad Blv. no.6, 013813 Bucharest, sector 1, ROMANIA,

As.PhD. Stud. Eng. Girleanu I.C., Polytechnic University, Building D, Independence Splaiul no.313, 060042 Bucharest sector 6, ROMANIA

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Plenary report ENERGY PLANTS – AN ALTERNATIVE FOR THE FUTURE PRODUCTION

OF BIOFUELS

Paun Anisoara1), Vladut Valentin1), Marin Eugen1), Manea Dragos1), Lazar George1), Gageanu Iuliana1)

1)INMA Bucharest

Abstract: Replacing fossil fuels with alternative renewable energy sources is a very current issue worldwide. The development of energy plant (lingo-cellulosic) crops represents the promising solution, for the future production of biofuels in order to produce renewable energy and replace fossil fuels. For the implementation of energy crops were elaborated a series of technologies and technical equipment that respond to the requirements of these crops. The paper addresses these technologies, technical equipment and technologies for valorizing energy crops.

Key words: energy plants, energy willow, energy poplar, Miscanthus, renewable energy.

INTRODUCTION

Replacing, at least partially, the use of fossil fuels with other energy sources, will contribute to preventing the global warming phenomenon. Industry is the economic sector with the highest contribution to environmental pollution, by its large quantity of gaseous, solid and liquid pollutants released in the environment – air, water, soil.

Important emissions of pollutants in the atmosphere produced by the energy industry also affect other elements of the natural environment (soil, vegetation, fauna) and large quantities of waste are generated.

Currently, energy is obtained mostly from mineral energy resources: coal, petrol, natural gas. The reserves of these fossil fuels are exhaustible.

In the process of burning coal, in the atmosphere are eliminated dust, soot, sulfur, chlorine, fluorine, zinc, lead, nickel, etc. In big cities, as well as in industrial centers, these emissions form smog.

Basically, using fossil fuels raises two main problems: their reserves are exhaustible, but especially, their use leads to environment pollution through harmful emissions of carbon dioxide and sulfur and nitrogen oxides. The answer to the two big problems is represented by – renewable energy – energy crops, their use leading to a significant reduction of the quantities of carbon dioxide gas emissions in the atmosphere, which cause the so called “greenhouse effect”.

Energy crops that produce biomass used in energy purposes are: - Starch-producing crops: cereals, potatoes; - Sugar-producing crops: sugar cane, sugar beet; - Oil-producing crops: rape, sun flower, camelina, etc; - Ligneous-cellulosic crops: willow, poplar, Miscanthus, artichoke, Cynara, Panicum, etc.

Compared to the natural varieties, energy crops ensure: - Bigger yields on the surface unit, leading to the improvement of their quality / price

ratio compared to conventional crops; - The reduction of the necessary land; - The reduction of chemical substances associated with the field as well as transport

expenses. Energy plants can be grown on agricultural lands that are not currently being used for

agriculture, usually on fields that are removed from the agricultural circuit due to various reasons, on fields considered to be unsuitable for growing plants that provide food for humans and animals.

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Compared to traditional agricultural plants, energy plants require less care and less mineral fertilizers and pesticides.

Future biofuel production is based on these energy crops (ligneous-cellulosic crops) because they represent a promising solution for the energy security at a world level, due to the cyclic nature of the biomass resulted from these crops.

Based on these considerations, in recent years, crops of energy willow, energy poplar and Miscanthus have developed, being used as energy source as well as in other fields.

Crops of energy willow (Salix Viminalis) and energy poplar for biomass are practiced in agricultural areas and not on land exploited in forestry.

Crops can be established: - on slopes, fixing the soil and improving its quality; - on heavily degraded lands: on tailing dumps, on saline, eroded, sandy soils, achieving

bioremediation of the polluted soils by assimilating excess ions; - on wetlands (are recommended); Willow’s high calorific power of 4900 kcal/ha, makes it comparable with other fuel sources such as: natural gas, coal, oil.

Willow biomass is a fuel with neutral carbon that participates to the reduction of global warming. Willow can be transformed in resources that do not pollute, including: - heat and electricity through direct combustion, burning together coal and gasification; - biodegradable plastics and other polymers; - biofuels.

Energy willow can be successfully used: - in the pharmaceutical industry (obtaining aspirin); - riparian buffer – natural barrier that prevents chemicals from penetrating rivers and

lakes; - has the capacity to retain contaminants from used waters; - barrier against snow – planted strategically within shelter belts for agricultural crops,

willow can prevent snow blizzards from reaching crops. Energy poplar varieties are used for:

- producing energetic biomass; - decreasing ground water pollution, using residual water from communities for the

irrigation and fertilization of plant crops that have short production cycles (2…3 years); - timber and lightweight packaging; - fibro-wood boards and plywood; - agro-forestry shelter belts for the protection of agricultural crops.

Miscanthus crop has become increasingly spread worldwide due to its economic advantages, but especially due to its positive effect on the environment.

According to studies conducted worldwide, mature Miscanthus crops can produce 48.5 tons of dry mass per hectare, with an energetic conversion of 1.2-2% of the incident solar radiation.

Miscanthus plants can be used for producing electric and/or thermal energy both in: - large power plants (30 MW +) that use thousands of tons of biomass annually; - small house systems that use a few tons, during winter months.

In the case of Miscanthus, CO2 emissions resulting from burning are equal with the CO2 quantity used by the plant during vegetation and thus the process is neutral in terms of “greenhouse gas” emissions.

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MATERIAL AND METHODS

For the implementation of energy plant crops were elaborated a series of technologies and technical equipment specific for each crop for establishing, maintaining and harvesting the crops. Figure 1 shows the technology for establishing and harvesting an energy willow crop and the equipment corresponding for this crop.

Fig.1 – Technology for establishing, maintaining and harvesting an energy willow crop [1] In order to meet all the requirements of the market for equipment destined solely for

energy crops, energy willow and poplar, INMA designed a functional model for planting energy willow, figure 2, which meets the requirements of these crops.

Fig. 2 – EIS technical equipments for planting energy willow (Salix Viminalix) [3]

The technical equipment, of the type carried during transportation and operation,

operates in aggregate with 80-150 HP agricultural or forestry tractors on wheels and is destined for the mechanized planting of normal cuttings (18-20 cm), in different schemes and guided work depths, of energy willow as a source for the production of biomass or as shelterbelts.

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Fig. 3 - Technology for establishing and harvesting an energy poplar crop

(POPULUS HIBRIDUS) [2]

The installation for localized irrigation IL-o with the technical equipment for planting energy willow (Salix Viminalix), figure 4, and the Equipment for precision hoeing and spraying in strips MEP, figure 5, are destined for the mechanization of irrigation works when establishing and maintaining the energy crops or shelter belts of energy willow or poplar and represent functional models designed by INMA for the energy poplar technology.

Fig. 4 - Installation for localized Fig. 5 – Equipment for precision hoeing

irrigation - IL-0 [2] and spraying in strips - MEP [2]

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Fig. 6 – Technology for establishing and harvesting a Miscanthus crop [4]

In order to establish a Miscanthus crop, INMA Bucharest built a machine for planting Miscanthus rhizomes. The MPM 4 machine for planting Miscanthus, figure 7, which works in aggregate with 65 HP wheeled tractors provided with a mechanism for three-point linkage.

Fig. 7 - MPM4 machine for planting Miscanthus [4]

For the operation of harvesting rhizomes, INMA Bucharest designed a specialized

machine called Technical equipment for harvesting Miscanthus rhizomes – ERR, figure 8, an equipment carried on the three-point linkage mechanism of 70…80 HP tractors.

Fig. 8 – Technical equipment for harvesting Miscanthus rhizomes - ERR [4]

INMA Bucharest designed and built a specialized equipment for harvesting

Miscanthus stems directly in the field, called EPI, figure 9, an equipment that was assimilated into production by SC MECANICA CEAHLĂU Piatra Neamţ.

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Fig. 9 - Towed combine for harvesting fodder CTF with the equipment for harvesting

Miscanthus [4]

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The working process of the Technical equipment for planting energy willow (Salix Viminalis) implies carrying out three operations: - opening the channel by the plowshare; - planting the energy willow cutting, performed by the planting mechanism; - compacting the soil by the wheels of the compacting and entraining mechanism.

Opening the channel implies cutting the soil in a vertical plane on a depth “a” and a width “b”, deforming and displacing the cut soil in a horizontal plane, in order to achieve the channel. Planting is performed by the planting mechanism in two rows with 75 cm distance between them. In order to achieve a planting operation with superior quality indices, the field should have an adequate processing state, characterized mainly by the depth and the grinding degree. After testing the functional model was found that the equipment can perform: - planting willow cuttings with lengths between 180…250 mm; - planting on two rows at 75 cm distance between the rows; - Distance between two cuttings (along the line), cm: 50…100 - Diameter of the cuttings, mm 5…25

The installation for localized irrigation IL-0 – is mounted on the EIS technical equipment and is destined for localized irrigation, simultaneously with the mechanized planting, in different schemes and working depths, of energy willow poplar (Populus hibridus). The installation was tested when establishing an energy poplar crop, and the following technical and functional characteristics were obtained: - power of the tractor used for planting, HP: 80 - number of stations of the planting machine, pcs.: 2 - water tank capacity, l: 300 - quantity of water that can be distributed to a cutting, l/cutting: 0.1...0.3 - minimum distance between the cuttings of the row, cm 70 - number of target plates on a station, pcs: 4 MEP Equipment for precision hoeing and spraying in strips is destined for the maintenance of energy crops, performing simultaneously or individually the operations of hoeing and protected spraying between the rows of plants. During the tests performed with the functional mode were obtained the following technical characteristics: - power of the tractor, HP 45 - capacity of the liquid tank, l 500 - pump flow, l/min 104

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- pump speed, rot/min 540 - max. working pressure, bar 20 - type of hydraulic motor OMP 100 - max. torque., Mm 230 - max. flow., l/min 75 - no. of hoeing and spraying stations, pcs. 3 - no. of spraying nozzles per station, pcs. 2 - distance between spraying nozzles per station, mm 300

MPM4 machine for planting Miscanthus performs the following operations: - opening the channel where the planting material will be introduced by the plowshare of

the station; - introducing the rhizomes (one by one) by an operator in the guiding tube of the

plowshare, at the right time and in the right position; - covering the rhizomes with soil by a pair of spherical discs and pressing the soil with a

metallic compaction wheel, situated behind the discs. After testing the functional model was found that the equipment can ensure the

following technical characteristics: -No. of planted rows, 4 -Actual working capacity, ha/h 0.6...0.76 -Distance between the rows 500…1000 -Working width, m 2.5...4 -Planting depth, cm 8...12 The ERR technical equipment for harvesting Miscanthus rhizomes performs the

harvesting of Miscanthus rhizomes by displacing the soil on the depth of their layout (with the help of a plowshare for displacing), separates them from the ground particles by shaking them (through a separator with eccentric, actuated by a hydraulic motor).

Technical characteristics achieved at testing: - Power of the tractor in the aggregate, HP 70...80 - Working width, m 1.2 - Working depth, cm max. 25

The EPI equipment for harvesting Miscanthus is mounted on a towed CTF combine for harvesting fodder and works in aggregate with 65-100 HP tractors. The actuation of the working bodies is done from the tractor’s PTO through a cardan transmission. The tests for the towed combine for harvesting Miscanthus stems – CRM1.6 were conducted on the experimental field cultivated with Miscanthus at INMA Bucharest where the combine worked in aggregate with the NEW HOLLAND tractor type TD 80 D.

Work quality indexes obtained after testing

Table 1

No. Specification M U Values

1 Speed of the toothed rotor rot/min 46

2 Speed of the blades rot/min 288.5

3 Working width m 1.6

4 Plant cutting height mm 120 – 150

Grinding degree mm 10 – 100

5 Material loss % Under 5

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CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

- The evaluation and profound analysis of the technologies for renewable energy and their current role in attenuating emissions of greenhouse gases, imposes itself as a necessity and in this context the present work aimed to bring forward valuable information regarding the implementation of energy crops in Romania;

- Biomass offers not only food but also energy, construction materials, paper, medicines and chemicals;

- By using technologies and the equipment corresponding to these technologies it will be possible to implement energy plant crops on fields that are not used for agricultural crops: in slopes, fixing the soil and improving its quality, on highly degraded terrains - tailing dumps, saline, eroded, sandy soils, achieving bioremediation of the polluted soils by assimilating excess ions; on wetlands (are recommended).

REFERENCES

1. Mircea R. and others, 2005, Researches regarding the promotion of innovative mechanizing techniques within the forestation technologies, INMA Bucharest, CEEX, contract no. 17 / 2005;

2. Manea D., Marin E. and other, 2014, Research and substantiation of a mechanizing technology for establishing and maintaining the energy poplar crop, Research Report, INMA Bucharest, contract no. 15 N / 27.02.2009 / Add. act.no.2/2014;

3. Găgeanu P and others, 2007, Technology for promoting in Romania the Miscanthus energy plant, as renewable source in order to increase energy competitiveness and security, INMA Bucharest, CNMP – P4 PARTNERSHIPS, contract no. 21 038 / 2007;

4. Voicu E. and others, 2009, Report with the results obtained from testing in working conditions of the prototype of the towed combine for harvesting Miscanthus stems – CRM1.6, SC MECANICA CEAHLĂU SA Piatra Neamţ.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

A. Paun, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; V. Vlăduţ, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; E. Marin, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]; D. Manea, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]; G. Lazăr, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]; I. Găgeanu, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: [email protected].

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ESTABLISHING THE INFLUENCE OF FEED QUALITY TREATED SURFACES WORK FOR SIMULATION OF CUTTING UNIT OF COMBINED

SUTTING AND SPD

Ivaylo Kirilov. Angelov

Abstract: With round cutting inserts with increased surface quality based on a less high wear resistance of the material of the tool and the characteristics of the kinematics of the cutting process and the plastic deformation of the material of the work piece. Rational if you use these features can be removed irregular formations of rough and uneven roughness is close to the geometric scheme comes from the formation of the insert cutting edge. There is a possibility to combine the cutting process by copying the geometry of the rear surface of the cutting edge on the machined surface of the work piece, by reducing the surface roughness parameters.

Key words: surface plastic deformation rear corner of the active contact, circular cutting element; Cutting Tools; Scission of the fabrics; the cutting tools; Combine Creatures for scission and surface fictile distortion (SPD); Profilers

INTRODUCTION

The harshness of the surfaces was formed by the combining at striations, that are different at circularity, sizes and direction,, incisions and projections that bring the relief-raised a surface. The direction of roughness depends on the type of machining process. The causes which lead to the formation of roughness are varied and are associated with the type of processing of the surface geometry, and the condition of the treatment tool change stoysnotta of elements of the system of cutting feed f [mm / rev], the type and microstructure of the workpiece material, etc. The set of bumps which form a relief on the surface and are measured in an area free from variations of the shape and waviness, it is known as a surface roughness.

All factors affecting the formation of roughness can be summarized in three main groups:

reasons relating to the geometry of the cutting process; the reason’s of conect with geometri on the process cuuting;

plastic and elastic deformation of the workpiece; occurrence of the vibration of the cutting tool on the machined surface. The occurrence of unevenness due to geometric reasons, it is customary to examine

as to copy on the machined surface of the trajectory of the movement and the shape of the cutting edge. [1]. When cutting with a round cutting insert in [Figure 1] for forming the pattern has the form of roughness.

Fig.1. Roughness obstargvane a tool that rε

≠ 0 [1].

From a geometrical point of view, the size, shape and mutual disposition of the roughness is determined by the shape and condition of the cutting edges, and those elements of the system of cutting, which influence the trajectory of the cutting edges on the machined surface.

In different conditions of processing plastic and elastic deformation of the workpiece

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and vibrations distort the correct geometric shape of the roughness, violate the laws governing their distribution on the surface and significantly increase their height.

Generally predominant influence in the formation of the roughness of the treated surface is one of the three sets of reasons, which define the nature and the magnitude of surface roughness. The most common reasons related to the geometry of the cutting process

Per revolution of the workpiece – [Figure 1] [1]. The tool is moved at a distance equal to the feed f [mm / rev] = A1A2. Projection of the main cutting edge rainbow - A1C1, and the auxiliary cutting edge - A2S1. Moreover, on the treated surface remains rough element (residual ridge) with boundaries A1S1A2. The calculated value of the height of the roughness Rx output using trigonometric depending triangle Δ A2S1D1 as:

r

fRx 8

2

[mm] (1)

- wherein: - f[mm/rev] – filing; - rε [mm] – radius at the top. Actual roughness R differs from the calculated Rx, and is substantially always higher

than it. This is due to the concomitant occurring phenomena cutting process consisting in: origination and destruction of bedding; initial plastic deformation of the residual ridges resulting lateral flow of material in the

direction opposite to the feed rate; secondary deformation of residual ridges due to the friction surfaces of the rear

instrumental in surface finish; copied progressive wear of cutting edges on the machined surface

high-frequency oscillations arising in unstable systems. Analysis of the relation (1) indicates that the estimated height of roughness Rx

decreases with increase in peak radisua rε, and reduction of feed f.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Experimental studies have been conducted jointly with a unit – [Fig.2], those elements reflecting the impact of the regime on the dynamic performance [1]. Includes six series (with different materials) with ten attempts in each series to establish the influence of the feed f [mm / rev] on the roughness of two groups of parameters for assessing,

Highnes steper. Figure 2. Device for determining the impact of the

regime on elementie dinaminichte indicators and roughness in cutting simulation with cutting module combined sponge float cutting and SPD:

1.Universalen chuck 2. Chassis system 3. Indicator watches; 4..Strugarski knife 5. Detail 6. Tailstock 7. transverse support1.3. Type of material processed.

Cutting process is investigated for the treatment of cuts from round rolling steels:

- 45 of diameter D = 60 mm and hardness HB = 195 - ASt3 diameter D = 60mm and hardness HB = 187 - 40x diameter D = 60mm and hardness HB = 207

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- 30HGT diameter D = 60mm and hardness HB = 220 - GG 20 with diameter D = 60 mm and hardness HB = 140 - CuAl10Fe3Mn1 diameter D = 60mm and hardness HB =154. Their choice is guided mainly by the extent of their practical application in production

and the pursuit of research to cover materials whose strength characteristics and workability by cutting amended in

- closer range. Studies of physics - mechanical tests are carried out by means of universal

hardness models 2I09 TB and WPM Preparations prior to each experiment, once at the machine tool is the pass obstargvat knife. Studies of physics - mechanical tests are carried out by means of universal solid models 2I09 measured TB and WPM. Preparations prior to each experiment, once at the machine tool are the pass obstargvat knife In order to ensure uniformity and added ,the same cutting conditions. All studies were conducted without the use of rubbing - coolant.

Used compact portable Profilers-profilograf ACCRETECH company TOKIO SEIMITSU, model E35-B – [fig.6].

Fig.2 E-Profilers profilograf ACCRETECH

1. Body 2.Displey, 3. Function key 4. Button, 5. Measuring button 6. Conductor 7. Measuring block

8.Sonda.

A measuring unit 7 supporting the probe 8 could be integrated into the body of the machine 1 or work remotely by connecting a conductor 6. Device

launched by pressing the command button 4, followed by the selection of parameters to assess the roughness and pitch measurement. Possibly accounting for 18 height and stepping parameters specific to different standards: Pt, Ra, Rq, Rz, Rzmax, Rp, Rt, R3z, Rsm, Pc, Rk, Rpk, Rvk, Mr1, Mr2, Vo, K, Rmr . The steps are reporting 3 - λc = 0,08; 0,25; 0,8 mm. The length of the measurement section is formed in dependence by a fixed mode: λs = 5 * λ [mm]. Measuring cycle starts by pressing 5. The probe of the instrument is leveled against the workpiece placed in a prism through adapters and leading prisms – [Figure 3]. Precision measuring measuring unit can be fitted into a standard framework realizes vertical premestevaniya a certain discretion by limbusni screws. Integrated data transfer ACRETECH TiMS Light provides a connection to a computer for better visualization and precise analysis of results – [Figure 4].

Integrated data transfer ACRETECH TiMS Light

provides a connection to a computer for better visualization and precise analysis of results – [Figure 4]. The data could be converted into files razlichen format including extension - ". Txt" or ". Xls". Device could be connected directly to a printer, a through separate profilograma for each of the 18 parameters for evaluation of roughness.

Fig. 3 Measuring unit: 1.Sonda, 2.Adaptori,

3.Body, 4.Prizmi

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In the curren presentation analyzed changes in these parameters - visochnnni - the average deviation of profile (Ra), the height of roughness ten points (Rz), the maximum height of roughness (Rzmax) - Stepping - the average

deviation in the longitudinal direction (Rsm), Number eksremumi a characteristic level and Pc (showing density peaks at a height referneta, most often in the middle of the line profile). Lenko experiments were carried out under constant conditions: workpiece diameter D = 60 mm, depth of cut - ap = 1mm, speed n = 500min-1 cutting speed Vc = 94,25 m / min using a tool lathe knife circular cutting blade.

