WHERE DO MODELS OF TEACHING COME FROM?

The core of the teaching process is the arrangement of environments

within which the students can interact and study how to learn

(Dewey, 1916)

A model of teaching is a description of a learning environment. The descriptions have many uses, ranging from planning curriculums, courses, units, and lesson to designing instructional materials – book and workbooks, multimedia programs, and computer-assisted learning programs. Because the models provide learning tools to the students.

The Social FamilyThe social models of teaching are constructed to the advantage of this phenomenon by building learning communities, Essentially, “classroom management” is a matter of developing cooperative relationships in the classroom. The development of positive school cultures is a process of developing integrative and productive ways of interacting and norms that support vigorous learning activities. We begin with the social family.

Partners in Learning

In recent years there has been a great deal of development work on cooperative learning, and great progress has been made in developing strategies that help students work effectively together

The entire cooperative learning community has been active in exchanging information and techniques and in conducting and analyzing research , the result is a large number of effective means for organizing students to carry out simple learning task in pairs to complex models for organizing classes and even schools in learning communities that strive to educate themselves.

Cooperative learning procedures facilitate learning across all curriculum areas and ages, improving self-esteem, social skill and solidarity, and academic learning goals ranging from the acquisition of information and skill through the modes of inquiry of academic disciplines.

Group Investigation

Group investigation is the direct route to the development of the community of learners.

All the simpler forms of cooperative learning are preparation for rigorous, active, and integrative collective action as learners.The models also provides a social organization within which many other models can be used when appropriate.

Group investigation has been used in all subject areas, with children of all ages, and even as the core social model for entire schools (Chamberlin and Chamberlin, 1943). The model is designed to lead students to define problems, explore various perspectives on the problems, and study together to master information, ideas, and skills-simultaneously developing their social competence.

Role Playing Role playing is included next because it leads

students to understand social behavior, their role in social interactions, and ways of solving problems more effectively. Designed by Fannie and George Shaftel (1982) specifically to help students study their social values and reflect on them, role playing also helps students collect and organize information about social issues, develop empathy with others, and attempt to improve their social skills. In addition, the model asks students to “act out” conflicts, to learn to take the roles of others, and to observe social behavior .

Jurisprudential Inquiry

As students mature, the study of social issues at community, state, national, and international levels can be made available to them. The jurisprudential model is designed for this purpose. Created especially for secondary students in social studies

The Information-Processing Family

Information-processing models emphasize ways of enhancing the human being’s innate drive to make sense of the world by acquiring and organizing data, sensing problems and generating solutions to them, and developing concepts and language for conveying them. Some models provide the learner with information and concepts, some emphasize concepts formation and hypothesis testing, and still other generate creative thinking.

Inductive Thinking

The ability to analyze information and create concepts is generally regarded as the fundamental thinking skills. The model presented here is an adaptation from the work of Hilda Taba (1966) and of many others (Schwab, 1965; Tennyson and Cocchiarella, (1966) who have studied how to teach students to find and organize information and to create and test hypotheses describing relationships among sets of data

Concept Attainment

This model, built around the studies of thinking conducted by Bruner, Goodnow, and Austin (1967) is a close relative of the inductive model. Designed both to teach concepts and to help students become more effective at learning concepts, it provides an efficient method for presenting organized information from a wide range of topics to students at every stage of development.

Mnemonics (Memory Assists)

Mnemonics are strategies for memorizing and assimilating information teachers can be use mnemonics to guide their presentation of material (teaching is such a way that students can easily absorb the information), and they can teach devices that students can use to enhance their individual and cooperative study of information and concepts.

Advance Organizer

During the last 35 years this model, formulated by David Ausubel (1963), has become one of the most studied in the information-processing family

Scientific Inquiry

Of the several models that engage students in scientific inquiry, we use as the primary example the work of the Biological Science Study Committee, led by Joseph Schwab (1965) from the beginning, the student is brought into the scientific process and helped to collect and analyze data, check out hypotheses and theories, and reflect on the nature of knowledge construction.