In conducting research used circular, removable cutting carbide, and the preparation of the work piece with tools such spoyaemi:- near bu rudely mashining with passege things cut P30 (T5K10) ; - When processing clean plate P10 (T15K6). - Knife - PEDBR 2525B12 C1 - Plate - RBM 120702FR [2;3].

Figure 5-a) is presented TOOL POST with replaceable carbide round, and b) round cutter cone plate with a secure rear cutting angle γ = 6 °.

Figure .5 Fig.1-a-b [3].

The results of the impact - on submission

otedlnite indicators grapavosta to different types of materials are displayed graphically in Figure 6 ÷ 10. They were conducted under conditions specified in Tables [1 ÷ 5] at usrednenie data from three

measured steps reporting λc = 0,08; 0,25; 0,8 mm. For each of the resultant curves are output from the regression equation of a step type, and the correlation coefficients.

Table 1 Conditions of eksperimenta Ra = f (f) for different materials:

Fig. 4.Periferni devices: a) transfer to a computer, b) the printer, c)

Integrated Software ACRETECH TiMS Light

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Table 2. Conditions of eksperimenta Rz = f (f) for different materials:

Fig.6 diagram Ra = f (f) Fig.8. diagram Rzmax = f (f).

Table 4 Conditions of eksperimenta Rsm = f (f) for different materials:

Figure 9. graphically Rsm = f (f)) . Fig.10 .diagram Pc = f (f).

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Table 5 Conditions of eksperimenta Pc = f (f) for different materials:

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The general conclusion which is required by all graphics predaritelnoto expressed confirms a hypothesis that with increased supply in each of the categories of cultivated material roughness increases. This trend is more clearly izrazena both the height and relative stepper pratemetri. The main reason for the results is the fact that with increasing misled visochnta residual varhcheta also increases and hence increases and roughness. But in the direction of the submission due tetochnoto superimposing arcs which are the projections of the main and auxiliary cutting edges of the plate in brabotvanata surface, and because of deteriorating conditions of chip generates vtrichna deformation of chips, this trend is also pronounced. The influence of the material being processed on the performance of the surface roughness is complex and neendnoznachno. The growth of HB and σB and causes reduction of the degree of the characteristic plastic deformation of the shortening coefficient of the chip, which in turn leads to a reduction in the height of the roughness. In processing plastic materials ASt3 and 45 values of the roughness parameters were lower in comparison with the brittle - GG 20. Physically this fact is explained by the increased frictional forces due to the increased contact area between the rear surface of the tool and the elastic layer of metal recovered from the machined surface, which leads to plastic deformation and substantially deleted ostachnite tip thereon. The processing of materials prone to mechanical strengthening, 40X and 30HGT, the cutting process is accompanied by complex physical - Jabal. Despite the weak tendency of such materials to plastic deformation at them in the process of cutting forming cold deformation, resulting in the increased stiffness due to repeated, the temperature in the cutting zone is not growing, which is a prerequisite for reducing the height of the roughness, but on the stepper parameters is observed the opposite effect with these higher value. In the bronze medal despite a low hardness similar to iron in that the cutting demolition separate filings to the values of the height and stepper parameters grapavosta are high. It is an interesting result based on which the indicator of the height of the roughness of ten points (Rz) herein is lower than that of at plastinichnite materials i.e. in case Lisp peak extreme values of the roughness. This wide range is higher than in the plastic material. As evidence of the thesis that the chisel is a chip generates a high roughness and the fact that the density of the peaks at a reference level Pc in this case is also higher with sravenie first measured in the processing of the other two categories of materials.

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CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

1. The increase in supply leads to an increase in both the altitude and the stepper parameters of roughness and on top of this trend is more pronounced.

2. Roughness in brittle materials is higher than that of plastic materials and those susceptible to mechanical stiffening.

3. Conducted through single-objective single-factor experiments for each diagram are derived from regression equations of step type and correlation coefficients allowing theoretically derive the expected value of roughness at feed rates outside the range considered in this check you.

The study and its results are applied science. Received experimental plan depending on six types of materials processed, reflecting the impact of the filing on the parameters of roughness. It has been shown, the significant influence of the factor on the roughness. Based on a comparative analysis confirmed the hypothesis for intensive impact on fragile and poorly flowing materials.

REFERENCES

[1]. Velchev V.. 1990. “Cutting of metals”. Textbooks Ruse. [2]. V. Kostadinov; V. Grigorov; M. Karshakov: - “Finishing machining, by surface plastic deformation of metals”. 1990 year. Ruse. [3]. “DIJET” Reference book- 05/2011: “Carbide elements” – “DIJET INDUSTRIAL “CO.,LTD.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Ivaylo K. Angelov.; RU “Angel Kunchev” - Ruse, ; street Studentska #7, E-mail: [email protected].

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WEAR IN THE GUIDE SUPPORTS AND STATIC DETERMINATIVENESS

SYSTEM - FLOATING CUTTING MODULE - FRAME.

Ivaylo Kirilov Angelov

Abstract: In assessing the wear of contact surfaces associated, in many cases, it is necessary to determine not only the size of the reactions, but the points of their applications, which affect the character in loading. These points of application, give the estimated change in the situation in the contact layers, and analytical determination of areas of wear.!

Key words: lifting and sliding in guide; eccentricity; imbalance force field; phasing angle ΔxFR; INTRODUCTION

In the mechanics of the machine, as a rule, appear multiple contact stresses at the contact surfaces between the details leading to the conduct of various extreme wear and tear on the system. Wear as the contact voltage between one or more parts or assemblies of a system can flow, both jointly and independently for individual elements of the system.

This is determined by t. Pomegranate. Character of contact wears for a mechanical system. Typical of such a mechanism with statistical indefinable, appears our system of semi-liquid contact friction in the guide supports, and related wear. The reactions occurring in the guide supports can be determined with the aid of additional deformation equations of statics, from the viewpoint of strength of materials [1]. Wear under semi-liquid contact friction, slow process to delay the actual contact friction between two surfaces due the presence of protective liquid film LR (lubricant - refrigerant). When the wear of contact friction to trigger field regulated by the system of a clearance between the contact surfaces is variable time factor where these gaps can be efficiently grow. So get out to trigger field occurring as in - big unacceptable gap in the system of guiding, leading to adverse or extreme consequences for the proper operation of the technological system of floating cutting block. This is the phenomenon of slow or intensive wear in guiding the trailing cutting block to the adapter housing. Guarantee for correct operation at reduced wear between the guides is their thermal processing (annealing) of the surface and under the surface layers of the working surfaces [2].

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Consider the presence of wear in the cross section of flat reciprocating - reversible rails of the carrier floating cutting block shown in (fig.1). In this case, when we move, the carrier block, cut the first round cutting plate due to the permissible errors and deviations from the geometric position of the work piece surface. Floating cutting block occupies temporary eccentric location (e1, e2) to the treated surface after only lifting and turning only limited by the guides and their stroke, until the breakout of the second cutting plate.

The magnitude of the cutting stroke for each cutting insert is the size of the addition divided into two, with the adapted tolerance for each wafer. These are technological options been previously set and checked by calibration plates and micrometer. This condition is discussed in detail in the second chapter as a dynamic factor in influencing the cutting zone regulated by the angle of rotation only, (2Δtgαº) in the presence of errors from start-up system and establishes gaps and pin in a plane perpendicular to the treated surface. When considering the current strength of the (Fig. 2), unknowns appear less reactions in the guide (F'C1; F'C2; F'P1; F'P2), and the points of their applications -

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eccentricity (e1, e2), compared to the average neutral line n - n the guide. We can write two equations involving these unknowns:

2'"

1" CC FFF ; (1)

)22

22.(")1

2

11.(" 21 e

abFe

abF CC (2)

Due to wear and the existence of gaps (Δx1, ... ..Δxn), to guide the floating cutting block is allocated (released), and only rotates angle 2Δtgαº.

b1

b2

a2/2

e2

F"p1

F"p2

n

n

VB

2t ga °

AB

C

D

h

VC

x1

x2

x'1

x'2

0

2t g a °

Y1

Y2

Y3

Y4

2t g a °

FP

FC

F'P1

F'C

F'P2

FP2

F'C2

FC2

F"C2

F'C1,2

a1

Mзав.

F"C1е1а1

/2

F"C1

F"C2

F'C1

e1

a1/2

F'C2

a2

Fig.1. Wear and only rotation angle 2Δtgαº, stain and static determination of contact

between the guides. The export shall be governed by the stain of primary contact (trapezoid ABCD),

reduced by the force field to multiple trapezoidal spots, most - often the same angle locked from the axis to the walls of the contact in the guide given to (Figure 2).

From the similarity of triangles, we can get two additional equations in the form:

b

a

YY

YY 1

23

12

; (3)

234

23

a

b

YY

YY

; (4)

Wherein: Y1; Y2; Y3 - contact points of contact spots in the guide;

These two equations will be those additional conditions that will allow to solve a statistical indefinable task.

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Fig.2. Determinativeness construction by system distributed load along the contact between the guides.

In fact, to assess the wear imposed

by force (force field), and result from the tensions in the guide. Significant role contributes to the speed of those small displacements (sailing), regulated by the geometric errors (Δh) of the surface of the work piece (figure 3).!

When irregular wear at the edges of working surfaces of the guides are born and preconditions for separate and joint wear by lifting and sliding between the surfaces of the guide, locked on the angle of active contact of exports 2Δtgαº [Chapter 2[ ]].

In the likeness of flat parallel guide, in our case, we can write:

ha

ekkVFYY BC

..12

).(."

1

121112

; (5)

ha

ekkVFYY CC

..12

).(."

2

221'

234

; (6)

)61(

")61(

".

2

)(.

)(

1

1

1

1

2

2

2

22123 a

e

a

F

a

e

a

FVV

h

kkYY CCCB ; (7)

wherein: h - the length of the guide; Vв - speed point in the first cutting plate; Vc - speed point C for the second cutting plate; k1; k2; K3; K4 - coefficients of wear for matching alloy steel; When: k1 + k2 = K3 + K4 in the ratio of the condition of wear and type of material for each guide, relevant and width guides and their proportions .;

e1 - an eccentricity relative to the first cutting element (0.5-a1), and the normal center line; - e2 - eccentricity relative to the second cutting member (0.5-a2), and the normal center line;

a1 - end total length of allowable displacement of the first cutting plate; a2 - the final overall length of the allowable displacement of the second cutting insert; b1 - equidistant length of allowable moving to the axis of the first plate; b2 - equidistant length of allowable moving to the axis of the second plate;

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Example derived from its equilibrium position system Floating cutting block to processed external cylindrical surface is shown in (Figure 3). It shows kinematic transition of distribution imbalance force field (imbalance), to one imposed wood-mono system coordinate system (0; x; y). Due to the rise or set of machining errors committed by the

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dimensions and starting field that are regulated in surface contact layers. They can bring out the block from its equilibrium, cutting, turning it into the plane (0; x; y). Phase shifts its equilibrium angular orientation, error, leading to inaccuracies in processing in shaping the surface after cutting. Or in some cases leading to shock breakout stepping on one cutting plate, angular upset and come in a range of phased angle to the second plate cutting with a Big mistake (-Δx <0 ° + Δy). Two separate trapezoidal sections integrated into the ends of the rectangular footprint of the contact. These are called. Spots on the active contact in the export (A-A '; B-B'; D-D '; C-C'), forms there is a consequence of several factors encountered in the process of intensive semi-liquid friction at the cutting conditions!

This may be, wear due to: Uneven tensions arising strain impact in the uneven sliding friction, concentrated mostly in the stains of active contact. Lack or shortage of LFC (lubricant coolant) is one of the prerequisites of such exports..! Friction factor is a prerequisite for the generation and the availability of wear due to distortions caused by the area of distributed forces acting in the cutting of (Figure 3)! The presence of a longitudinal or transverse deviations from the geometric shape of the machined surface, can lead to variations in the equilibrium position of the floating cutter block!

Figure 3. Kinematic plan - a scheme imbalance of the system Floating cutting block - arable preparation in the presence of gaps in the guide supports, (Δx - Δy), due to the angular orientation and phasing of equal current force ΔRB-D.

For this example, putting together two dynamic equations inertial coordinate axis (0;

x, y), as follows:

n

xXJ

1

0 ; (8)

0cos.sin.cos. 21 xGTTxFxxFx DB ; (9)

n

y

Jy1

0 ; (10)

0sin.cos.sin. 2"

1" yGTTypFypF DB ; (11)

Make to the normal reactions and get:

.

1'

1

.cos.1

ВРB M

xFxGN

; (12)

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.

2'

1

.sin.1

ВРD М

xFyGN

; (13)

Define the powers of sliding friction.:

.1 . трB

BB V

NT ; (14) .

2 . трD

DD V

NT ; (15)

Where; V BD - Speed of points A, and D;

μtr. - Coefficient of sliding friction (0.15) of metal; N1-2 - normal reactions to the point B, and point D .;

ΔFR sc. - Phase shift angle of rotation of the current force equal leading to imbalance Floating cutting block due the presence of gaps in the guide supports> (0 ° 25');

y

xtgFRСС

cos

sin. ; (16)

In both end positions in the guide, we focused complex two forces by reactions with their magnitudes and directions, namely Fmax.sts. аnd Fmin.sts. . They are rotated 180 ° along an axis x, and have different sizes relative to one another! Their size is decisive for the eviction of the equilibrium state of the system Floating cutting block - support casing. No matter what mode of cutting and in what location is floating cut block; whether it will be in a position to cut down or work in phase angle ΔFR NC. - Unbalanced, is the factor error in processing external cylindrical surfaces by cutting two hands cutting module. This forced frustration of the block is extremely undesirable effect cutting. It results in worsening the quality of the machined surface, increases the concentration of wave-surfs, in longitudinal and transverse direction,; or accompanied by extreme forced to sharply cut (impact) of one of the two inserts, causing blocking and stopping the combined cutting tool and PSD.

Moreover, the tool until the removal of the defect or fault ..:

Bсц Ty

yxGF .

cos

)sin(...max

; (17)

Dсц Ty

yxGF .

cos

)sin(...min

; (18)

DсцRССBсц Ty

yxGFFT

y

yxGF .

cos

)sin(..

cos

)sin(...min...max

; (19)

For normal operation at cutting determine when deviations at the maximum force of traction and at the minimum force equal to (0 ° 25'), or they are missing from the condition (19). Then the cutting block is floating balanced components of use the forces field, the weight of the carrier unit and the inertial forces of one another cutting element in the cutting process, the direction of current equal force FR.

When the system is well sized and balanced, we have: 0)'250(0 ..min...max сцRССсц FFF ; (20)

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

This condition, (20) must be fulfilled and maintained in the cutting process, invariably the whole process in order to achieve a quality and reliable operation of floating cutting block! Or expression (20) is the opposite condition (steady) for the implementation of quality process, the processing of external cylindrical surfaces after cutting.

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Phenomena considered dies stabilization in the frustration of the floating bearing block is not desirable and harmful phenomenon in conditions in the center of the cutting regimes. A view of precaution and maintainability of tools discussed particular case is of particular importance for the proper overall operation of cutting floating module.

The intensity of wear of the guide ways, a process leading to increased operating loads in the contact surfaces caused by the speed of dry or semi-dry friction generating small thermal deformation.

1. Following the resulting relationships can afford to compare and evaluate different types of structural variations on geometric bearing surfaces of the guide.

2. With a view to optimal geometry and appropriate bearing capacity, with minimum risks of intensive wear is selected rectangular type with prismatic section guides.

REFERENCES

[1]. Milkov D. Varban,., 2008 yars Resistance of the material. The second publication from Varna. [2]. Aroujo A. C., Silveira, J.L. Analysis of the specific forces on end milling. Rio De Janeiro, Brazil COPPE/UERJ,2002 .

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Angelov K. Ivaylo RU “Angel Kunchev” – Ruse ; street Studenska #8, Bulgaria, E-mail: [email protected] .

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THE USE OF ALGAE BIOMASS AS SUBSTRATE FOR BIOGAS

PRODUCTION – A REVIEW

M. Dinca, Gh. Voicu, M. Ferdes, G. Paraschiv, G. Moiceanu, P. Voicu, N. Ungureanu and M. Ionescu

Abstract: The third generation of biofuels aims to obtain fuel using aquatic microorganisms but also

raw materials which does not endanger food security. Microalgae and macroalgae underwent an intense research, thanks to their capability to overcome the drawbacks related to the first and second generations of biomass resources. The third generation of biofuels derived from algae is formed by biodiesel, bioethanol, biohydrogen and biogas. The objective of this work is to provide an overview on algal biomass as feedstock for biogas production through anaerobic digestion process.

Key words: Algae biomass, Biogas, Anaerobic digestion. INTRODUCTION

The third generation of biofuels aimed at obtaining fuel using aquatic micro-organisms but also the raw materials that do not endanger the food supply. Currently, the microalgae have become one of the most promising feedstock for the production of biofuels, due to high oil content. The third generation of biofuels derived from algae is formed by biodiesel, bioethanol, biogas and biohydrogen, [6, 18]. Besides the fact that they have a high content of oil, microalgae requires a much smaller amount of water compared to agricultural crops, can be grown in saline water, do not need pesticides or arable land as requiring field crops, [1].

Macroalgae biomass can be converted to biofuels by various processes including thermal processes and fermentation, but the most direct way to obtain biofuel from macroalgae is through anaerobic digestion to biogas, [11].

According to Sialve et al. [17], regardless of microalgae species and operating conditions, the proportion of methane in the produced biogas is around 70%. This reveals that a good quality of conversion of the microalgal organic matter into methane is achievable.

The production of biogas through anaerobic digestion process offers significant advantages over other forms of bioenergy production, such as: one of the most energy-efficient and environmentally beneficial technology for bioenergy production; greenhouse gas reduction; digestate represents an improved soil conditioner which can substitute mineral fertilizer, [20, 13].

The main goal of this review article is to present the applicability of algae biomass for biogas production through anaerobic fermentation process.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Sources of algae biomass for biogas production

Marine algae consist of polysaccharides (alginate, laminaran and mannitol), with zero lignin and low cellulose content, which make them an appropriate feedstock to convert to methane by anaerobic digestion processes, [19].

One hectare algae farm on wasteland can produce over 10–100 times of oil as compared to any other known source of oil-crops. While a crop cycle may take from three months to three years for production, algae can start producing oil within 3–5 days, [16]. Many experiments were conducted in order to evaluate biogas produced by anaerobic fermentation process, using as feedstock different species of algae, such as: the marine

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species Isochrysis galbana and the freshwater species Selenastrum capricornutum, [5], green algae belonging to genus Monoraphidium sp., Scenedesmus sp. and Stigeoclorium sp., Nitzchia sp., Navicula sp., Amphora sp., [10].

In the review prepared by Bahadar A. and Bilal Khan M., [2] were treated the best suitable biofuel microalgae strains, like: B. braunii, Nannochloropis sp, C. vulgaris, C.a minutissima, C. protothecoides, C. emersonii, S. platensis, S. maxima, D. tertiolecta, P. tricornutum, S. obliquus, Chlorococcum sp, Crypthecodinium cohnii, C. reinhardtii, Schizochytrium sp, D. salina, and Microcystis aeruginosa. These strains are investigated heavily in the literature for fuel purpose due to their higher lipid contents and ability to yield biodiesel, biohydrogen, biohydrocarbons and biomethane.

Other researches include for biogas production feedstock made by macroalgae including Laminaria sp., Macrocystis sp. [7], Gracilariaceae and Ulva sp. [3].

Figure 1 The main steps of algae biomass technologies, [8] RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Anaerobic digestion of algae biomass

The anaerobic digestion process involves diverse community of bacteria that produce biogas through a series of reactions during four main phases, namely: hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis and methanogenesis. Algal biomass is rich in nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus, which are essential nutrients for anaerobic microorganisms, [4]. The algae biomass represents a source of nitrogen and microelements with an important role for the growth of anaerobic bacteria. Mata – Alvarez

Sunlight

CO2 in atmosphere H2O CO2 in atmosphere

Photosyntetic organism

Initial biofixation substances

Microalgae growth

Microalgae processing

Thermochemical conversion

Biochemical conversion

Biosynfuels Biodiesel Gas

Bioalcohols Biodiesel Biogas Biohydrogen

Direct conversion

Algal oil Combustion Animal food Fertilizer

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et al., [12] showed that the introduction of selected substrates to a fermentation bioreactor improved the final effects of the anaerobic process. In the last decades, two main approaches have been evaluated to produce biogas from microalgae: anaerobic digestion of the whole biomass and anaerobic digestion of lipid extracted biomass for biodiesel production, [15].

It was found that the anaerobic fermentation of maize silage and macroalgae in the same technological conditions, [14] proved a positive effect by 11% effectiveness of methane fermentation in the case of C. reinhardtii. The experiments conducted, [14] revealed that the green freshwater alga C. Reinhardtii was the most efficient biogas substrate (587 ml±8.8 SE gVS−1), followed by the halophilic green alga D. salina (505 ml±24.8 SE gVS−1). Compared to the standard substrate control Z. mays silage (653 ml±37.7 SE gVS−1), these two algae produced 90% (C. reinhardtii) and 77% (D. salina) of the biogas amount (Figure 2).

Figure 2 Biogas production from algae biomass, [14]

In figure 3 there is presented a scheme of a technological system for co-

fermentation of algae biomass and maize silage.

Figure 3 System for co-fermentation of algae biomass and maize silage, [9]

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1 – maize silage, 2 – feeding screw, 3,4 – algae biomass, 5 – hydrolyzing unit, 6 – fermentation tank, 7 – post-fermentation tank, 8 – biogas purification system, 9 – co-generating unit, 10 – sludge dehydration, 11 – sludge storage and drying, 12 – storage of dried sludge, 13 – dissolved air flotation unit, 14 – system for proliferation of photobioreactor algae biomass, 15 – concentration and separation of algae biomass, 16 – biogas installation, 17 – CO2 supply installation, 18 – heat exchangers installation, 19 – electric energy, 20 – directed liquid, 21 – medium feeding the photobioreactor, 22 – post-flotation precipitate.

CONCLUSIONS

The marine algae species are a renewable energy source that can generate biogas with high methane concentration through anaerobic digestion process.

It was found in the literature that certain microalgal species (C. Reinhardtii and D. salina) can be good substrates for anaerobic fermentation, resulting in the production of biogas with relatively high methane content and having the potential to replace higher plant material like maize which is generally used today.

Many researchers argue that the use of methane fermentation is the most effective method for the energetic exploitation of algae biomass.

The algae biomass are considered an important biomass source, even if their utilization as energy source is still low around the world.

Aknowlegement The work has been funded by the Sectoral Operational Programme Human

Resources Development 2007-2013 of the Ministry of European Funds through the Financial Agreement POSDRU/159/1.5/S/134398.

REFERENCES

[1]. Amaro, H.M., et al. 2012. Microalgae: an alternative as sustainable source of biofuels? Energy 44, pp.158-166. [2]. Bahadar, A. and Bilal Khan, M. 2013. Progress in energy from microalgae: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 27, pp.128-148. [3]. Bruhn, A., et al. 2011. Bioenergy potential of Ulva lactuca: biomass yield, methane production and combustion. BioresourceTechnology 102 (3), pp. 2595–2604. [4]. Burton, T., et al. 2009. A review of the potential of marine algae as a source of biofuel in Ireland. Dublin: Sustain- able Energy Ireland; pp. 88. [5]. Caporgno, M.P., et al. 2015. Biogas production from sewage sludge and microalgae co-digestion under mesophilic and thermophilic conditions. Renewable Energy 75, pp. 374-380. [6]. Costa, J.A.V. and de Morais, M.G. 2011.The role of biochemical engineering in the production of biofuels from microalgae. Bioresource Technology 102, pp. 2–9. [7]. Chynoweth, D.P., et al. 1993. Biochemical methane potential of biomass and waste feedstocks. Biomass and Bioenergy 5(1), pp. 95–111. [8]. Demirbas, M. F. 2011. Biofuel from algae for sustainable development. Applied Energy 88, pp. 3473 – 3480. [9]. Debowski, M., et al. 2013. Algae biomass as an alternative substrate in biogas production technologies - Review, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 27, pp. 596–604.

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[10]. Gutierez, R., et al. 2015. Harvesting microalgae from wastewater treatment systems with natural flocculants: Effect on biomass settling and biogas production. Algal Research 9, pp. 204-211. [11]. Hughes, A.D., et al. 2012. Biogas from macroalgae: is it time to revisit the idea? Biotechnol Biofuels 5 (1), pp. 1–7. [12]. Mata-Alvarez, J., et al. 2000. Anaerobic digestion of organic solid wastes. An overview of research achievements and perspectives.BioresourceTechnology 74 (1), pp. 3–16. [13]. Montingelli, M.E., et al. 2015. Biogas production from algal biomass: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43, pp. 961-972. [14]. Mussgnug, J.H, et al. 2010. Microalgae as substrates for fermentative biogas production in a combined biorefinery concept. Journal of Biotechnology 150, pp. 51–56. [15]. Passos, F., et al. 2014. Pretreatment of microalgae to improve biogas production: A review. Bioresource Technology 172, pp. 403-412. [16]. Schenk, P.M., et al. 2008. Second generation biofuels: high-efficiency microalgae for biodiesel production. Bioenergy Research 1, pp. 20–43. [17]. Sialve, B., et al. 2009. Anaerobic digestion of microalgae as a necessary step to make microalgal biodiesel sustainable. Biotechnology Advances 27(4), pp. 409–416. [18]. Tran, D.T., et al. 2013. Effect of solvents and oil content on direct transesterification of wet oil-bearing microalgal biomass of Chlorella vulgaris ESP-31 for biodiesel synthesis using immobilized lipase as the biocatalyst. Bioresource Technology 135, pp. 213-221. [19]. Vergara-Fernandez, A., et al. 2008. Evaluation of marine algae as a source of biogas in a two-stage anaerobic reactor system. Biomass and Bioenergy 32, pp. 338-344. [20]. Weiland, P. 2010. Biogas production: current state and perspectives. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 85(4), pp. 849–860.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

M. Dinca, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 319 Splaiul Independenţei Bd., Bucharest Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; Gh. Voicu, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 319 Splaiul Independenţei Bd., Bucharest Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; M. Ferdes, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 319 Splaiul Independenţei Bd., Bucharest Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; G. Paraschiv, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 319 Splaiul Independenţei Bd., Bucharest Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; G. Moiceanu, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 319 Splaiul Independenţei Bd., Bucharest Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; P. Voicu, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 319 Splaiul Independenţei Bd., Bucharest Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; N. Ungureanu, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 319 Splaiul Independenţei Bd., Bucharest Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; M. Ionescu, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 319 Splaiul Independenţei Bd., Bucharest Romania, E-mail: [email protected].

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RESEARCHES CONCERNING THE ASSESSMENT OF THE QUALITY OF THE PRODUCT OBTAINED FROM THE MECHANIZED HARVESTING OF

THE CAMOMILE INFLORESCENCES

A.Muscalu, L. David, A. Pruteanu

Abstract: The great interest and the rising demands of vegetal raw material consisting of medicinal plants, is due to the bioactive compounds presence. Their therapeutic action is largely determined also by the quality of the plant material harvested. The mechanized harvesting can be applied only to the cultivated species of medicinal plants, representing one of the important factors of the obtaining of profitable productions, which sums the high productivity and the increased quality of the product collected.

The work represents a continuation of the experimental researches carried out within INMA, related to the mechanized harvesting of the chamomile inflorescences with different typodimensions of active organs. Thus it shows the evaluation of the quality of the product obtained after the mechanized harvesting process, by the appreciation of some qualitative working indexes by means of some multivariable regression equations, which were obtained by the experimental data processing.

The theoretical results obtained are an important prerequisite for achieving of some efficient specialized equipments, but also an argument for the expansion of the cultivated areas with chamomile in Romania, in accordance with the sustainable agriculture.

Key words: medicinal plants, mechanized harvesting, chamomile inflorescences, product quality. INTRODUCTION

Currently researching the medicinal and aromatic plants are enjoying a particular interest due to intensifying of the efforts in finding of remedies, especially for the incurable diseases, but also the need to widen the range of goods and pharmaceutical preparations.

And in the case of the medicinal plants, the mechanization of the agricultural works not only contributes to the production growth, but it offers the possibility of obtaining a uniform quality of its and implicitly a substantial reduction in manual labor.[2]

The camomile (Matricaria recutita L.) is one of the most popular and cultivated medicinal plants, due to its special therapeutic qualities. The active bodies consecrated for its harvesting in the form of inflorescences are those of comb type [1].

Within INMA have been executed and tried several types of combs scrapers, with straight teeth and respectively with curved teeth. At both types, the gap between teeth had the most agreed form, a rounded "U" [1]. The gatherer of transporter type of the chamomile harvesting machine has been equipped at a time with these typodimensions of active organs, determining the qualitative working indexes, then choosing a representative version for each typo dimension (V1 for straight teeth, respectively T2 for curved teeth). [3]

Harvesting in the form of inflorescences of chamomile is a difficult operation, that requires a special accuracy, requested by the biological and physico-mechanical peculiarities specific to these plants, as well as by the quality conditions which must meet the harvested product.[2,3]

Chamomile's major bioactive compounds are contained in most of the flowers, whose recovery is done according to their quality. The most precious and valuable in active substances is "the high quality" of the inflorescences. This is represented only by complete flowers, without peduncle or the stem length less then 10 mm.[3]

MATERIAL AND METHODS

After carrying out the experiments it was found that the values determined are dependent on certain conditions, which are expressed by means of some values imposed by authors to certain parameters. This can be transposed by the fact that the determined variable is simultaneously dependent on several independent variables. This dependence

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can be expressed by means of an analytical expression, whose general shape must be determined, being an equation of the type:

),,,,( 0 ijiiii aaaaxfy (1)

Due to the complexity of solving this problem, is required the crossing of some stages: drawing up a suitable program for the organization of experiences, determining the constants values, testing of variables significance, testing the equation form adequacy [4].

Multivariable equations can be of the type: Polynomial regression function form, with three independent variables that has the

form:

y a a x a x a x x a x x a x xo i i ii iii

2

12 1 2 13 1 3 23 2 31

3

1

3

(2)

- where x1 , x2 , x3 are the independent variables, y is the dependent variable and a0, ai, aii, a12, a13 si a23 are the constants whose value is to be determined.

Polytropic regression function, with three independent variables that has the form [4]: y a x x xo

a a a 1 2 31 2 3 (3)

Determination of the constants is made with the method of the smallest squares.[4] To determine the multivariable function coefficients expressing the content in

inflorescences of high quality, were chosen the independent variables influencing this dependent variables and their range of variation. These are:

- Working speed: vl = 0.5 – 1.22 Kmh-1; - The height of harvest: H=0.3 – 0.45 m; - Combs peripheral speed: vp = 0.52 – 1.08 ms-1;

Table 1 Crt. No.

Working speed

vl

[km h-1]

The height of harvest H [m]

Combs peripheral

speed vp [m s-1]

Content of high quality

inflorescences [%] V1

Content of high quality

inflorescences [%] T2

1 0.5 0.30 0.52 22.3 27,1 2 1.22 0.30 0.52 14.2 18,3 3 0.5 0.45 0.52 37.5 42,2 4 1.22 0.45 0.52 21.4 25,9 5 0.5 0.30 1.08 23.8 29,4 6 1.22 0.30 1.08 16.1 19,2 7 0.5 0.45 1.08 40.7 43,7 8 1.22 0.45 1.08 26.8 30,4 9 0.5 0.30 0.76 23.7 27 10 1.22 0.30 0.76 14.2 18,8 11 0.76 0.45 0.76 32.5 38,4 12 0.76 0.30 0.76 23.2 20,5 13 0.76 0.30 1.08 23.5 21,3 14 0.76 0.30 0.52 21.3 20,4 15 0.76 0.30 0.76 23.2 20,5 16 0.76 0.30 0.76 20 22 17 0.76 0.30 0.76 25 18 18 0.76 0.30 0.76 21 19

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For each independent variable was chosen a lower level and a superior one. The structure of the experimental research programs used to determine the function y is given by:

The number n* = 14 of experiences made for different values of the independent variables, necessary for determining the coefficients;

The number no = 4 of experiences made for identical values of the independent variables, necessary for determining the experimental error;

The total number of experiences

140 nnn (4)

The experimental program of tests for the determination of multivariable functions for the content of inflorescences of high quality for the variants V1 and T2 of the combs, is shown in the Table 1.

Using an computer program developed in the Turbo Pascal programming language were calculated the regression coefficients for the function of the polynomial and polytropic form for the variant V1 and respectively for the T2 variant of the active bodies.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Calculating the regression coefficients and the coefficients of the test of the coefficients significance for the function of the polynomial form corresponding to the content of high-quality inflorescences for the variant V1, as well as for the variant T2, revealed that the function form was not adequate for none of the cases.

Were calculated then the coefficients of regression and the coefficients of test of the coefficients significance for the function of the polytropic form corresponding to the content of inflorescences of high quality, for the variant V1: a1 = 64.424556340 F1 = 18660.188698 > F=8.25 results: a1 it is significant; a2 = - 0.531284415 F2 = 56.09459349 > F=8.25 results: a2 it is significant; a3 = 1.026586251 F3 = 43.274983746 > F=8.25 results: a3 it is significant; a4 = 0.165374223 F4 = 3.649015973 < F=8.25 results: a4 it is not significant. The recalculated coefficients are: a1 =64.4245563, a2 = - 0.5312844, a3 = - 1.0265863, a4 = 0

The coefficient of testing of the adequacy of the function form is F=1.350 < Ftab = 9.4, therefore the form of the function is adequate. The polytropic function that allows the calculation of the content of quality inflorescences for the variant V1 of the combs is:

00265863.15312844.01 4245563.64 pl vHvy (5)

Were calculated the regression coefficients and the coefficients of testing of the coefficients significance for the function of the polytropic form corresponding to the content of high quality inflorescences, for the variant T2 of the combs with curved teeth: a1 = 88.664652561 F1 = 25620.9776870 > F=8.25 results: a1 it is significant; a2 = - 0.450502699 F2 = 52.542262057 > F=8.25 results: a2 it is significant; a3 = 1.256323288 F3 = 84.285219598 > F=8.25 results: a3 it is significant; a4 = 0.0986260565 F4 = 1.687819974 < F=8.25 results: a4 it is not significant. The recalculated coefficients are: a1 =88.6646526, a2 = - 0.4505027, a3 = 1.2563233, a4 = 0.0

The coefficient of testing of the adequacy of the function form is F=1.563 < Ftab = 9.4, therefore the form of the function is adequate. The polytropic function that allows the calculation of the content of quality inflorescences for the variant T2 of the combs is:

02563233.14505027.01 6646526.88 pl vHvy (6)

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Fig.1 The content of high quality inflorescences for the variant V1 of the combs

Fig.2 The content of high quality inflorescences for the variant T2 of the combs

In figure 1 and figure 2 are presented for the the two versions of the combs, the

experimental values of the high quality inflorescences content, compared to the theoretical ones, calculated using the regression functions of polytropic form previously obtained.

Using the data from Table 2, for a constant harvesting height H=0.300 m can determine the variation of the content of high quality inflorescences for the variants V1 and T2 of the combs depending on the working speed (vl=x1) and of the combs peripheral speed (vp=x2), using a function:

225214

2132211021 ),( xaxxaxaxaxaaxxf (7)

Table 2

Working speed vl [km h-1]

Combs peripheral speed

vp [m s-1]

Content of high quality inflorescences

[%] V1

Content of high quality inflorescences

[%] T2 0.5 0.52 22.3 27.1 0.5 0.76 23.7 27.0 0.5 1.08 23.8 29.4

0.76 0.52 21.3 20.4 0.76 0.76 23.2 20.5 0.76 1.08 23.5 21.3 1.04 0.52 18 20,3 1.04 0.76 19.1 20,6 1.04 1.08 15.3 20,9 1.22 0.52 14.2 18.3 1.22 0.76 14.2 18.8 1.22 1.08 16.1 19.2

With the help of MATHCAD program were determined the constants of the

corresponding function of each variant and then graphically represented the variation of content of the high-quality inflorescences.

From Figures 3 and 4 can be determined the value of the high quality inflorescences content (Ci) for any working speed and for any peripheral speed of the combs, corresponding to a constant harvest height, H=0.300m.

For each considered variant of active bodies it was graphically represented the variation of content of the high-quality inflorescences (Ci) for each peripheral speed of the combs (vp1=0.52 ms-1, vp2=0.76 ms-1, vp3=1.08 ms-1), depending on the working speed (figures 5 and 6).

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Fig.3 Variation of Ci for V1 depending on vl

and vp, at H=0.300m Fig.4 Variation of Ci for T2 depending on vl and

vp, at H=0.300m

Fig.5 Variation of Ci for V1, depending on vl Fig.6 Variation of Ci for T2, depending on vl CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

The results analysis of the experimental data processing regarding the content of chamomile inflorescences of high quality Ci highlights the following aspects: - Ci can be expressed only by a polytropic function, both for V1 and for T2. - for both variants of the combs the expressions of the analytic functions of several variables for Ci do not depend on the peripheral speed of the combs; - the variation of Ci, for V1, at H=0.300m, depending on the working speed vl it is parabolic, for any of the peripheral speeds of combs. The corresponding values of Ci obtained at the speed vp1=0.52 ms-1 are the smallest. Ci obtained for vp2=0.76 ms-1 intersects with Ci obtained for vp3=1.08 ms-1 at vl=0.55 kmh-1. For working speeds lower than this value, Ci has higher values for vp3=1.08 ms-1. - the variation of Ci for T2 at H=0.300m is decreasing depending on the working speed, regardless the combs peripheral speed. For the peripheral speed vp3=1.08 ms-1, the values of Ci are significantly higher. tThe values of Ci for the variant T2 are greater than for the variant V1, for any value of the working speed.

The theoretical results obtained following this analysis It is an important premise for improving the working performances of the equipments for the harvesting of chamomile inflorescences, as well as an argument in the favor of extending the cultivation of this species in Romania, in the context of sustainable agricultural development.

REFERENCES

[1]. Brabandt H, Ehlert D, 2011. Chamomile harvesters: a review. Industrial Crops and Products 34, 818–824. [2]. Martinov M, Konstantinovic M. 2007, Harvesting, in Medicinal and aromatic crops. Harvesting, drying, and processing, The Haworth Press Inc., NY (USA), pp: 56-84;

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[3]. Muscalu A, David L., 2015 Quality of mechanical harvesting of chamomile inflorescences Proceeding of 43rd International Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 365-377; [4]. Paunescu, I., David, L, The bases of experimental research of biotechnical systems, Printech Pub., 1999

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

A. Muscalu, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, PO 18-013813, Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: [email protected]

L. David, “Politehnica” University of Bucharest, 313 Splaiul Independentei 060042, Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: [email protected]

A. Pruteanu, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, PO 18-013813, Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: [email protected]

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CURRENT STATUS OF THE CONSTRUCTIVE ACHIEVEMENTS

REGARDING MACHINES FOR PRECISION SEEDING

Cujbescu D.1), Bolintineanu G.1), Atanasov At.2), Marin E.1), Vlăduţ V.1), Biriş S. Şt.3), Dumitru I.4), Găgeanu I.1)

1)INMA Bucharet / Romania; 2)University of Russe; 3)P.U. Bucharest; 4)University of Craiova

Abstract: In recent years, the most important constructors of seeding machines have modernized, perfected and simplified the construction of these machines and the operations of adjusting the distribution, decreasing the production costs as well as for improving the working conditions for operators, increasing security when handling and the economic efficiency (by periodic meetings with farmers that use these machines, where are explained in detail all the aspects concerning the working process of seeders). In the paper are presented a few of the most important models existing on the market that bring novelty allowing to obtain a very high seeding precision at working speeds higher that 10 km/h, sometimes even over 15 km/h.

Key words: soil, seeding, process, distribution

INTRODUCTION

Machines for seeding in pockets, also called precision seeders, are used for seeding weeding plants (corn, sun flower, beans, soy beans, melons, cucumbers, tomatoes etc.). These machines perform the seeding one seed at a time, one or more seeds in the pocket. This implies a uniform distribution of seeds at fixed distances on rows, determining the insurance of an optimal space for plant nutrition and the reduction of the quantity of seeds on the surface unit [2, 3].

A machine for seeding in pockets is comprised by the following main parts: frame, seed bunker, support wheels, working stations, exhauster, driving organs, device for traction or for coupling to the hydraulic lifter of the tractor, mechanisms, etc. [1]. The station for seeding in pockets can be equipped with additional organs: deflectors for removing clods from the operating area of the plowshare, compaction wheels, wheels for limiting the working depth, etc.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The construction of machines for seeding weeding plants has evolved gradually as knowledge were accumulated, through the development of science and technology, beginning from seeders with animal traction equipped with mechanical distributors and arriving up to seeders mounted on tractors, equipped with diversified and perfected pneumatic distributors.

Following the continuous evolution of the achievements of firms constructing agricultural machinery in the country and abroad, it is found that they make huge efforts for constructive and functional perfecting, for increasing the technical performances and the quality of the works performed and, not least, for insuring an increased protection for the environment and the health of the user, avoiding accidents and reducing the effort of the operator for an optimal exploitation of the machine. Also, there is a permanent preoccupation for increasing product reliability, reducing the mass and the costs of acquisition, maintenance and exploitation.