Inquiry Training

Designed to teach students to engage in causal reasoning and to become more fluent and precise in asking questions, building concepts and hypotheses, and testing them, this model was first formulated by Richard Suchman (1962). Although originally used with the natural science, it has been applied in the social science and in the training programs with personal and social content. It is included here because it has value for teaching students how to make inferences and build and test hypotheses

Adjusting to the Student:The Developing Intellect

Models based on studies of students intellectual development (Kohlberg, 1976; Sigel, 1969; Sullivan, 1967) are used to help us adjust instruction to the stage of maturity of an individual student and to design ways of increasing the students rate of development. These models can be used in all types of educational settings and with all types of content

The Personal Family• Ultimately human reality resides in our individual

consciousness. We develop unique personalities and see the world from perspectives that are the products of our experience and positions. Common understanding are a product of the negotiation of individual who must live and work and create families together.

• The personal model of learning begin from perspective of the selfhood of the individual. They attempt to shape education so that we come to understand ourselves better, take responsibility for our education, and learn to reach beyond our current development to become stronger, more sensitive, and more creative in our search for high-quality lives.

Non Directive Teaching

Psychologist and counselor Carl Gogers (1961, 1982) was for three decades the acknowledged spokesperson for models in which the teacher plays the role for counselor. Developed from counseling theory, the model emphasizes a partnership between students and teachers. The teacher endeavors to help the students understand how to play major roles in directing their own education

• First, at the most general level, it is used as the basic model for the operation of entire educational program

• Second, it is used in combining with other models to ensure that contact is made with the students.in this role, it moderates the educational environment.

• Third, it is used when students are planning independent and cooperative study projects

• Fourth, it is used periodically when counseling students, finding out what they are thinking and feel, and helping them understand what they are about.

The models is used in several ways.

Enhancing Self-Esteem

The personal, social, and academic goals of education are compatible with one another. The personal family of teaching models provides the essential part of the teaching repertoire that directly addresses the students’ needs for self-esteem and self-understanding and for the support and respect of other students.

The Behavioral System Family

A common theoretical base-most commonly called social learning theory, but also known as behavior modification, behavior therapy, and cybernetics guides the design of the models in this family. The stance taken is that human beings are self-correcting communication systems that modify behavior in response to information about how successfully task are navigated. For example, imagine a human being who is climbing an unfamiliar staircase in the dark, the 1st few steps are tentative as the foot reaches for treads. If the stride is to high, feedback is received as the foot encounter air and has to descend to make contact in the surface. If a step is to low feedback result as the foot hits the riser. Gradually behavior is adjust in accordance with the feedback until progress up the stairs is relatively comfortable.

Mastery Learning and Programmed Instruction

The most common application of behavioral systems theory for academic goals takes the form of what is called mastery learning (Bloom, 1971). First, material to be learned is divided into units ranging from the simple to the complex. The material is presented to the student, generally working as individuals, through appropriate media. Piece by piece, the students work their war successively though the units of materials, after each of witch they take a test designed to help them find out what they have learned. If they have not mastered any given unit, they can repeat it or an equivalent version until they have mastered the material

Direct Instruction

From the studies of the differences between more and less affective teachers and from social learning theory, a paradigm for instructing directly has been assembled. Direct statements of objectives, sets of activities clearly related to the objectives, careful monitoring of progress, and feedback about achievement and tactics for achieving more affectively are linked with sets of guidelines for facilitating learning.

SimulationTwo approaches to training have been developed from the cybernetic group of behavior theorists. One is a theory-to-practice model and the other one is simulation. The former mixes information about a skill with demonstrations, practice, feedback, and coaching until the skill is mastered. For example, if an arithmetic skill is the object, it is explained and demonstrated, practice is given with corrective feedback, and the student is asked to apply it with coaching from peers or the instructor. This variation is commonly used for athletic training. Simulation are constructed from descriptions of real-life situations.

Professional Skill and Development

Part VI presents a model for thinking about the design of curriculum and instruction, a procedure for learning to expand the teaching repertoire, and a position of helping students learning to increase their repertoire.