RESULTS

At the international exhibits for agricultural technique, EIMA (Bologna) and SIMA (PARIS), Maschio group has presented a new precision seeder – MaxiMetro (fig. 1, 2),

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available in three models: MaxiMetro with 24 stations for a 250 HP tractor, MaxiMetro with 32 stations and MaxiMetro with 36 stations for a 300 HP tractor. It is a towed seeder that can perform up to 35 ha/h, an aspect that recommends it for very large surfaces. Fuels consumption is 2 l/ha and the working width is 25 m, being equipped with a central bunker for fertilizers, with a capacity of 7500 l. It can operate optimally at a speed of 14 km/h. The distance between stations is 70-75 cm. The folding of modules (going from working position into transport position) is achieved through cylinders actuated from the tractor’s hydraulic installation. The exhauster has the power necessary to ensure vacuum for all 36 working station. During transport, the seeder moves on two rubber tracks, and during operation are added 6 rubber wheels, four in the back and two in the front.

Fig. 1 - MaxiMetro precision seeder [4] Fig. 2 – The frame of the MaxiMetro precision seeder following the soil unevenness [4]

Each side wing of the frame offers an 8o inclination upward or downward giving a total

inclination angle of 16o. Due to this shape of the frame, the seeder can follow the contour of the soil maintaining the accuracy of the seeding depth on the whole working length.

The MT precision pneumatic seeder (fig. 3), built by the Gaspardo company is a versatile machine, ideal for precision seeding, indicated for any type of seeds, but especially for corn, sun flower, sugar beet and soy beans, and for any type of field, prepared or unprepared, with or without plant residues. The distance between rows is 45, 60 or 75 cm, and the recommended working speed is 6-8 km/h. Each seeding station has, for opening the furrow, a double disc type plowshare and a pair of side wheels for the control of the seeding depth. In the presence of an uneven and rough terrain, it allows to perform an even seeding. This seeder can also be used on fields where the technique of minimum soil processing was applied.

Fig. 3 - Maschio Gaspardo precision seeder, MT series [4]

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1 – pressure and/or release spring; 2 – rapid detaching of the element; 3 – plastic loading basin; 4 – precise and linear adjustment of the seeding depth; 5 – scraper; 6 – back compression wheel; 7 – depth wheels

independent from the balancer; 8 – distributor; 9 – plowshare; 10 - adjustable clod separator; 11 – cardan transmission; 12 – self-lubricating sintered bushings; 13 – rapid opening for an easy replacement of the

distributor disc The MONICA pneumatic seeder (fig. 4) has a versatile use for all types of seeds on

prepared land or land with minimal processing. It achieves high operative capacities and minimum street loading gauge due to the telescopic frame.

The MAESTRA pneumatic seeder (fig. 5) is equipped with fixed chassis, with versatile use for all types of seeds, adequate for seeding on prepared land or in conditions of minimal processing. It is comprised of a chassis with a 9.6 m length, to which are applied two independent and floating chassis equipped with MT type seeding elements.

Fig. 4 - MONICA pneumatic precision seeder [4]

Fig. 5 - MAESTRA pneumatic seeder[4]

The Monosem NG plus pneumatic precision seeder (fig. 6) performs the seeding

operation following the seeding concept with a single point of support to the soil in the axis of seed dropping or “the American seeding system”.

Fig. 6 - Monosem NG Plus 4 pneumatic precision seeder [5]

1 – parallelogram mechanism for coupling the station to the frame of the machine; 2 – clod compactor; 3 – double discs; 4 – wheels for controlling the depth; 5 – intermediary pressing wheel; 6 – compaction

wheel; 7 – bunker; 8 – distribution device; 9 – centralized transmission

The MECA V4 seeder for weeding plants (fig. 7) is specially designed for planting for planting coated seeds, for example sugar beet, sorghum, etc.

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Fig. 7 - MECA V4 seeder built by MONOSEM company [5] a –“Front depth control” concept (adjustment of the seeding depth is done from the front wheel); b –“Balancing

system” concept (adjustment of the seeding depth is done by actuating the front and back wheel) The SeedDrive system (fig. 8) ensures an even distribution of seeds by controlling

hydraulic motors that engage the distribution discs. This system offers the possibility to modulate non-stop the uniformity of distribution directly from the tractor’s cabin.

Fig. 8 - SeedDrive electronic system for controlling the distributeon [5]

The NX2 precision pneumatic seeder (fig. 9), designed by the MONOSEM company,

is a versatile machine, ideal for precision seeding, adequate for any type of seeds, but especially for corn, sun flower, sugar beet and rapeseed, and for any type of field, prepared or unprepared, with or without plant residues. The distance between the rows is 70-80 cm, being equipped with 4 to up to 12 stations.

Fig. 9 - NX 2 seeder [5]

1 – ratch wheels for removing plant residues; 2 – circular plowshare (smooth or corrugated); 3 – double disc plowshare; 4 – wheels for controlling the depth; 5 – Monoshox damper®

For the MS pneumatic seeder (fig. 10) for vegetable crops (green salad, onions,

carrots) the distance between the rows begins from 14 cm, being equipped with 2 to up to 30 seeding stations.

Fig. 10 - MS pneumatic seeder [5]

1 – adjustable clod separator; 2 – plowshare; 3 – intermediary pressing wheel; 4 –retractable paddles for covering the seeds; 5 – back wheel for closing the furrow; 6 – bunker; 7 – wheel for adjusting the seeding

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depth; 8 – pressure and/or release spring for actuating the intermediary pressure wheel; 9 – pressure and/or release spring for actuating the back wheel

The MS 8100 seeder (fig. 11) built by the MATER MACC company in Italy is destined

for seeding weeding plants, being possible to equip it with 4 to up to 12 seeding stations.

Fig. 11 - MS 8100 pneumatic seeder [6]

1 – seed bunker; 2 – spring for increasing or reducing the pressing force in the soil by the seeding station; 3 – plate for attaching the station to the frame; 4 – hook for blocking the station in case of transporting the seeder on

public roads; 5 – cultivating plowshare; 6 – double disc plowshare; 7 – discs for closing the channel; 8 – handle for adjusting the discs for closing the channel; 9 – crank for adjusting the working depth of the seeding station; 10 –

indexer for the fine adjustment of the distance between the closing discs; 11 –pneumatic distributor

The MAXIMA 2 precision pneumatic seeder produced by the KUHN company has several constructive options: M, TS, TD, TDL, TI, TI M, R, RX, RXL, TM, TT, TRX, offering a diversified range of widths for the frames and equipment. The seeding furrow is opened by two large sized discs. To avoid any risk of sliding and to give the MAXIMA 2 seeder a good stability, the maximum pressure that can be applied on each unit varies between 120 and 150 kg. The large guiding wheels are the only point of contact with the soil, the depth control being done at the exact moment of releasing the seed, guarantying a precise seed positioning and an even germination. Due to the parallelogram suspension, each seeding unit follows the soil perfectly.

Fig. 12 - Maxima 2 R seeder [7]

The Optima TFmaxi seeder (fig. 13), produced by the Kverneland company has a

working length of 12 m, a 4000 liter bunker for fertilizing substances and can seed up to 100 ha/day. The telescopic frame allows perfect soil coverage, the total length of the machine being reduced to allow tighter turnings at the end of the row.

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Fig. 13 - Optima TFmaxi seeder [8]

Seeders from the EARLY RISER range (fig. 14), produced by the CASE IH company ensure a more rapid filling, without clogging, of the bunkers from the seeding stations (due to some additional seed tanks), being used for several types of crops.

Fig. 14 - EARLY RISER 1260 seeder with 36 seeding stations [9]

1 2 3 4 5

Fig. 15 – The manner of placing the seeds by the station of the EARLY RISER seeder [9] 1 – opening the furrow; 2 – forming a V shaped furrow; 3 – placing the seed on the bottom of the furrow;

4 – closing the furrow; 5 – compacting the furrow

Fig. 16 - AFS Accu-Row system for monitoring from the tractor cabin [9]

Seeders from the Twin-Row range (fig. 17), produced by the CASE IH company allow

planting crops on two staggered lines, the seed population developing with less competition having an increased quantity of light and more space for growing.

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Fig. 17 - Twin-Row seeder [9]

The 1775 NT pneumatic seeder (fig. 18), produced by the John Deere company, has the new type of seeding stations - MaxEmerge™ 5 that can seed precisely corn and soy beans at speeds of 16 km/h.

Fig. 18 - 1775 NT pneumatic seeder and the ExactEmerge™ station [10]

1 – system band with bristles for transporting seeds; 2 –electric motor for engaging the band with bristles; 3 –electric motor for engaging the distribution disc

This station uses the technology patented by the John Deere company – „Brush Belt

Delivery System” that replaces the tube used for leading the seeds with a belt with brushes that places the seeds at the bottom of the furrow according to the agri-technical norms of corn and soy beans especially, at a speed of the seeding machine of over 16 km/h. Each seed passes in front of a sensor so thus monitoring the seed norm, the singularity and precise distance between the seeds.

Seeders from the MF 1800 range (fig. 19), produced by the MASSEY FERGUSON company ensures the seeding precision with the help of the PAM™ - Positive Air Metering technology.

Fig. 19 - MF 8186 seeder with 16 seeding stations [11]

ED seeder (fig. 20) built by the AMAZONE company is comprised of: frame, seeding

stations fitted with distributors with vacuum for seeds, compactions wheels of different shapes and fertilizing equipment. The seeding station of the ED seeder follows the contour

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of the soil and is destined for regular seeding, seeding in mulch and for seeding directly in aerated soils. The weight of the seeding station, in order to follow the contour of the soil is supported by the pressure of the adjustable spring that presses each plowshare with a load of up to 180 kg into the soil. This ensures the fact that the pre established seed placing depth always remains constant. Compared to the large range of seeds that can be seeded by the classic station, on this seeder the stations can be individually disabled electronically, from the AMASCAN+ onboard computer. During the execution of the seeding work, on the monitor are shown the exact number seeds seeded per hectare, the surface in ha, productivity ha/h, time h, distance km and speed km/h. Disturbances are announced by the electronic graphic in less than 10 sec. The machine follows the contour of the field and allows to seed sugar beet and rapeseed.

Fig. 20 - ED 602K seeder, on 8 rows [12]

The SPF6 type precision seeder (fig. 21) built by SC MAT Craiova in partnership

with INMA Bucharest is destined for seeding, fertilizing weeding plants and distributing insecticides in the form of micro-granules, this allowing the operation in a large diversity of seeding schemes, both for crops that require large distances between the rows, but also for crops that require small distances between the rows, in diverse working conditions. Each seeding station is mounted on the frame with the help of a holder and of clips and is comprised of a distribution device and, in order to allow working in different conditions of soil preparation, it is fitted with a double disc plowshare.

Fig. 21 - SPF 6 seeder [13]

The S8-CP type seeder for weeding plants with fertilization (fig. 22), built by INMA

Bucharest, is destined for seeding corn, sun flower and other weeding plants on flat lands with a slope of maximum 6o (10.5%) plowed and prepared for seeding, respecting the certified technologies for these crops and satisfying the agro-technical needs specific for them. The machine is provided with 8 seeding stations that are fitted with a parallelogram mechanism for copying the configuration of the terrain, with a mechanism for adjusting the seeding depth individually for each station, with pneumatic distribution and cardan transmission from the axle of the centralized transmission of the seeder to the axle of the seed distributor. For the control of seed distribution during operation, the seeder is fitted

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with an electronic signaling device, of the company’s own conception, with components that are resistant to an environment with dust, shocks and humidity.

Fig. 22 – S8-CP type seeder for weeding plants with fertilization

In Romania are produced by S.C. Mecanica Ceahlău S.A. Piatra Neamţ the seeders for seeding and fertilizing weeding plants type SPC in the versions: SK 6 FD (fig. 23), SK 4/4F/6/6F/8FL/8L - license KLEINE –Germany, SPC 4FS, SPC 4M, SPC 6FS, SPC 6M, SPC 8FS, SPC 8M on 4, 6, respectively 8 rows. The SK 6 FD seeder is destined for the precision seeding of weeding plants (corn, beet, sun flower, soy beans) simultaneously with applying granular chemical fertilizers, on flat land or on fields with a slope of maximum 8o using a high-precision pneumatic-mechanical seed distributor.

Fig. 23 - SK 6 FD seeder for weeding plants [14]

CONCLUSIONS

Worldwide, the large companies constructing seeding machines (GASPARDO, JOHN DEERE, MONOSEM, AMAZONE, MATERMACC etc.) make big efforts in order to modernize, perfect, simplify the construction of these machines and of the operations for adjusting the distribution, decreasing the production costs as well as for improving the working conditions for operators, increasing security when handling and the economic efficiency (by periodic meetings with farmers that use these machines, where are explained in detail all the aspects concerning the working process of seeders).

An important factor in perfecting the technical equipment for seeding weeding plants is to improve seed distribution systems, to create conditions regarding the manufacturing of more simple, safer distributors that have a lower mass, lower price and that have simple and easy to perform adjustments.

The majority of companies building precision seeding machines choose the solution of engaging the seed distribution devices by using electric motors with individual actuating for each seeding station. The power supply for the electric motors comes from the tractor’s electrical installation, the support wheel of the seeding machine being equipped with a speed sensor (transducer) for the control of electric motors. Therefore, the distance between the seeds on the row can be easily adjusted through the adequate modification of

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the speed of electric motors engaging the distribution devices through the monitoring and adjusting devices located in the cabin of the tractor. This method of entraining the seed distribution devices allows the easy introduction of the technical applications of GPS systems to the execution of seeding works with precision machines. Also, the seeding precision is controlled in real time, by equipping the tubes for leading the seeds on the bottom of the furrow with optic sensors, the operator permanently monitoring, during the entire period of the working process, the seeding precision of each station separately.

The new technical equipment for seeding, thus perfected, have working speeds of up to 16 km/h, being able to work on fields with a slope of up to 15o, without affecting the seeding precision. Thus is ensured the achieving of positive effects regarding ergonomics, safety and constancy of adjustments, improving the evenness of seed distribution, increasing their reliability, reducing the mass and the costs for production, maintenance and exploitation.

REFERENCES

[1]. Dobre P. – Energetic base and horticultural machines, Bucharest, 2010; [2]. Scripnic V., Babiciu P. – Agricultural machinery, CERES Pub., Bucharest, 1979; [3]. Şerbu L. – Research on the establishment of factors disturbing the precision of mechanized seeding of weeding plants and their degree of influence, Doctoral Thesis, Bucharest, 1998; [4]. Brochures from MASCHIO-GASPARDO; [5]. Brochures from MONOSEM; [6]. Brochures from MATER MACC; [7]. Brochures from KUHN; [8]. Brochures from KVENERLAND; [9]. Brochures from CASE-IH; [10]. Brochures from a JOHN Deere; [11]. Brochures from MASSEY FERGUSON; [12]. Brochures from AMAZONE; [13]. Brochures from MAT SA Craiova; [14]. Brochures from MECANICA CEAHLAU Piatra Neamt.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

PhD. Stud. Eng. Dan Cujbescu, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; Eng. Gheorghe Bolintineanu, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]; Assoc. Prof. PhD. Eng. Atanas Atanasov, University of Rousse, 8 “Studentska” St, 7017 Ruse, Bulgaria, E-mail: [email protected]; PhD. Eng. Eugen Marin, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]; PhD. Eng. Valentin Vlăduţ, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; Prof. PhD. Eng. Sorin Ştefan Biriş, P.U. Bucharest, 319 Splaiul Independenţei Bd., Bucharest Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; Assoc. Prof. PhD. Eng. Ilie Dumitru, Unioversity of Craiova, 13 Alexandru Ioan Cuza St, Craiova, Romania, e-mail: [email protected]; PhD. Stud. Eng. Iuliana Găgeanu, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: [email protected];

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RESEARCH ON THE INFLUENCE OF SOIL RESISTANCE ON THE PROCESS OF DEEP SOIL LOOSENING

Croitoru St.1), Vladut I.D.2), Badescu M.1), Vlăduţ V.3), Matache M.3), Persu C.3), Păun A.3),

Marin E.3), Atanasov At.4), Vezirov Ch.4), Biriş S. St.2), Dumitru I.1), Găgeanu I.3)

1)University of Craiova; 2)P.U. Bucharest; 3)INMA Bucharest; 4)University of Russe

Abstract: Conservative systems are based on the less intense loosening of soil, made by different methods, without furrow return and only while maintaining a given amount of crop residues on soil surface, is being considered for this reason as environmental protection strategies. Within the paper was performed the results obtained in the field on the testing of equipment for dep losening of soil (50-60 cm) using an equipment type SCAR 5.

Key words: soil, deep losening, process, equipment INTRODUCTION

Deep soil loosening has the purpose of increasing the defective space of the soil horizons underlying the arable layer, without mixing, turning or reversing the soil horizons. This is a work specific for heavy and compacted soils, affected alternatively by excess and deficit of humidity, as well as for other categories of soils that show limitations of the production capacity determined by salinisation, alkalinity, pollution etc. The excess of humidity occurs frequently in the periods rich in precipitations and with a low consumption by evapotranspiration, on soils having a compact and impermeable clay layer, situated under the arable layer. Due to the low permeability of this layer, the water from precipitations cannot infiltrate in depth and is accumulated at the upper part of the profile or at the surface of the soil.

Deep loosening, without turning the furrow, is performed in order to pierce the impermeable layer of soil and causes water infiltration from the upper horizons. In dry areas, the water accumulated in depth represents a reserve for periods lacking precipitations, and in the wet areas this water has to be eliminated through drainage systems.

Changing the negative characteristics of these soils can be made through a complex of measures and works generically comprised in the agro-pedo-ameliorative measures, such as: leveling, modeling, draining, deep loosening, subsoiling, irrigating, fertilizing, crop system etc.

Out of these, by deep loosening or subsoiling is aimed to obtain a radical change in the soil properties in the compacted, tamped and impermeable horizon, thus increasing the capacity of accumulating water, creating conditions for a normal aeration and heating of the soil and for activating biological processes in the soil [1, 2, 3, 4].

Through the deep loosening work, the volume of pores in the soil is increased, the defective space increases, allowing a rapid drainage of water, the surface water drainage is accelerated. In the sub-arable layer, by reducing compactness and cohesion, favorable conditions are created for the penetration of plant roots, increasing their feeding space and their capacity of resisting in drought periods.

Therefore, deep soil loosening is an agro-pedo-ameliorative operation, carried out by mechanical means, through which the physical state of the soil is modified, including under the arable layer, in the purpose of reducing the degree of natural or acquired compaction.

Carrying out deep soil loosening works at a quality level adequate for the agro-pedological requirements, at a cost price as low as possible and with low energy consumption, implies the provision of equipment with superior constructive and functional parameters.

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The requirements of performing deep soil loosening works have at the basis, as pedological criteria, the alternative presence of periods with rainfall excess and deficit of humidity in the soil in the period of vegetation of plants, as well as the presence of totally poor porosity.

Topographically and lithologically, deep loosening is in general appropriate for fields without slope or without alternating layers favoring landslides.

Hydrologically, deep loosening is necessary in the territories subject to alternating excess and deficit of humidity, with or without groundwater contributions, leaks, flooding, etc.

Agrophytotechnically, deep loosening is necessary in the conditions of practicing an intensive agriculture and ensuring economic increases of harvests.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Experimental research for highlighting the influence of soil resistance on the process of deep soil loosening were conducted in Olt county, Bărcăneşti village, on the fields of CRINA farm, using a Case-IH 220 HP tractor in aggregate with the SCAR 5 equipment (fig. 1).

For highlighting the traction force, on the three-point linkage system of the tractor (lateral and central rods) were stuck strain gauges, the data acquired from them being transferred into a MGC Plus acquisition system and then in a portable computer (laptop). The humidity and resistance of the soil where the tests were conducted have been measured using a DELTA-T DEVICES HH2 digital moisture meter and a FIELDSCOUT SC 900 digital penetrometer (fig. 2).

Fig. 1 – CASE-IH tractor in aggregate with SCAR 5 deep soil equipment

during testing

Fig. 2 – Aspects during the determining of humidity and resistance to penetration

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Experiments conducted for determining the force of traction necessary for achieving the loosening operation (50-60 cm) were carried out on parcels of 50 m, at different moving speeds and depths: 20 cm; 30 cm; 40 cm; 50 cm; 60 cm.

Soil humidity had high values (39%) due to the fact that it rained a few days before the experiments took place and especially because the soil was very compacted because deep soil loosening was not performed for more than 20 years and water forms puddles at the surface after each rain, rather than infiltrating in the soil.

Table 1 Soil resistance in the parcel where experiments were conducted

No. Depth (mm)

Resistance to pentration [kPa] U = 39 % at surface

1. 2.5 140 2. 5 1018 3. 7.5 877 4. 10 807 5. 12.5 983 6. 15 1088 7. 17.5 1509 8. 20 1228 9. 22.5 1369

10. 25 1299 11. 27.5 1158 12. 30 1193 13. 32.5 1193 14. 35 1334 15. 37.5 1474 16. 40 1615 17. 42.5 1720 18. 45 1650

Thus, at a moving speed of 0.82 m/s (second speed gear of the tractor), the average traction necessary for carrying out the deep soil loosening work, at an average depth of 50 cm, was 51.84 kN (Ftmax

= 75.71 kN).

Fig. 4 – Maximum value of the force of traction (v = 0.82 m/s)

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Fig. 5 – Average value of the force of traction (maximum and minimum values are local)

CONCLUSIONS

Analyzing the data obtained during experimental research with the SCAR 5 soil loosening equipment equipped with five active bodies having a distance between them of 50 cm, the following conclusions are distinguished:

the equipment performs additionally soil subsoiling (soil loosening in the A2 horizon), at working depths of 0.25-0.30 m, without turning the processed slices, in aggregate with 190-240 HP tractors;

the equipment requires a traction power of 153.3-163.8 HP in order to achieve working depths of 0.50-0.60 m. The values obtained are achieved in the first speed gear.

the equipment requires a traction power of 73.2-82.9 HP in order to achieve working depths of 0.25-0.30 m.

REFERENCES

[1]. Sandu, Gh. and co., 1981, The control of soil evolution in the land reclamation systems. Ceres Pub., Bucharest; [2]. Sin Gh. and co., 1996, Improving soils with excess of humidity in the South of the country, Plant Production Journal, Cereals and tehnical plants series, Bucharest, no. 12; [3]. Vâjâială M., 1991, Agro-biological basis of mechanizing and processing agricultural products. IANB, Bucharest; [4]. Vineş Gh., 1985, Soil works: demands and orientations. In: Cereals and technical plants; no. 10, Bucharest.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Ş. Croitoru, University of Craiova, 13 Alexandru Ioan Cuza St, Craiova, Romania, e-mail: [email protected];

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D.I. Vlăduţ, P.U. Bucharest, 319 Splaiul Independenţei Bd., Bucharest Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; M. Bădescu, University of Craiova, 13 Alexandru Ioan Cuza St, Craiova, Romania, e-mail: [email protected]; V. Vlăduţ, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; G. Matache, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; C. Persu, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; A. Paun, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; E. Marin, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]; A. Atanasov, University of Rousse, 8 “Studentska” St, 7017 Ruse, Bulgaria, E-mail: [email protected]; Ch. Vezirov, University of Rousse, 8 “Studentska” St, 7017 Ruse, Bulgaria, E-mail: [email protected]; S. Şt. Biriş, P.U. Bucharest, 319 Splaiul Independenţei Bd., Bucharest Romania, E-mail: [email protected]; I. Dumitru, University of Craiova, 13 Alexandru Ioan Cuza St, Craiova, Romania, e-mail: [email protected]; I. Găgeanu, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: [email protected].

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MATRIX-VECTOR METHOD FOR KINEMATIC ANALYSIS OF SPATIAL

MECHANSIMS WITH OPEN CONTOURS

Şt. I. Moise, V. Moise,

Abstract: This paper presents one matrix-vector method to determine the kinematic parameters of spatial mechanisms with open contours. The versorial scheme described employs axial rotation angles and crossing angles (angles between principal axes). The scheme is also used to give the initial position of the system. This method is extremely intuitive and benefits from modern computation means. Figure 1 presents the kinematic scheme of an open spatial contours.

Key words: spatial mechanisms, open contours, matrix equations, computational programs

INTRODUCTION

Papers [1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 11] employ different methods of writing equations for spatial kinematics mechanisms, with different degrees of difficulty. The method presented in this paper is simple, intuitive and adapted to the use of modern computing. One versor scheme was drawn to highlight the initial position of the mechanism. This scheme allows visualisation of the relative positions between the versors 1 ie and 1 ie , seen from the

sense of unit vector ie .

MATERIAL AND METHODS

1. Positions determination for the spatial mechanisms with open contours

Consider spatial contour presented in figure 1.Hartenberg-Denavit orthogonal trihedrons (3_D corner) are attached to the kinematic elements of the open contour T1, T2, ..., Ti+1. Unit vectors of coordinate system Ti+1 are: in , ii ne 1 , 1 ie .

Trihedron of the base T1, with unit vectors 0n , 01 ne , 1 e , overlaps with reference

orthogonal trihedron Oxyz, whose unit vectors are kji ,, . The position of a tracer point T (characteristic point) is of the form:

11+ii22221111 ... iiT esnanaesnaesr , (1)

where: - i s - represents the distance between normals 1-in and in (axial movement),

positively measured in the sense of axis ie ;

- i a - is the distance between axes ie and 1 ie , always positive;

- 1-ii, - is the angle between unit vectors 1-in and in , positively measured in the

sense of the axis ie (figure 2.a);

- i - represents the angle between unit vectors ie and 1 ie (crossing angle),

positively measured in the sense of the axis in (figure 2.b).

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3

1iT3n

2a

2n

2

1

101a

01 ne

0n

2e

3e

1e

1n

1T

1s 0n

2e

3e

2s

1n212T

4e

3s

ie

2n

323a 3

3T

1in

is

iT

i1ie

1in

in

ia

1in

T

1is1ie

1, ii

Tr

1

2

i1i

Figure1. Spatial open contour

ie

in1in

1, iiie

in 1e

0n01 ne )(i

)( j

)(k

)a )b )c

1ie

i

Figure 2. Trihedrons used in kinematic analysis of spatial mechanisms

For ease of writing transformation matrix, the following notation is used: 1 = 10, 2 = 21 , 323 and so on. Switching coordinates of a point from trihedron Ti in Ti+1 is done using the equation:

Ti+1 = A i Ti, (2)

where A i is the transformation matrix :

A i

iiiii

iiiii

ii

cossincossinsinsincoscoscossin-

0sincos =

.

(3) So Ti+1 = A iTi = Ai (Ai-1 Ti-1 ) = Ai Ai-1 (Ai-2 Ti-2 ) = Ai Ai-1 ... A2 A1 T1 .

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The unit vectors ni and i+1e are of the form: 1010i + x + eFneEnDn iii ; 11+011+01+1+ + + eCneBnAe iiii .

(4) The coefficients Ai+1, Bi+1, Ci+1, Di, Ei, Fi are terms of transformation matrix Ai ,

namely:

iA = Ai Ai-1 Ai-2 ... A2 A1=

111

i+i+i+

iii

iii

CBAMLKFED

.

(5) The projections of the position vector Tr on the axes of trihedron T1 are of the form:

XT = a1D1 + a2D2 + ... + aiDi + s2A2 + s3A3 + ...+ si+1Ai+1; YT = a1 E1 + a2E2 + ... + ai Ei + s2B2 + s3 B3 + ...+ si+1Bi+1;

(6) ZT = a2F2 + a3 F3.+ ... + aiFi + s1 + s2C2 + s3C3 + ...+ si+1Ci+1,

or by matrix representation:

P.AST TTT ZYX ,

(6’)

where: 1322

13221

13221

1000

=P

i+

i+i

i+i

C...CCFi...FB...BBE...EEA...AAD...DD

; 132121TAS i+i s...sssa...aa .

(7) 2. Velocities Determination For the determination of point T linear velocity projections on the axes of trihedron

T1, matrix equation of the positions is derived with time and the result is:

..T

ASP. + AS.PT

.

T

.

T

.ZYX ,

(8) where:

1322

13221

13221.

00

0

0

=P

i+

...

i

..i+

...

i

...i+

...

i

...

C...CCF...F

B...BBE...EE

A...AAD...DD

; 1321

T.000AS i+

....s...sss...

(9)

The coefficients: i

.

i,

.

i,

.

, i+

.

, i+

.

, i+

.FEDCBA 111 are the elements of matrix iA ,

obtained by deriving with time the matrix iA , namely:

iA = iA 1iA + iA 1iA =

111 i+

.

i+

.

i+

.i

.

i

.

i

.i

.

i

.

i

.

CBA

MLK

FED

.

(10)

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The matrix iA is obtained by multiplying the transformation matrix Ai with Q

matrix operator of derivation, namely:

iA = Ai Q i

. , where: Q =

0 1 0

-1 0 0

0 0 0

.

(11)

3. Accelerations determination

The projections of the point T acceleration on the axes of trihedral T1 are obtained by deriving with time the equation (8), as follows:

. .... .T

ASP. + ASP2 + AS.PT

. .

T

. .

T

. .ZYX ,

(12) where:

1322

13221

13221. .

00

0

0

=P

i+

. .. .. .

i

. .. .i+

. .. .. .

i

. .. .. .i+

. .. .. .

i

. .. .. .

C...CCF...F

B...BBE...EE

A...AAD...DD

; 1321

T. .000AS i+

. .. .. .. .s...sss... .

(13)

The coefficients ,111 i

. .

i

. .

i

. .

i+

. .

i+

. .

i+

. .

F,E,D,C,B, A are determined with the equation:

iA = iA 1iA + 2 iA 1iA + iA 1iA =

111 i+

. .

i+

. .

i+

. .i

. .

i

. .

i

. .i

. .

i

. .

i

. .

AAA

MLK

FED

,

(14)

where: iA = iA Q i

. + iA Q i

. . .

For the determination of the coefficients Ai+1, Bi+1, Ci+1, Di, Ei, Fi; 111 i+

.

i+

.

,i+

.C,BA ,

i

.

i,

.

i,

.FED ; i

. .

i

. .

i

. .

i+

. .

i+

. .

i+

. .F,E,D,C,B, A 111 , one computation procedure was written, which is

called in the program for analysis kinematic of spatial mechanisms with open chains.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Let consider the mechanism of a robot with 6 degrees of freedom, schematized in figure 3. Figure 4 presents the versorial scheme of the mechanism.

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)(i

C

2

B

A

1e

P

2e 1

3e

3

T

0n

)(k

01 ne

)( j

4eD

5e 7e

E F

45 6

6e

Tr

1e

2n10

3n

65

54

3e

434e

2e

1e

32

0n

2e

212n 1n

1n

1e4e

3n

3e

4n

5e

4n

4e

5e

5n

5e6n

7e6e

Figure 3. Robot mechanism Figure 4. Versorial scheme of robot mechanism with six degree of freedom presented in figure 3 Kinematic parameters of the robot mechanism are:

- Distances between principal axes of the robot: 01 a [m], 6.02 a [m], 03 a [m],

04 a [m], 05 a [m], 06 a [m];

- Axial displacements: 3.01 OBs [m], 02 s [m], 03 s [m], 6.04 CEs [m],

05 s [m], 3.06 EPs [m], 3.07 PTs [m];

- Crossing angles: 2/1 [rad], 02 [rad], 2/3 [rad], 2/4 [rad],

2/5 [rad], 2/6 [rad];

- Initial angles of the axial rotations (initial position of the mechanism): 2/0

10 [rad], 2/021 [rad], 00

32 [rad], 043 [rad], 0

54 [rad], 065 [rad];

Variations of the angles of axial rotations are: 2/10 [rad], 4/21 [rad], 4/32 [rad], 43 [rad], 2/54 [rad], 2/65 [rad];

Solution Using computation procedure MAVEC, one may determine the positions, velocities

and accelerations of the tracer point T. Figure 4 presents the positions curves of tracer point T and Figure 5 gives the angular velocities of the different elements of the mechanism.

Figure 4 Figure 5.

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CONCLUSIONS

Using the matrix-vector method one may easily determine the kinematic parameters of the spatial mechanism with open countours. The computation procedure was implemented in several programming environments, to open further more its employement. The versorial scheme of the mechanism was used to determine the intial position of the mechanism and to visualize relative positions between the versors of the principal axes.

REFERENCES

[1]. Artobolevski, I.I. (1977). Mechanisms and Machines Theory (in French). Mir Press, Moscow [2]. Denavit, J., Hartenberg, R.S. (1955). A Kinematic Notation for Lower Pair Mechanisms based on Matrices. Journal of Applied mechanics, June, 1955. [3]. Duca,C., Buium, Fl., Paraoanu, G., (2003). Mechanisms. Gh. Asachi Press, Iasi. [4]. Mangeron, D., Irimiciuc, N., (1980). Mechanics of Rigids with Applications in Engineering. Tehnical Press, Bucureşti. [5]. Manolescu, N., Fr. Kovacs, A. Orănescu (1972). Mechanisms and Machines Theory (in Romanian). Didactics and Teaching Press, Bucharest [6]. Moise, V., Maican, Ed., Moise, St. I., (2007). Numerical Methods (in Romanian). Printech Press, Bucharest. [7]. Moise, V. (1986). Kinematics and Control of Manipulator Mechanisms with 4 Degrees of Freedom. PhD Thesis, University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest. [8]. Pelecudi, Chr. – Theory of Spatial Mechanisms R.S.R. Academy Press, Bucharest, 1972. [9]. Pelecudi, Chr., D. Maroş, V. Merticaru, N. Pandrea, I. Simionescu (1985). Mechanisms (in Romanian). Didactics and Teaching Press, Bucharest [10]. Simionescu, I., V. Moise (1999). Mechanisms (in Romanian). Technology Press, Bucharest [11]. Uicker, J.J.Jr., Denavit, J., Hartenberg, R.S., An Iterative Method for the Displacement Analysis of Spatial Mechanisms, Transaction of the ASME, paper 63-WA-45.

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CORRELATION BETWEEN ARABLE LAND AND

INSTALLED TRACTORS ENGINE POWER ON FAMILY FARMS

Martin Takalić, Sven Blažičević

Summary: Equipment researches of the family farms were conducted comprising 19 villages in Osijek-Baranya and Vukovar-Srijem counties during the second part of the 2013. Twenty four family farms dealing only with plant production were monitored.

Total of hundred members 70 of which were able to work lived on the farms. Total of 1,703 ha of arable land consisting of 365 separated parcels sized 4,666 ha on the average were available for the family farms. The most represented arable crops sown have been as follows: wheat, corn, soybean, and sunflower and sugar rape counting for more than 94% of the total sown areas. Average distance from the land to the farm was 4.48 km.

Sixty one tractors of the total installed engine power of 4,105 kW were used on the farms. Minimum installed power tractors was 46.34 kW per farm whereas the maximum one amounted to 591.35 kW per farm. The arithmetic mean of the installed tractors engine power per farm had a value of 171.04 kW.The average installed power of tractors per unit area was 2.41 kW/ha.

Strong and simple linear correlation link between arable land size (ha) and installed tractor engine power (kW) were determined on the family farms. Percentage of 71.14% of the total squared deviation values of arithmetic mean was explained by the correlation among the monitored phenomena. Thus, simple linear correlation coefficient was 0.84343.

Key words: farms equipment, arable land, tractor engine power, correlation.

INTRODUCTION

Costs of agricultural machinery usually participate in the total production costs structure of arable crops by more than 20%. Tractors costs share, as the basic driving machines, counts for more than 50% in the agricultural machinery costs while producing most arable crops. Adequate sizing of the installed engine power of the tractor is important for the quality conducting of all work and technological operations in optimal agro-technical terms. It also affects obtaining high production per hectare (t/ha) and lowering agricultural machinery costs per unit of production results (€/t).

Available arable land of a family farm affects the level of the installed tractor power ha → kW. Also, the available capacity of the installed tractor engine power can influence increase or decrease of family farm arable land kW → ha.

The correlation study between arable farmland and installed tractor engine power on family farms should contribute to both optimizing farms agricultural machinery equipment level and reducing agricultural machinery costs per production results unit.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The research of the family farms equipment was conducted in the second part of 2013 in Osijek-Baranja and Vukovar-Srijem County. Twenty four family farms located in 19 villages have been monitored. The family farms were engaged only in crop production and each had more than 10 hectares of arable land. Data collected have been first recorded in the Microsoft Excel calculator and then arranged. Mathematical and statistical analysis was done in the Mathcad Professional program. The last phase of the research was the results explanation.

The research task was to identify arable land and installed tractors engine power of the family farms. The paper aims to determine the shape, direction and strength of the correlation between arable land (ha) and installed tractor engine power (kW) on the family farms.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Total of 100 members lived on the 24 family farms 53 of which were males and 47 females. The members’ number variation ranged from 1 to 8. The average number of the members was 4.17 per farm. The most common number of members per farm was 4 The average age of members of the farms had a value of 34.71 years. The total number of members able to work was 70 ranging from 1 to 6 members per farm. The arithmetic mean of the number of the able- to- work members was 2.92 members per farm. All managers on the monitored farms were males. Their age ranged from 25.5 to 72.5 years. The average age ofthe managers was 44.08 years. The managers' education ranged from 4 to 16 years. Their education lasted approximately 10.83 years. Most of them (16) graduated from high school. Only four managers completed the adequate school or faculty of agricultural major.

The following table shows the arable land and the installed power of tractors per family farms.

Table 1. Arable land and installed tractor power per family farms

Ord

inal

nu

mb

er

of

the

farm

Arable land (ha)

Nu

mb

er o

f p

arce

ls

The average size of parcel (ha)

Total installed power

tractors (kW) N

um

ber

of

trac

tors

The average power of tractros

(kW)

Installed power

tractors (kW/ha)

1. 13,60 5 2,72 51,49 1 51,49 3,792. 45,00 8 5,63 112,53 2 56,27 2,503. 24,00 7 3,43 110,33 2 55,17 4,604. 53,00 9 5,89 242,72 3 80,91 4,585. 85,38 31 2,75 266,25 5 53,25 3,126. 12,95 7 1,85 91,94 2 45,97 7,107. 14,39 14 1,03 89,00 2 44,50 6,198. 220,61 16 13,79 591,35 6 98,56 2,689. 120,00 8 15,00 283,17 4 70,79 2,36

10. 150,00 6 25,00 378,79 4 94,70 2,5311. 15,00 3 5,00 84,58 2 42,29 5,6412. 100,00 9 11,11 259,64 4 64,91 2,6013. 97,94 7 13,99 295,68 4 73,92 3,0214. 63,16 7 9,02 152,99 2 76,50 2,4215. 12,10 7 1,73 47,81 1 47,81 3,9516. 110,00 24 4,58 102,24 2 51,12 0,9317. 42,00 25 1,68 114,74 2 57,37 2,7318. 142,00 32 4,44 245,66 4 61,42 1,7319. 83,00 24 3,46 144,16 2 72,08 1,7420. 43,00 19 2,26 111,80 1 111,80 2,6021. 90,00 36 2,50 83,85 1 83,85 0,9322. 19,50 12 1,63 49,28 1 49,28 2,5323. 84,00 25 3,36 46,34 1 46,34 0,5524. 62,50 24 2,60 148,57 3 49,52 2,38

1.703,13 365 4,67 4.104,91 61 67,29 2,41

The farms possesed a total of 1,703 hectares of arable land. The minimum size of family farm arable land was 12.1 ha and the maximum 220.6 ha. The average size of the arable land amounted to 70.964 ha per farm.

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.The arable land is made up of 365 separated parcels averaging 4,666 ha. The minimum agricultural parcel was 0.23 ha and a maximum 77 ha. Number of land parcels per family farm ranged from 3 to 36. The average number of plots per farm was 15.2. Every other family farm owned less than 10 separated arable plots whereas the 8 farms possesed more than 23 land parcels per farm.

The most common crops sown were as follows: wheat (37.28%), corn (19.99%), soybean (14.84%), sunflower (13.18%) and sugar beet (8.95%) . They accounted for more than 94% of the total area sown.

The total distance of all agricultural parcels from the family farms bartons amounted to 1,228 km. Hard roads length was 883.9 km (72%) and earth paths 344.1 km (28%). The average distance of the land parcel used (piece) from the barton was 3.36 km. The average distance of the land used (hectares) from the farm barton was 4.48 km. The relatively large difference between these two average values is due to the fact that the large parcels are the farthest from the barton.

Sixty one of total installed capacity of 4,105 kW engine were used on the farms. Tractor engines power ranged from 24.27 to 147.10 kW with an average value of 67.29 kW. The farms used 11 light tractors (<37 kW) of total power 312 kW and average power 28.35 kW. There were 38 tractors of medium engine power whose total power was 2,275 kW with an average power of 59.87 kW. Twelve heavy tractors (>110 kW) with a total power of 1,518 kW and an average of 126.51 kW were used on the farms.

Minimum installed power tractor was 46.34 kW per farm whereas the maximum one amounted to 591.35 kW per farm. The arithmetic mean of the installed tractors engine power per farm had a value of 171.04 kW.

The variation range of the tractor number on the family farm was from 1 to 6 with an average value of 2.54 of tractors per farm. Two tractors were the most commonly used on nine farms. One tractor was used on the six farms and four tractors on the five. Only two farms used individually more than 4 tractors. This group possessed 11 tractors.

CALCULATING THE CORRELATION COEFFICIENT

Area of the farms arable land used (ha), the data in column 2 of Table 1, marked by the variable x, and total installed tractors engine power on the farm (kW), the data in column 5 of the same table, marked by the variable y. If value pairs Ti(xi,yi) are presented by diagram waste, it can be easily noticed that a straight line of the analytical expressions yci=a+b·xi presents well correlation between the area of the used agricultural land and a total installed tractors engine power on the family farms.

Minimizing the deviation squares of empirical values of the imaginary straight line on the y-axis,

n

1i

2cii min!)yy( (1.)

results in the first regression equation

x06265,266467,24y 1c (2.)

Minimizing the deviation squares of empirical values of the imaginary straight line on

the x axis,

n

1i

2cii min!)xx( (3.)

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results in the second regression equation

y34489,097497,11x 2c (4.)

Simple linear correlation coefficient is calculated as the coefficients geometric mean of regression directions drifts.

84343,034489,00625,2bbr 21 (5.)

Aiming to present both regression equations on the same graph from the equation (4) the variable y was explicated, and the second regression equation was:

x89950,272147,34y 2c (6.)

The scattering diagram shows empirical value pairs, the regression line and regression equations. The average value of variables x and y can also be seen on the graph.

0

xavg =70,964

yc2 = ‐34,72147 + 2,89950·x 

yc1 = 24,66467 + 2,06265·x

yavg = 171,038

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

550

600

650

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230

y ‐Tractor power

(kW)

x ‐ Arable  land (ha) 

Graph 1. Scattering diagram and regression lines

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

Research of the family farms’ equipment was conducted in the second part of 2013 in 19 villages in Osijek-Baranja and Vukovar-Srijem County. Twenty four family farms dealing with only crop production were monitored. Total of 100 members lived on the farms. Seventy of them were able to work.

The farms possessed over 1,703 hectares of arable land made up of 365 separated parcels averaging 4,666 ha in size. The most common crops sown were: wheat, corn, soybean, sunflower and sugar beet accounting for more than 94% of the total area sown. The average distance of land from the barton was 4.48 km.

Sixty one tractors of total installed engine power of 4,105 kW were used. Minimum installed tractor engine power was 46.34 kW per farm and maximum one amounted to 591.35 kW per farm. The arithmetic mean of the installed tractor engine power per farm had a value of 171.04 kW.

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The installed tractors engine power per area unit varied on the monitored family farms ranging from 0.55 kW / ha to 7.10 kW / ha. The average installed tractors engine power per area unit amounted to 2.41 kW / ha.

The link between the monitored phenomena explained the 71.14% (R2=0,71138) of the total squared deviations from the arithmetic mean so that the simple linear correlation coefficient was 0.84343. A solid simple positive linear correlation link was found out between the arable land (ha) dimension and the installed tractors engine power (kW) on the family farms.

Future research will be focused on the analysis of equipment and arable land owned by those family farms dealing with mixed agriculture production (both crop and livestock).

REFERENCES

[1]. Leithold, Luis: 1986. The calculus of a single variable with analytic geometry, Harper & Row, Publishers, New York.

[2]. Par, Vjekoslav i Njavro, Mario: 2003. Opremljenost obiteljskih poljoprivrednih gospodarstava traktorima, 31. Symposium "Actual Taska on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, 31-37. [3]. Šošić, Ivan i Serdar, Vladimir: 1997. Uvod u statistiku, Školska knjiga, Zagreb.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Martin Takalić, Faculty of Agriculture , University of J. J. Strossmayer in Osijek, Kralja Petra Svačića 1d, Osijek, Croatia; [email protected]

Sven Blažičević, Student of the graduate program at the Faculty of Agriculture in Osijek, Vladimira Nazora 1, Gradina, Croatia

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THE NECESITY TO IMPLEMNT THE INTEGRATE PARASITIC WEED CONTROL TECHNOLOGY IN AGRICULTURE COOPS AND ENVIROMENT

PROTECTION

A. L. Vişan 1), V. G. Ciobanu 1,2) 1) INMA Bucharest; 2)University “Politehnica” Bucharest

Abstract: The implementation of the integrated parasitic weed control technology newer days, is a

necessity due to the intense commerce with cereals and seeding material from all the European Union that could have a great impact on agriculture crops and environment, that can be prevent the parasitic weed contamination on agriculture fields, spontaneity flora and fauna, protected area, reservations and NATURA 2000 sites. Increasing the public acknowledgment about the existence of this integrated separation technology can increase the ability to protect the environment and also to reduce the pests and parasites contamination risks upon the vegetation or biodiversity, as well as soil, water and air pollution.

Key words: Environment Protection, Public Acknowledgment, Integrated Control, Parasitic Weeds, Sustainable Agriculture..

INTRODUCTION

This paper has the objective to increase the public acknowledgment about the importance of environmental protection, namely the need to implement integrated methods to combat and control the parasitic weed from cereals and seed material in order to reduce the crop contamination grade, as well as protect areas with spontaneous flora, sites and natural reserves in the Giurgiu-Ruse border area.

Raising awareness on environmental protection is a necessity of society and is particularly important because the awareness is desired that the common man, especially the scholar, the teenager or the student, to be able to take the best decisions in order to carry on activities so as to protect the environment in which he lives, but also reduce the environmental impact of the activities carried out on medium and long term. Furthermore is encouraged long term development of environmental protection ability and natural disaster prevention capacity at local, national or cross border level.

Maintaining under control the spread of parasitic weed in agricultural territory using integrated technologies is newer days a global commune practice, especially for the commercial farmers and grain producers, to avoid the raw material contamination (grain, fodder, seeds) stored in bunkers, to obtain products with added value and to reduce pollution risks that may result from agricultural works, as increasing the risk of erosion and reduction of soil fertility.

However, application of these technologies prevent: accumulation of toxic substances in the soil, water, feed and agricultural products - due to small quantities of pesticides and herbicides; air pollution - reducing the exhaust emissions and dust due to low crop maintenance works; disequilibrium in soil fertility and structure – due to a great number of equipments used in the agriculture technology.

The integrate parasitic weed control technology can be successfully used in context of sustainable and ecologic agriculture because the technical equipments used in this process in order to dispose the parasitic weed seeds form seeding material, which ensures high yields, constant crop development and high quality products. With regard to fodder crops, these have high nutritive value and low weed contamination, by eliminating the crops competition for water and nutrients.[3][3] Some of the quarantine weeds, as dodder seeds, present in animal feeding material have toxic effect and in large quantities can lead to animal behavioral changes, internal bleeding and even death.

Biological invasion is now recognized globally, as one of the greatest threats to biodiversity, economy and human health.[2] The greatest impact has been seen on

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environment, respectively on spontaneous flora and fauna on all over the glob (Mojave Desert – USA; Kabaha Beach – Hawaii; etc), as it been sown in Fig.1.

Mojave Desert, Utah, SUA.

Kanaha Beach, Maui, Hawaii.

Bilogic invation of aquatic flora, Europa.

Mexico.

Fig.1. Biological invasion on spontaneous flora and fauna.[3]

One of the most important organizations supporting European countries to prevent biologic invasion bodies is European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO).[2]

Some weed species, respectively vascular plants, are included in the quarantine agreements signed by the Romanian Government and the governments of various countries with which Romania has commercial trades. However, many of these species (Ambrosia artemisiifolia, A. psilostachya, A. Trifida, Cuscuta campestris, Sicyos angulatus, Sorghum halepense etc.) are already naturalized or invasive in Romania so that they can be in the moment, subject to quarantine laws, Fig.2. For this reason these species should be included in programs to combat at the national level.

Ambrosia

artemisiifolia

Ambrosia psilostachya

Ambrosia trifida

Cuscuta campestris

Sicyos angulatus Sorghum halepense

Fig.2. Weed seeds present in the phytosanitary quarantine legislation, spontaneous flora present in Romania.[3]

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As it can be seen above, the quarantine weed seeds have a complex shape, rough texture and external cavities. Due to this properties it can be successfully used the integrated magnetic separation technology.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

One of the best technologies known to separate the parasite weeds seeds from the cereals/culture seeds is that which it is used the magnetic or electromagnetic separation machine. These kinds of machines are used all over the world (Russia, Moldavia, Ukraine, Serbia, Germany, U.S.A., etc.) and a great advantage is purity of the material obtained and conservation of its integrity.

The integrated magnetic separation technology, proposed by National Institute of Research - Development for Machines and Installations designed to Agriculture and Food Industry - INMA Bucharest, include a pre-cleaning machine (combined tartar TC 600) and a parasite weeds separator (magnetic separator MD 400), Fig.3. The cereals/seeds harvest from the agriculture crops are inserted into the combined tartar TC 600, which works combining the cereal sieving on the site with counter-flow aspiration of processed product. [1]

Cereals/seeds harvesting Cereals/seeds Pre-cleaning

Quarantine weed separation

Fig.3. The integrated magnetic separation technology, proposed by INMA. The magnetic separator machine - MD 400, is designed to separate the vegetable

seeds, perennial fodder, flax, carrots, onions, chives, spinach, tomatoes, etc., from the dodder seeds. MD 400 is provided with two revolution magnetic drums, made from ferrite magnets, in cascade so that the material to have a purity as high as possible at the output. The working parameters can be adjusted manually (cereal/seed supply flow, water and iron powder administration, the cereal/seed evacuation) and also automatic from the main control panel (the angled conveyor, the vibrating tables, the drum rotation motors).

The material from the supplied bunker is moistened and then covered with fine iron powder. This quantity of water and the iron powder are adjusted according to the material flow and the degree of contamination with dodder seed that is established at the beginning of the technological process. After the preparation the angled conveyor distribute the cereals/seeds on the vibratory tables that assure a constant and uniform flow of the material over the magnetic drums, the separation parameters are adjusted in accordance of the separation characteristics of the material (dimension of the grains/seeds, the contamination grade, the humidity, etc.).

The seeds are collected in 5 collectors, two alternative collectors with primary products – in which is collected the good material; two simultaneous collectors of secondary products – good material mixed with cracked cereals/seeds and dodder seeds and one collector of dodder seeds and cracks covered with iron powder. At the first drum is applied

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a recovery system that collects the iron powder from the technologic process, especially from the dodder external surface.

The separation realized by MD 400, it is recommended to be repeated so that all dodder seeds to be removed, minim 2 times.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The magnetic separator machine - MD 400 was tested in laboratory conditions, using alfalfa seeds contaminated with dodder seeds. The test had been made for two cases; in the first case was used material collected directly from harvester and the second case it was used a material that was previously pre-cleaned. In the first case the input material contained 20% mineral residues (dust and earth) 30% vegetal remains (bents, weed seeds, straw, etc.).

Taking in to consideration content of impurities and the dodder seed contamination, value that was difficult to obtain due to low degree of purity, the mixing parameters were set at: water flow at 1.89 g/min, iron powder flow at 56 g/min and the mixing time of 5 -7 minutes (parameter that can be set by positioning the angle of the mixer blades).

The separation parameters of MD 400 machine, were chose so to ensure optimum operating regime: material flow rate set at 105 kg/h and the magnetic drum rotation speed at 40 rot/min. At the end of thee second separation process, it was removed almost 40 % of the material, represented by mineral residues, vegetal remains and cracked seeds.

Due to the technologic process, a significant quantity of mineral residues, respectively dust, present in the material was dispersed in the air and making the laboratory atmosphere difficult to breathe and work.

In the second case, the seed material supplied was pre-cleaned and it was possible to establish the dodder contamination value which was almost 20 %, the highest value encountered in literature. In this case the working parameters were maintained. After second passes though MD 400 machine the separated material was free of dodder seed and the working laboratory conditions were normal, no more dust in the air.

Analyzing those two cases it can be conclude that: - The separation material that is introduced into the machine feed hopper, it is

necessary to pass-through pre-cleaning machines, because it is significantly reduced the iron powder and water quantity used during the dodder seed separation process and to prevent suspension of dust particles in the air;

- Reducing the iron powder and water quantity it is made a significant economy of input materials and the separation process can be improved;

- If the integrated magnetic separation technology embodies pre-cleaning equipment the impurities the material supplied to MD 400 can increased with min. 25 %, parameter which directly influences the technology productivity and the cost with iron powder.

Taking in to consideration the advantages of this technology that assures: a high seeding material purity, the optimal storage conditions in the medium and long term; a high quality of the fodder and agro-alimentary products; a minimum risk of crop contamination parasitic weeds and soil contamination by reducing the quantities of seeds in the soil; minimum necessary agricultural crop maintenance works it can be stated that this technology has a major impact on agriculture, food industry and on environmental protection

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

An important problem that is facing Romanian agriculture is the high degree of weed, especially parasitic weed growth, which is affecting the quality of perennial forage, the

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production of vegetable crops and animal health, but the most damage is causing to agricultural production.

In order to reduce the parasitic weed contamination is needed to apply all the methods and technologies know in accordance of the best agriculture practice (crop rotation, cleaning seeding material, manure rational preparation, avoiding weed seeds transport with harvesters, chemical methods of controlling weeds using herbicides, biological means) combined with environmental protection methods (cleaning the irrigation water of weed seed, destroying the various outbreaks of infestation, etc.).

The safest method to eliminate the parasitic weed seeds is to cleaning the seeding material using the integrating separation technology, in this way it is assured a safe seeding material, low content of parasitic weed seeds in the soil, high nutritive value of forage, high productivity of agriculture cops and farm animals, low risk of contamination of spontaneous flora, reservation, protected areas and sites.

Using this technology the Romanian framers and livestock breeders are encourage to invest in ecologic products which know a great interest and are sold on the market at high prices, because the areas suitable for sustainable and ecological agriculture are few and very small.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This paper resulted from the activities made within the project “Network and web

platform for rise public acknowledgement regarding the environment management and protection in Giurgiu-Ruse cross border and adjacent border areas”, financed from the Romania-Bulgaria Cross border Cooperation Program 2007-2013 and co-financed by the European Union from Regional Development European Fond.

REFERENCES

[1]. Păun, A., Pirnă, I., Găgeanu, P., Vlăduţ, V. Increasing the added value of processed products in the milling industry by implementing a combined calibrator in wheat preparation technological scheme, INMATEH – Agriculture Engineering, Vol. 36, No. 1/2012, 63-68; [2]. Sîrbu, C., „Plante de carantină invazive în România”, Iaşi 2012 [3]. Vişan, A.L., Ciobanu, V.G., „Constientizarea necesităţii controlului integrat al buruienilor parazite în culturile agricole”, published by INMA Bucharest, 2015;

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

A.L. Vişan, PhD. Eng. in Research-Development –Innovation Department at INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sec. 1 Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: [email protected] ;

V.G. Ciobanu, PhD. Student to University “Politechnica” of Bucharest Faculty of Biotechnical Systems Engineering, 319 Splaiul Independenţei Bd., Bucharest Romania, and Scientific Researcher in Research-Development –Innovation Department at INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sec. 1 Bucharest, Romania E-mail: [email protected] .

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RESISTANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF BISCUITS BY TESTS WITH

SHARP PIN PENETROMETER

Gh. Voicu, E.M. �tefan, G.A. Constantin, A. Lupu Abstract: There are cases where biscuits inside marketed packages are either broken, or even

crushed, especially those sugary. This may be due to improper handling to transport or at storage, or to low resistance characteristics after the baking process.

In the paper is presented results of experimental tests for sharp pin penetration resistance of four varieties of biscuits, three varieties produced by RoStar (Petit Beure, Picnic and Maia) and an assortment of dietary biscuits (138 g), manufactured by Eti Burcak Sultani.

The tests were carried out with a semi-automatic penetrometer SDM Apparechi Torino, with a standard sharp pin, with five additional weights: 50, 77, 100, 150, 177 g. For measurements were used two overlapping biscuits, being carried out at least three tests for each category of experiment (were taken into account the average values of the three determinations). The depth of penetration was recorded over a range of 60 s, with readings from 5 to 5 seconds.

Recorded values for penetration depth were within, generally, in limits 30 – 40 p.u. additional weight at an additional weight of 50 g and between 80 – 115 p.u. at a weight of over 150 g.

The results presented in the paper may be used by operators on the technological flow of biscuits manufacturing, but also for those who transport and handle these products.

Key Words: biscuits, penetration, sharp pin, resistance characteristics INTRODUCTION

Biscuits are flour products obtained as mixture of flour and water with contain of sugar, fat and other additions (chocolate, cream, nuts, etc.). That mixture is formed into dough which is shaped and baked. The biscuits are characterized by a low moisture content and, if they are protected from humidity, than may have a long self life.

In our country the biscuits represents a large segment of the baking/sugar confectionery industry, being permanently present in population consumption.

The final quality of biscuits is affected by recipe ingredients (sugar, fat, flour, water, etc.), technological process and storage conditions [1,2,3,4]. A large amount of sugar influence the size of biscuits (reduces their thickness and weight), their structure and texture (highly cohesive structure and crisp texture); increasing water content contributes to a smaller thickness of biscuits [1]. Added higher of fat cause an increase in length and a reduction in thickness and weight of biscuits, and a friable texture [1]. Also, type and content of fat affects mechanical and acoustical properties of biscuits [2]. Mixing conditions (mixing energy) have effects on the final quality of biscuits, especially related to the dimensions: the biscuits are shorter and thicker as more energy is absorbed by the dough during mixing [3]. Relative humidity affects biscuits texture, porosity and colors [3].

Also, the same factors affects mechanical properties of biscuits (fracture stress, fracture strain, Young`s modulus). In the paper [4] was shown that the biscuits with fructose presented a fracture stress and fracture strain value higher than of biscuits obtained with sucrose (fracture stress of 967 kN/m2 for biscuits with fructose and 680 kN/m2 for biscuits with sucrose); the Young`s modulus increasing if sucrose is replaced by fructose. The effect of sugar type may be explained by changed geometrical characteristics of the cellular material. Reduction of fat content (depend on the fat type) increased the Young`s modulus and the fracture stress of biscuits (for fat content of 37.0% - E = 33 MN/m2, fracture stress was 151 kN/m2; for fat content of 16.4% - E = 100 MN/m2

and fracture stress about 867 kN/m2). Regarding the water content, increasing biscuit water content considerably reduced the modulus and the fracture stress and increased the

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fracture strain. If temperature during bending tests decreasing, the Young`s modulus and fracture stress increased: when temperature was 15oC, E = 55MN/m2 and fracture stress was 296 kN/m2 and when temperature during bending test was 25oC, E = 47MN/m2 and fracture stress was 228 kN/m2.

This paper presents experimental results of tests for sharp pin penetration resistance of four varieties of biscuits commercially available, three varieties produced by RoStar (Petit Beure, Picnic and Maia) and an assortment of dietary biscuits (138 g), manufactured by Eti Burcak Sultani.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Experimental tests were made on three types of semi-sweet biscuits produced by RoStar România (Bucharest) – Petit Beurre, Picnic and Maia – and one type of dietetic biscuit made by Eti Burcak Sultani - Sultani. All types of biscuit were bought from market.

Ingredient of RoStar biscuits are: wheat flour, invert sugar, non-hydrogenate vegetable fat, raising agents (sodium bicarbonate and ammonium bicarbonate) iodized salt, emulsifier (soy lecithin), sodium metabisulfite, and citric acid. Should be noted that for every type of biscuits the fat content and sugar content are different (fat content for 100 g biscuits: Petit Beurre – 4.5g, Picnic – 8.9 g, Maia - 10.61 g, Sultani – 17.6g; sugar content for 100 biscuits: Petit Beurre – 18.35g, Sultani – 21.7g) and Petit Beurre biscuits contains (100 g) artificial flavour (etilvanilină), Picnic biscuits contain natural vanilla powder of 0.02% and Maia biscuits contain about 5% of honey. Ingredients of Sultani dietary biscuits are: wheat flour, wheat bran (2.6%), vegetable fat (17.6g for 100g biscuits - palm, soya, sunflower), sugar (21.7g), 8% of dried grapes, raising agent (ammonium hydrogen carbonate, sodium hydrogen carbonate), salt, malts, emulsifier and flavors.

The tests were made using a semi-automatic penetrometer (SDM Apparechi Scientifici Torino), with a standard sharp pin (ASTMD5 - diameter of 3.2 mm) and was added five additional weights: 50, 77, 100, 150 and 177 g. For measurements were used two overlapping biscuits, being carried out at least three tests for each category of experiment (were taken into account the average values of the three determinations). The depth of penetration (expressed in penetrometer units, p.u. – 1 p.u. = 0.1 mm) was recorded over a range of 60 s, with readings from 5 to 5 seconds.

Experimental data were processed using program MS Excel and the Velon distribution law, expressed by the relation:

btah ln (1) where: a and b are experimental coefficients, determined from the experimental data;

b is a coefficient depends on the product texture which can be taken as a measure of this characteristic [5].

Penetration velocity of the penetrometer needle vc, depending on time, is obtained from the relationship (1), deriving against time:

t

a

dt

dhvc

(2) According to considerations of [5,6], at steady state of the cone corresponding to

maximum depth of penetration, is found the relationship:

chKP 2max (3)

where: P is the pressing force (own weight), in (N); hmax is the maximum depth of penetration of the cone, in (m); τc represent shear limit at flow of the dough, in (Pa) and Kα is constant of the cone, which depends only on the angle at the apex of the cone.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Before starting penetrometer testing, all biscuits of each assortments were measured and weighed. So, it was found that the Petit Beurre biscuits have thickness range of values between 6.28 – 7.52 mm and mass value range between 3.78 – 4.14 g (deviations 3.1–7.5%), the Picnic biscuits have thickness 5.48 – 6.34 mm and mass value range 15.2 – 15.9 g, and Maia biscuits have thickness between 5.50 – 6.56 mm and mass within range 24.4 – 29.0 g. Based on this measurements were drawn histograms and the curves of the distribution after the three biscuit dimensions. In figure 1 are presented histograms of distribution after dimension for Petit Beurre biscuits.

Fig.1. – Distribution by the three dimensions of biscuit

The experimental data, obtaining from penetrometer test – variation in the penetration depth depending on the time, for five additional weights, are presented in table1.

Table 1. The cone penetration depths mean values h (p.u.) vs. time t (s)

Weight=50 g Weight=77 g Weight=100 g Weight=150 g Weight=177 g

t [sec

] P.B. P. S. M. P.B. P. S. M. P.B. P. S. M. P.B. P. S. M. P.B. P. S. M.

5 45 32 32 28 72 48 42 41 78 75 50 45 66 67 56 47 155 130 65 64 10 47 34 33 29 74 50 43 43 81 77 55 46 68 72 58 48 158 132 69 67

15 48 34 34 30 78 51 44 44 82 78 55 47 70 77 60 49 160 137 73 68

20 48 35 34 30 78 53 46 44 84 81 56 48 75 87 61 50 162 139 74 6925 49 35 34 31 79 54 47 44 85 82 57 48 79 89 63 51 163 142 85 73

30 49 36 34 31 80 55 49 44 86 84 58 50 89 91 65 52 164 143 106 81

35 49 37 34 31 83 56 51 44 87 86 58 51 99 91 66 53 165 144 113 84

40 50 37 34 32 85 56 51 45 88 88 59 51 101 91 68 54 166 145 114 85

45 51 38 34 33 86 57 52 45 89 89 60 51 106 96 70 55 166 146 114 87

50 52 39 35 34 87 57 53 45 90 90 60 51 115 96 71 55 167 147 114 9955 53 39 35 34 88 57 53 46 92 92 61 51 118 97 73 55 167 147 114 100

60 54 39 35 34 88 58 53 46 94 93 61 51 120 98 75 55.5 168 147 114 100

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

54.585 54.74 54.895 55.05 55.205 55.36 55.515 55.67 55.825 55.98

Percentage, [%]

Biscuits length, [mm]

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

37.785 37.95 38.115 38.28 38.445 38.61 38.775 38.94

Percentage, [%]

Biscuits width, [mm]

0

5

10

15

20

25

6.06 6.28 6.5 6.72 6.94 7.16 7.38 7.6 7.82

Percentage, [%]

Biscuits thickness, [mm]

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*P.B. – Petit Beurre, P. – Picnic, S. – Sultani, M. – Maia. Based on data obtained from experiments, were plotted the variation curves of

penetration depth vs. time, and they were tested by regression analysis, in program MS Excel, with the distribution Velon law. This curves are presented in figure 2.

Fig.2. - The variation curves of penetration depth h (u.p.) vs. time t (s) for all four

types of biscuits analysed, for the five additional weights used, obtained by regression analysis of experimental data with the law of Velon (eq.1)

Analyzing results obtained (table1) and the curves presented in figure 2, it is found that for all types of biscuits, experimental data are well described by the Velon law – in most cases R2 has values greater than 0.850. So, it is observed that in case of Maia biscuits (with honey content) for the same additional weight, the depth of penetration is much smaller than Picnic and Petit Beurre biscuits. All are made by the same company. For Maia biscuits, at an additional weight of 50 g, the depth of penetration is range of 28 – 34 p.u., while for Petit Beurre and Picnic biscuits, at same additional weight, the depth of

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penetration has values range of 45 – 54 u.p. and 32 – 39 p.u., respectively. An additional weight of 177 g, the depth of penetration has the following limits values: for Maia biscuits -64 – 100 p.u., for Petit Beurre – 155 – 168 p.u. and for Picnic biscuits 130 – 147 p.u. It is observed that for Sultani biscuits at same additional weights (50 g and 177 g) the depth of penetration has value range of 32 – 35 p.u. and 65 – 114 p.u., respectively. This growing trend is kept for all type of biscuits and for all additional weight.

Also, it can be noted that the penetration resistance is less for biscuits with high sugar content and higher at Maia biscuits with honey content. The same can be said about the fat content.

CONCLUSIONS

Four types of biscuits (three semi-sweet and one dietary) were tested in the laboratory using needle sharp pin penetrometer at five different additional weights on cone stem (50, 77, 100, 150 and 177g). It was found that the Velon law verify the experimental data for all types of biscuits – correlation coefficient R2 in most cases had values over 0.850. The values recorded shows that the depth of penetration depend on the type and quantity of biscuits ingredients.

These data may contribute to the development and elaboration of testing method biscuits, both in terms of ingredients and in terms of processing parameters.

REFERENCES

[1].Zoulikha Maache-Rezzoug, Jean-Marie Bouvier, et.all, 1998. Effect of principal ingredients an rheological behaviour of biscuit dough and on quality of biscuits. Journal of Food Engineering, Volume 35, Issue 1, January 1998, pages 23-42. [2].Tarancón, P., Sanz, T., Salvador, A. and Tárrega, A., 2014. Effect of Fat on Mechanical and Acoustical Properties of Biscuits Related to Texture Properties Perceived by Consumers. Food and Bioprocess Technology. 7(6), 1725-1735. [3]. Mandala I.G., Ioannou C.A. and Kostaropoulos, 2006.Textural attributes of commercial biscuits. Effect of relative humidity on their quality. International Journal of Food Science &Technology, Vol.41, Iss.7, 782-789. [4]. Baltsavias Alexas. Mechanical properties of short dughs and their corresponding biscuits. Thesis Londbouwuniversiteit Wagesingen. [5].Casandroiu T., Voicu Gh., Chih Li-Hua I. 2007. Researches regarding the cone penetration for rheological behaviour characterization of some wheat flour doughs. Scientific Bulletin, University Politehnica of Bucharest, Romania, Series D: Mechanical Engineering, Vol.69, no.4, 3-18, 2007. [6].Macihin Iu.A., Macihin S.A. 1981. Inginernaia reologhia piscevâh materialov. Legcaia i piscevaia promsti, Moskva, 1981.

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CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE WORK PROCESS OF

DRUM / DISK TYPE VEGETAL MASS GRINDING APPARATUS

Chiţoiu M.1), Voicu Gh.1), Moiceanu G.1), Vlăduţ V.2), Danciu A.2), Grigore I.2)

1)P.U. Bucharest; 2)INMA Bucharest Abstract: The growth of quality demands in producing high performance needs new manufacturing

solutions that can give a better performance at a lower price. High performances and reducing component costs have been reached in the past years through an intense exploitation of the biomass preparation process. The constant growth of demands related to the biomass preparation process, bring new adaptations to this process, because the conventional processes cant correspondently answer the market's quality needs. Functional demands of high fidelity products can be reached through the use of high precision mechanization methods, which ensure the accuracy of submicron level and surface finish. Selecting an optimum procedure depends on the utilized equipment concept, investigations with different specifications of utilized instruments and a manipulation frame of grinding process parameters. The most used machines for grinding vegetal mass in our days are represented by the drum type grinders and disk type grinders. This paper presents the working process of these types of machines.

Key words: drum, grinding, apparatus, process, procedure INTRODUCTION

The ongoing need for lowering energy consumption and rising working efficiency is the main concern of the 21th century in all fields. The same case is for the grinding and milling process as well as modifications for the equipment being used in this process. Papers in this field have shown that drum type and disk type machines offer a very good energy efficiency in the grinding process as well as energy efficiency.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Working process of vegetal mass grinding apparatus is influenced by the sliding and grip angles, grinding length, working capacity, energy consumption, etc, but mostly by the type of machine it can be: drum type, disc type, etc. Out of these the most common are disc and drum type mills.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Drum type apparatus These drum type grinders are considered the most modern, because they have a

shock free working process, a relatively low energy consumption, and a high working capacity. The main constructive parameters of these equipments are the and knife positioning angles on the drum, the angle of the knife to the tangent plan of the drum, e and h distances which characterize the position of the feeding hole, respectively of the counterknife, the diameter and length of the drum, the z number of knifes. The parameters which characterize the working process are the sliding angles , and grip , grinding length, working capacity and energy consumption.

Fig. 1 - Constructive drawing of the drum type grinding apparatus with helicoidally positioned knives [1]

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Fig. 2 - Functional drawing of the drum type grinding apparatus [1]

Diameter D and the Lt drum length are considered corresponding lengths of the

cylinder escribed to the drum. Working process for a cut is: the ABCD knife passing by the feeding hole A1B1C1D1 , firstly compresses the material layer until q pressure is reached, after which it cuts it starting with A1 and finishing with C1.

Knife position on the drum

The way in which the knives are disposed on the drum is a key factor for a good functioning of the apparatus. There are four possibilities of positioning knives on the drum:

o I - without cover(>a); o II - without cover (=a); o III - without cover (=0); o IV - with cover (<o); where is the length of the circle arc; measured on the drum

circumference correspondent to the final and initial point on the edge of two neighbor knives, and a represents the layer thickness in the feeding hole.

The only variable parameter from the torsion moment relation given by the cutting force in this case is the segment length of contact S between knife and material (fig. 3).

Fig. 3 - Variation of S segment during the cut (for a knife) according to the drum rotating angle [1]

If we consider that the feeding hole axb receives a v speed equal to the drum periferic speed, it will successively pass 1,2,3,4 positions. From position 1 and 2 S will be

smaller than Smax given by the relation: We can observe that in the first two cases the torsion momentum varies from zero to

a maximum value given by the relation: In the third case its constant, in the case IV there is a pulsator type because at the

same time we can find two working knives. We can observe that the ideal knife positioning on the drum is in the case III which

ensures a shock free functioning with a sliding angle that is relatively big (3> 2> 1) so a

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low energy consumption. This needs the use of hellycoidal knives that need a difficult technology. Positioning in the cases I and II is usually characteristic for the use if straight knives, easier to execute. Positioning the knives for the case IV is irrational because of the lack of uniformity for the torsion momentum, it leads to a high energy comsumption, it uses a large number of knives. Between 2 and 3 S has the maximum value and is constant and for the 3-4 interval it drops to zero. The sliding angle for these machines is smaller than in the case of disc type because: and does not go over 30o.

The necessary power for grinding is determined by the same method as in the case of disk type machines, also by the working capacity (flow). These machines are characterized by a small height for the feeding hole, in general < 150 mm, but also by a larger length, usually equal to the feeding system width.

The knife positioning angle to the drum tangent plan Has a large influence on the grinding energy consumption. In the case of disk type

machines with a straight knife so that during the cut process to avoid the material friction with the posterior surface of the knife, the following relation is needed:

.

Fig. 4 - Angle calculus drawing for positioning the knives in a transversal plan [1].

Because at these machines the knife speed and angles are variable in the equation

we take the minimum values. For the drum type machines the knife angle for the tangent plan is:

The angle varies generally between 10-30 degrees. The material length is according to

the machine feeding speed, the z number of knives and the rotation speed . For fibrous material grind the speed of rotation is between 50 and 100 s-1, and the number of knives z is 4-6. The grind length is established by variation of the feeding speed. In this purpose the modern machines are equipped with gears through which both the conveyer belt and the feeding rolls are manipulated. Generally the fibrous material length varies between 3-100mm. Recently it is asked that the grinded material to be finer Lt to be between 3-20mm. For the drum type machines the grinded material length is not constant. It varies with layer thickness and drum radius. From this point of view there are three cases:

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Fig. 5 - Verification drawing of grinded material length

; ; In the first two cases the length of grinded material varies from 0 to lt1 respectively lt2,

while in the third case:

We can see that in this last case the knives completely cut the material resulting in a uniform grind according to the length and higher capacity. If we impose the average grind length we can calculate the necessary number of knives:

The gap between jnife and counterjnife

Experimental researches show that this parameter greatly influences the grinding energy consumption. Thus in the case of corn stems if the gap between the knife and counterknife varies from 2 to 10mm the machine work grows from 1 to 5 and the specific machine work grows from 3 to 6.

The gap between the knife and counterknife is in function of the width of cut stems. In the case of vegetal materials with thin stems a smaller gap is recomended (0.5 - 1mm), while for the thick ones like corn a higher gap is recomended (1.5-4.6mm). This gap is tuned either by moving the knives or by moving the counterknive for smaller machines. Knife sharpening

The cut width and the knife sharpening angle are of great influence on energy consumption. Thus if the width of cutting edge varies between 50 to 300 microns the energy consumption grows from 100 to 200 in we use sharp knives.

The width of cut edge is recommended to be between 20 to 40 microns and not exceed the 100 microns limit. The sharpening angle varies between 12-26 degrees, minimum values that are being recommended for the knives of disk type machines and maximum for the knives of drum type machines.

Disc type machines Disk type machines are used for many decades for reducing the dimension of vegetal

materials and others. These grinders can cut material from 140 inch to 150 inch in diameter. Disk type machines went through many modifications, yet the material cut principle hasn't changed very much. For these machines material feed can be done both horizontally as well as gravitationally.

A. Horizontal feed disk type machines These machines are used in general in the case of materials exceeding 8 feet. Yet

there are smaller disk type machines that can be used for all types of material dimensions.

Fig. 6 - Disk type machine [3, 6]

A disadvantage of these machines is the quantity of lost material during the

process, due to the variable geometry of the grind. For controlling the action of grinding

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knife, a series of manufacturers realized machines in which the grinding disk is fixed under a certain cut angle.

B. Gravitational feed disk type machines This equipment is similar to the upper case, with the difference that the disk is fixed

on a chamfer with a 30-42 degree angle. The disk is also held at a standard angle to the horizontal plan, which gives a composed angle of cut for the material. These machines are generally used in the paper production business.

Feeding systems for the grinding machines Feeding systems of fibrous grinders have the role to move, compress and feed the

material to the machine. These systems are composed out of a conveyer belt and two or more compressing rolls. In fig.7 the most important systems of placing feeding rolls are presented:

Fig. 7 - Feeding rolls positioning systems [1] Fig. 8 - Vegetal material superior roll pressing system

Picking the positioning system of rolls depends on the type and state of vegetal

material. the machine technological schema, working capacity, etc. In the case of high capacity grinders and of a high capacity feed, it is necessary to use three rolls, so a supplementary roll of precompression (a,d) or maybe even a precompression transporter (c).

For the machine feed with a uniform layer of material with lower width, a single pair of rolls is enough (b) or even a single roll, the upper one, the motric drum of the feeding conveyer belt taking the functions of the lower roll (e).

For realizing a precompression of vegetal material, the upper and precompression rolls have higher dimensions and are also heavier, equipped with supplementary resorts for higher pressing. From a constructive point of view the work surface of feeding rolls can be neet, with teeth, canals.

Appreciation indices of grinding process The growth of quality demands in producing high performance needs new

manufacturing solutions that can give a better performance at a lower price. High performances and reducing component costs have been reached in the past years through an intense exploitation of the biomass preparation process. The constant growth of demands related to the biomass preparation process, bring new adaptations to this process, because the conventional processes cant correspondently answer the market's quality needs. Functional demands of high fidelity products can be reached through the use of high precision mechanization methods, which ensure the accuracy of submicron level and surface finish. Selecting an optimum procedure depends on the utilized equipment concept, investigations with different specifications of utilized instruments and a manipulation frame of grinding process parameters.

Cut resistance depends both on the natural stem characteristics, as well as technical and technological factors. After the moving mode of knife towards the direction of fibrous material we can distinguish two types of cut: cross-cut and longitudinal cut (defibering). After

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the direction of knife towards the cut line there are two types of cut (fig.10) normal cut (speed vector is perpendicular on the edge) and sliding cut ( the speed vector is inclined to the edge).

Fig. 10 - Types of edge [5] Fig. 11 - Cutting resistence schema

In the case of thick stem plants the cut minimum resistance is in the case of transversal cut (fig. 11). Machine work for this type is smaller than 4-4,7 than in the case of frontal cut. In the case of oblique cut, inclined and oblique inclined, machine work drops in comparison to machine work for frontal cut. In the case of drum type grinder machines, the grinding drum is horizontally disposed and normal on the direction of move of the machine.

Fig. 12 - Articulated knives drum work process

schema [5] Fig. 13 - Variation of the coefficient in

function of cut speed

For ensuring a cut without propping it is necessary that the knive speed vr>vlim; where the speed limit is the speed at which cut without propping is achieved. During the knife action on plant stems. these are inclined in the sense of machine drive, which determines the rise of material height Hm towards the working height H. This rise is given by the coefficient . The variation of coeffficient function to the cut speed is represented in fig.13 through the curve 1 for colover, curve 2 for obsiga, curve 3 for field grass and curve 4 for natural meadow. The length of grinded material, in the case when plants remain vertical during cutting, varies from 0 in the points A and C all the way to Lmax in point B. In figure 13 the trajectory of the knive during the work is represented with a discontinuous line, and the work area is hashed. If the stems are vertical during cutting, then the average length is considered to be:

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Fig. 14 - Grinded length calculus schema Fig. 15 - Tall plant inclination schema [2,5] In the case that the plants are tall, they are inclined in the direction of the working

machine and the α angle is formed with the surface of the soil (fig.14). Grinding principle

Describing grinding process is composed out of describing the impact between the two rigid materials, taking into consideration aspects of tibology, and elasto-plastic parameters, which influence the impact and contact condition between materials.

Grinding process is due to the link between the pressing force and the grinding line. The initial interface is characterized by the elastic deformation followed by the plastic characteristic of material. Rise in grinding speed was and is still regarded as a way to grow productivity. Material density drops as the grinding speed rises, in practice this enhances the quality of working process and reduces drum fabrication costs.

CONCLUSIONS

The grinding process is very hard to analyze and even harder to make a model out of it, because of its stohastic characteristics, which are in principle very unpredictable and very different from a probabilistic point of view. In order to analyze grinding distribution and grinding margins, statistic methods were applied by researchers in order to analyze grinding process.

Specific energy consumption during the grinding process is predicted to drop with a rise of cutting speed. The drop is evident when the higher part of consumed energy is due to material deformation. Reducing energy consumption at the rise in cutting speed is explained by the fact that the tensions in the contact place between knife and stem are transmitted with a certain speed along the stem, deforming fibers not only under the edge but in the neighbor zones also. For this energy is consumed.

REFERENCES

[1]. Chelemen I., 1983, Machines and zootechnical instalations – second part; pag 44-163; [2]. Igathinathane C., Womac A.R., Sokhansanj S., 1988, Effect of Angle Cut on Corn Stalks Mechanical Cutting Strength and Energy, ASABE Metting Presentation Paper No. 1008644; [3]. Kronbergs E., Smits M., 2009, Cutting Properties of common reed biomass. Engineering for Rural Development; [4]. Clark K.N., 2009, Briquetting process, Patent; [5]. Martin S. and Behnke K., 1984, Grinding efficiency and particle size effects on feed manufacturing operations. ASAE Paper No. 84-3524, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI 49085; [6]. Womac A.R., Igathinathane C., Bitra P., Miu P., Yang T., Sokhansanj S., Narayan S., 2007, Biomass Pre – Processing size reduction with instrumented mills, ASABE Presentation.

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

M. Chiţoiu, P.U. Bucharest, 313 Splaiul Independenţei St., Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: [email protected];

Gh. Voicu, P.U. Bucharest, 313 Splaiul Independenţei St., Bucharest, Romania; G. Moiceanu, P.U. Bucharest, 313 Splaiul Independenţei St., Bucharest, Romania; V. Vlădut, INMA, B-dul Ion Ionescu de la Brad, Nr. 6, Sector 1, Bucuresti, Romania,

E-mail: [email protected]; A. Danciu, INMA,B-dul Ion Ionescu de la Brad, Nr. 6, Sector 1, Bucuresti, Romania,

E-mail: [email protected]; I. Grigore, INMA,B-dul Ion Ionescu de la Brad, Nr. 6, Sector 1, Bucuresti, Romania.

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THE SELECTED MACRO-, OLIGO- AND MICROELEMENTS (Na, K, MG, CA, FE, MN, CU AND ZN) DISTRIBUTION IN GRASSLAND FORAGE HERBS

Harmanescu Monica1, Bungescu Sorin1, Valentin Vladut2, Sorin Biris3, Iosif Gergen1

Abstract: The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of genotype on multielement

fingerprints for some herbaceous plants of Poaceae, Fabaceae and other botanical families, harvested from a hill permanent grassland. The concentrations of eight elements, macro-, oligo- and microelements (Na, K, Mg, Ca, Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn) were determined by Flame Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy with high-resolution continuum source. The Poaceae, Fabaceae and other botanical families species fingerprint are different in terms of multielements contents.

Keywords: grassland, plants, macroelements, oligoelements, microelements, FAAS.

INTRODUCTION

The quality of agricultural products with animal origin, such as milk and meat, and the food security are directly dependent on the content of the main nutrients from fodder plants used for feeding: amino acids, fatty acids, fibre, minerals, phenolic compounds, etc. The optimum choice of feed sources and the establishment of correctly feeding ratio are actually the guarantee of obtaining the desired production quality level for the producer. The natural grassland remains even today one of the main source of feed for animals whose products are delivered for human consumption, influencing directly the food security [O’Mara, 2012].

Green plants are considered by the researchers to be "the most grandiose natural laboratory for organic matter synthesis using solar energy storage", on the basis of inorganic matter from nature [Barbulescu et al., 1967; Del Signore et al, 2002]. The nutrients content of the fodder plants depends by the ratio of the founded nutrients in the soil, as well as the bioconversion of them dependent on the soil conditions [Kabata-Pendias, 2002], fertilisation, climatic conditions [Dragomir Carmen et al, 2012; Păcurar et al., 2010; Vîntu et al., 2011] and the genotype of the herbaceous species. In the Romanian permanent natural grasslands the main genotypes of plants desired by the breeders belong to the families Poaceae and Fabaceae. In addition, however, there are a lot of species from other botanical families, which can also influence, favourable or not, the quality of obtained feed, by the bioactive compounds that contain.

The content of the macro, oligo- and trace elements (K, Ca, Mg, Na, Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu) of the plants improve the metal elements content of grassland forage [Pirhofer-Walzl et al., 2011] and the food quality. That’s why the metal elements content is one of the main quality parameters recommended to be monitored for quality grassland herbage determination.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Harvesting The forage samples were harvested from the ten trials of a grassland (a permanent

pasture) situated in the hill region of Banat, Romania, closely to village named Grădinari, which were fertilized mineral and/or organic with sheep manure.

It was collected a number of thirty forage samples (three samples for each trial). The herbaceous samples were transported to the university laboratory, in standard conditions, for qualitative and gravimetric botanical species identification and chemical analysis. The medium sample for each trial was divided in three components: (P) - the plants which belong to the Poaceae family, (F) - the plants which belong to the Fabaceae family and (O) – the plants belonging to different other botanical families. Soil, clime and fertilization conditions

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The medium annual temperature of the region are around 10.5oC. The medium annual rainfall are around 840 mm. The area is characterized generally by brown clay illuvial soil, slightly eroded. The minimum mineral nitrogen fertilizer dose was 50 kg/ha, and the maximum 100+100 kg/ha applied in two steps (in spring and after first plants cut). The phosphorus and potassium doses were constant, 50kg/ha. For organic fertilizer the minimum dose was 20 t/ha and the maximum 60 t/ha, applied in winter. The analytical procedures of macro-, oligo- and microelements determination

The macro-, oligo- and microelements contents from herbaceous harvested samples were analysed after ash determination at 550oC, using flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS) with high-resolution continuum source (ContrAA-300 AnalytikJena device), in air/acetylene flame. The chemical multielement analytical procedures were described by Harmanescu and Gergen [2012].

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The eight analysed elements are the most representative which are present in plants of a natural grassland (K, Mg, Ca, Na, Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn), with important physiological functions both for plants nutrition and the quality of green herbaceous mass or hay. The variation of the eight elements contents are presented in Figure 1 and 2.

Figure 1. The Sodium, Potassium, Magnesium and Calcium distribution in samples from different plants families (Poaceae, Fabaceae and other botanical families)

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Figure 2. The Iron, Manganese, Cooper and Zinc distribution in samples from different plants families (Poaceae, Fabaceae and other botanical families)

In relation with the plants families, significant differences were observed for the

concentrations of all elements, excepting Iron (Figure 1 and 2). Each from the three studied categories (Poaceae, Fabaceae and other botanical families) had its own elemental profile, depending by the genotype. Comparatively, the Fabaceae family generally had higher concentrations of analysed elements than Poaceae species, with the exception of Mn. The Mn concentration was the highest in the plants of Poaceae family. The concentrations of K, Mg and Ca are higher in Fabaceae and heterogeneous plants of other botanical families’ species than those from Poaceae.

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

In terms of a natural grassland (permanent pasture) differentiate fertilized, for the investigated eight elements, the genotype variation was higher than the phenotypic variation, indicating the influence of genotype over the environment on the expression of the analysed traits. In this context, the plants of Fabaceae family will always present a total content of potassium, magnesium and calcium higher than the plants of the Poaceae family, indifferent of the type of fertilization used. Also the contents in trace/microelements like Fe, Cu and Zn are higher in the plants of Fabaceae than in Poaceae family. The plants from other botanical families may have an intermediate reaction in terms of macro- and microelements contents.

REFERENCES

[1]. Dragomir Carmen, Dragomir N., Maruşca T., Blaj A., The effect of mineral and organic fertilisation on the nodulation capacity at leguminous species in permanent grasslands, Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment Vol.10 (2), WFL Publisher Science and Technology 2012, p 403-407. [2]. Gergen I., Harmanescu Monica, Application of principal component analysis in the pollution assessment with heavy metals of vegetable food chain in the old mining areas. Chemistry Central Journal 2012 6:156. doi:10.1186/1752-153X-6-156 [3]. Kabata-Pendias A., Soil factors affecting phytoavailability of trace elements, Macro and Trace Elements, Biological, Environmental, Nutritional and Medical

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Importance of Macro, Trace and Ultra Trace Elements, 2012, Main Building of the Friedrich Schiller University Jena, p 54-61. [4]. O’Mara F. P., The role of grasslands in food security and climate change, Review: Part of highlight on breeding strategies for forage and grass improvement, Annals of Botany, published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Annals of Botany Company, doi:10.1093/aob/mcs209, 2012, p 1-8, www.aob.oxfordjournals.org. [5]. Păcurar F., I. Rotar, Nicoleta Gârda, Adriana Morea, The organic-mineral fertilization of a Festuca rubra L. grassland for eight years, Lucrări Ştiinţifice – vol. 53, Nr. 2/2010, seria Agronomie, p 215-218. [6]. Pirhofer-Walzl K., K. Søegaard, H. Høgh-JenseN, J. Eriksen, M. A. Sanderson, J. Rasmussen, J. Rasmussen, Forage herbs improve mineral composition of grassland herbage, Grass and Forage Science, The Official Journal of the European Grassland Federation doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2494.2011.00799.x, Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Grass and Forage Science, 66, 2011, p 415–423. [7]. Del Signore A., di Giacomo F., Giaccio M., Franco M.A., Trace elements as indicator of origin: the case of dairy products, Macro and Trace Elements, Biological, Environmental, Nutritional and Medical Importance of Macro, Trace and Ultra Trace Elements, 2012, Main Building of the Friedrich Schiller University Jena, p 759-766. [8]. Vîntu V., Samuil C., Rotar I., Moisuc Al., Razec I., Influence of the Management on the Phytocoenotic Biodiversity of Some Romanian Representative Grassland Types, Not Bot Hort Agrobot Cluj, 2011, 39(1), Print ISSN 0255-965X; Electronic ISSN 1842-4309, p 119-125.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Monica Harmanescu - Researcher at Banat’s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine ”Regele Mihai I al Romaniei”, from Timisoara, Romania, [email protected]

Bungescu Sorin - Assistant professor at Banat’s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine ”Regele Mihai I al Romaniei”, from Timisoara, Romania, [email protected]

Valentin Vladut – Researcher at INMA (National Institute of Research-Development for Machines and Installations Designed to Agriculture and Food Industry), Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]

Sorin Biriş – Professor at Politehnica University from Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]

Iosif Gergen* - Professor at Banat’s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine ”Regele Mihai I al Romaniei”, from Timisoara, Romania, [email protected]

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TECHNOLOGICAL PROPERTIES AND BREAD BAKING QUALITIES OF WHEAT VARIETIES, TREATED WITH „BIO-ONE“BACTERIAL

FERTILIZER AND HUMIC ACID

Ralitsa Mincheva1, Svetlana Stoyanova1, Vesselin Dochev1, Galina Dyakova1, Atanas Atanasov2

1 – IASS “Obraztsov chiflik” - Rousse, 2 – “Angel Kunchev”University of Rousse Abstract: The study took place during the period 2012 — 2014 at the experimental field of IASS «

Obraztsov chiflik» Rousse. A field trial was conducted with two winter common wheat varieties – Venka 1 and Dunaviya, on soil type of strongly leached chernozem, after the block method in four replications, experimental plot being 10 m2. The sowing was carried out during the first week of October, sowing norm being 500 germ.s./m2 after legume predecessor. 9 variants of fertilization were tested: 1. zero control (without fertilization), 2. Economic control (3.33 kg/da N + 6.66 kg/da a.s. N), 3. "BIO-ONE" (300 ml/da), 4. Humic acid (400 g/da), 5. 3.33 kg/da a.s. N, 6. “BIO-ONE "(300 ml/da) + Humic acid (400 g/da), 7."BIO-ONE" (300 ml/da) + 3.33 kg/da a.s. N, 8. Humic acid (400 g/da) + 3.33 kg/da a.s. N, 9. “BIO-ONE "(300 ml/da) + Humic acid (400 g/da) + 3.33 kg/da a.s. N. The treatment with BIO-ONE, N and their combination in Venka 1 variety increased the size of grain and improved the nutrition of grain. In Dunavya variety those traits were positively affected by treatment with "BIO-ONE" and humic acid. The volumetric yield of bread was influenced positively by treatment with nitrogen in both varieties. In Venka 1 variety, it was also influenced by treatment with "BIO-ONE", and in Dunavya variety - with humic acid + Nitrogen. The values of the technological properties, in both varieties, were lower in the variants treated when compared to the economic control.

Keywords: organic fertilizer, wheat, yield, technological properties and bread baking qualities

INTRODUCTION

The intensive use of natural resources in agriculture leads to lasting negative impact on the environment and human health, which requires the search for scientific methods of management and sustainable development of the organic production. Organic fertilizers are complete and correct component of the overall system of the mineral nutrition of plants. [8]

The technology of organic production of wheat is widely used in many countries (12; 13; 14) and the studies are aimed at improving yield sustainability and quality traits of wheat. Some authors define the use of biological agents as one of the perspective directions for increase of yield and quality of crop production (4; 6; 10; 11). Bulgarian and foreign foliar fertilizers of organic origin are subject of an extensive research in recent years on yield and quality of the agricultural production, (4; 6; 10; 11). One of them is "BIO-ONE" organic fertilizer. It is a new generation microbiological product composed of living organisms. A bacterial inoculum, including two types of microorganisms - aerobic (Azotobacter vinelandii), and anaerobic (Clostridium pasteurianum). It does not contain genetically modified organisms. In its application to the soil, it contributes to the increase of the organic matter in the soil and at the same time is protecting it from water and wind erosion. A number of trials have shown that the treatment with microbiological preparation leads to yield increasing (2; 3; 7) and accelerates the growth and development of plants (9).

The subjective of our study was to determine the influence of "BIO-ONE" bacterial fertilizer, liquid concentrate, and its combinations on some technological properties and bread baking qualities of two wheat varieties, grown under conditions of IASS “Obraztsov chiflik” – Rousse.

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MATERIAL AND METHODS

The study was carried out during the period 2012 - 2014 at the experimental field of IASS “Obraztsov chiflik” - Rousse. A field experiment was conducted with two varieties of winter common wheat - Venka 1 and Dunaviya, on soil type strongly leached chernozem, after the block method in four replications, the size of the experimental plot being 10 m2. The sowing took place in the first week of October with sowing rate of 500 germ.s./m2 after legume predecessor. Nine variants of fertilization were tested: 1. zero control (without fertilization) 2. economic control (3.33 kg/da a.s. N + 6.66 kg/da a.s. N), 3. "BIO-ONE" (300 ml/da), 4. humic acid (400 g/da), 5. 3.33 kg/da a.s. N, 6. “BIO-ONE" (300 ml/da) + humic acid (400 g/da), 7." BIO-ONE "(300 ml/da) + 3.33 kg/da N, 8. humic acid (400 g/da) + 3.33 kg/da N, 9. BIO-ONE "(300 ml/da) + humic acid (400 g/da) + 3.33 kg/da N.

The analysis of the technological properties and bread baking qualities were made according to the relevant methodology of ISO.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The autumn-winter period (X - III) of 2011 - 2012 was characterized with extremely dry and warm autumn and very cold winter with prolonged cold snap and snow precipitation above the normal. In January and February precipitation were 128.3 mm and 71.0 mm, respectively, which ensured good moisture providing. Temperatures in late January and early February fell considerably and reached - 19,5° C as for several days the minimum temperature did not exceed - 18° C. At the end of the first ten days of February, the same scenario was repeated with prolonged low negative temperatures. The thick snow kept autumn crops from freezing. March was dry (7.8 mm) and warm. The precipitation in April (32.0 mm) was distributed within 14 days and without particular economic significance (Fig. 1).

The amount of precipitation in May (114.6 mm) was twice above the norm for the region, as the main precipitation fell in the second half of the month, at an average daily temperature lower than the norm. The drought occurred in June adversely affected the filling of grain.

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The autumn-winter period (X - III) of 2012 - 2013 was characterized with an early frost occurred without extreme low temperatures. The amount of precipitation was little above the norm, which ensured good moisture providing. The precipitation in June and early July helped for the filling and feeding of grain.

In the autumn-winter period of 2013 - 2014, there were no extremely low temperatures, and precipitation was little above the norm for the region. Spring was characterized with precipitation and temperatures around the norm. The precipitation in Maywere exception - 100 mm above the norm. The precipitation in June and July were about the norm but were distributed in 17 and 13 days, respectively. That influenced negatively on yield and quality of grain, because of attack by fungal diseases and rusts.

Data in Table 1 show that plants treated with "BIO-ONE" had larger mass of 1000 grains. Venka 1 variety reacted better to the nitrogen fertilization, resulting in the mass of 1000 grains. The combined fertilizing of the variety with "BIO-ONE" + N, also reflected favorably on that trait. The reaction of the variety was analogous also in the parameter «hectoliter mass». Dunaviya variety

Table 1. Some technological properties of Venka 1 and Dunaviya wheat Varieties

V1 – Venka 1, D – Dunaviya, E. control - Economic control, B - BIO-ONE, H - Humic acid, N – Nitrogen, M – Mass of 1000 seeds, WGY - Wet Gluten Yield, GR - Gluten Relax, BBF - Value of Bread Baking Force,

Table 1. Some technological properties and bread baking qualities of Venka 1 and Dunaviya wheat varieties

Table 2. Bread baking qualities of Venka 1 and Dunaviya wheat varieties

Variants SV, sm3 V, sm3 F, H/D Q V D V D V D V D

Control 25.5 31.5 355 372 0.62 0.43 5.0 5.0 E. control 28 51 362 403 0.68 0.54 4.5 4.5

B 35 39.5 375 312 0.58 0.42 5.0 5.0 H 27 36 317 391 0.69 0.62 5.0 5.0 N 25 30 379 424 0.56 0.47 4.5 5.0

B + H 25 43.5 348 326 0.55 0.56 5.0 5.0 B + N 24.5 39.5 341 376 0.57 0.46 5.0 5.0 H + N 42.5 45.5 343 434 0.68 0.39 5.0 5.0

B + H + N 32 40.5 342 346 0.60 0.59 5.0 5.0

Variants М, g. HM, kg/hl WGY, % RG, mm

BBF rel.units

V D V D V D V D V D Control 35.0 34.5 80.5 78.8 21.1 18.1 3.0 4.0 57 57

E. control 34.8 31.5 80.0 74.6 21.2 20 2.3 3.8 60 57 B 36.4 35.4 81.0 75.3 20.7 19.6 4.3 4.3 60 60 H 34.7 35.0 79.3 76.7 18.9 16.9 3.3 3.5 57 57 N 36.0 32.8 80.2 75.6 17.5 17.4 3.3 3.8 57 57

B + H 32.6 31.4 77.8 76.5 21.8 18.7 5.0 3.8 60 57 B + N 35.2 31.1 80.9 75.5 19.5 18.6 4.3 4.0 55 56 H + N 33.1 31.5 77.3 75.7 23.4 19.8 4.3 5.8 63 56

B + H + N 33.8 31.7 79.7 75.3 20.1 19.8 3.8 5.0 58 58

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V1 – Venka 1, D – Dunaviya, E. control - Economic control, B - BIO-ONE, H - Humic acid, N – Nitrogen, SV – Sedimentation Value, V – Volumetric yield of bread, F – Form resistance, Q – Quality of bread crumb showed higher hectoliter mass in separate treatments and their combinations. Yield of wet gluten (WGY) of the plots tested was lower in both varieties, compared to the economic control. The exception was WGY in Venka 1 variety for the variants treated with BIO-ONE and combinations BIO-ONE + Humic acid and Humic acid + Nitrogen. Gluten relax (GR) was higher in the variants tested compared to that of the economic control. Sedimentation value (SV) was also less in studied variants compared to the economic control (table 2). Exceptions were the variants with BIO-ONE and combinations BIO-ONE + Nitrogen, Humic acid + Nitrogen, and BIO-ONE + Humic acid + Nitrogen, where SV was higher. This shows a higher response of Venka 1 variety to the preparations studied. Concerning "Volumetric yield of bread", Venka 1 variety kept the trend of positive response to treatment with "BIO-ONE" and N, and their combination. For the same parameter Dunaviya variety showed higher values in treatments with nitrogen and the combination of Humic acid + N.

All the treatments in Venka 1 variety showed lower or equal values to those of the economic control, concering the parameter "Form resistance." The same trait in Dunaviya variety responded better by treatments with "Humic acid" and the combination "BIO-ONE" + Humic acid + N. The preparations used and their combinations did not affected the quality of bread crumb. An exception was the separate treatment with nitrogen in Venka 1 variety, wherein there was a slightly lower quality of bread crumb.

By written above it can be concluded that treatment with "BIO-ONE", N and their combination in Venka 1variety increased grain size and improved its better nutrition. In Dunaviya variety those traits were positively affected by treatment with "BIO-ONE" and Humic acid. The volumetric yield of bread was influenced positively by the treatment with nitrogen in both varieties.

In Venka 1 variety, that trait also influenced by the treatment with "BIO-ONE", and in Dunaviya variety - by Humic acid + Nitrogen. The values of the technological properties, in both varieties, were lower in treated variants when compared to the economic control. This is explained by the reverse correlation of yield and grain quality, which was reported in the previous article of the authors.

CONCLUSIONS

Treatment with "BIO-ONE", N and their combination in Venka 1 variety increased the size of grain and improved its better nutrition. In Dunaviya variety those traits were positively affected by treatment with "BIO-ONE" and Humic acid. The volumetric yield of bread was influenced positively by the treatment with nitrogen in both varieties. In Venka 1 variety, it was also influenced by the treatment with "BIO-ONE", and in Dunaviya variety – by Humic acid + Nitrogen. The values of technological properties, in both varieties, were lower in treated variants when compared to the economic control.

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3. Vlahova, V. (2013). Agro-ecological aspects of semi early production of pepper (Capsicum annuum L.), Abstract for awarding the educational and scientific degree "Doctor".

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5. Georgiev, N., I. Nikolova (2010). Study on new biologically active substances in Spring Vetch (Vicia sativa L.), Plant Science, 47 (3), pp. 255-261.

6. Ivanova R. (2012). Influence of growth regulator "Imunotsitofit" on the development and productivity of oilseed rape, Scientific works, vol. LVI, Agricultural University - Plovdiv, pp. 267-275.

7. Pachev I. (2014). Study on the effects of "BIO-ONE"micro biological preparation in spring forage peas (Pisum sativum L.) under conditions of organic farming, Journal of Mountain Agriculture on the Balkans, Troyan, Abstracts, pp. 126-127.

8. Popov, V., P. Kostadinova, A. Karova, V. Vlahova (2010). Guidance on ecology and protection of agro-ecosystems – Publ. of. Agricultural University, ISBN 978-954-517-082-9.

9. Stoyanova, S., G. Dyakova, R. Mintcheva, V. Dochev, 2014. Testing the influence of"BIO-ONE" bacterial fertilizer, liquid concentrate in winter oilseed rape under conditions of IASS „Obraztsov chiflik“ - Rousse. National conference with international participation on "Environmental crop science, livestock breeding and foods." Troyan, 27-29 November.

10. Suleimenova N., A. Zhapparova, G. Salekeeva (2013) The ecological status agrophytocenosis and productivity of spring rape depending on the timing of planting and the predecessor. Materials of the international scientific-practical conference, Advanced technologies of cultivation of oilseeds, legumes and soil fertility regulation, S., pp. 248-252.

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12. Coppola, F., Haugaard-Nielsen and all. Sustainability assessment of wheat production using Emergy. Poster presented at Cultivating the Future Based on Science: 2nd Conference of the International Society of Organic Agriculture Research ISOFAR, Modena, Italy, June 18-20, 2008.

13. Fahong W., Zhonghu He and all. Wheat cropping systems and technologies in China, journal Field Crops Research, pp. 181–188, 2009.

14. Fontaine L., Rolland B. and all. Contribution to organic breeding programmes of wheat variety testing in organic farming in France. Poster presented at Cultivating the Future Based on Science: 2nd Conference of the International Society of Organic Agriculture Research ISOFAR, Modena, Italy, June 18-20, 2008.